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Chapter-1 Signals PDF
Chapter-1 Signals PDF
Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction
Digital signal processing (DSP) is an area of science and engineering that has developed rapidly
over the past 30 years. This rapid development is a result of the significant advances in digital
computer technology and integrated circuit fabrication.
Many of the signal processing tasks that were conventionally performed by analog means are
realized today by less expensive and often more reliable digital hardware.
When digital circuits are available and have sufficient speed to perform real-time signal
processing, digital signal processing solutions provide more elegant and less expensive solutions.
Less cost, greater reliability, more flexibility and high accuracy and precision: these are the
reasons why there has been an explosive growth in digital signal processing theory and
applications over the past three decades.
A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other
independent variable or variables. We can also describe a signal as a function of one or more
independent variables.
The signal
There are cases where a functional relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is unknown or too highly complicated to be of any practical use. Example of which are
speech signal, electrocardiogram, electroencephalogram, etc.
A segment of speech may be represented to a high degree of accuracy as a sum of several
sinusoids of different amplitude and frequencies, that is, as
phases, respectively
The method or set of rules for implementing the system by a computer program that performs
the corresponding mathematical operation is called the algorithm.
In DSP, major efforts are done in devising computationally efficient, fast and easily
implementable algorithms for performing operations such as filtering, correlation and spectral
analysis.
Most of the signals encountered in science and engineering are analog in nature, that is, the
signals are functions of continuous variables.
Analog signals can be analyzed and processed through analog means by using analog circuitry or
processors.
DSP provides an alternative method for processing the analog signal.
To perform the process digitally, there is a need for an interface between the analog signal and
the digital processor, called the analog-to-digital converter.
The digital signal processor may be a large programmable digital computer or a small
microprocessor programmed to perform the desired operations on the input signal. It may also
be a hardwired digital processor configured to perform a specified set of operations on the input
signal.
In applications where the digital output from the digital signal processor is to be given to the
user in analog form, we must provide another interface from the digital domain to the analog
domain, called a digital-to-analog converter.
In some cases, DAC is not needed, as the information will be given to the user in digital form.
Signals that are generated by multiple sources are called multichannel signals. Example: ECG,
EEG, ground acceleration due to an earthquake.
Multichannel signals can be expressed as vectors. For instance, the ground acceleration due to
an earthquake has three components: primary wave travelling longitudinally, secondary waves
travelling transversely, and surface waves travelling near the surface of the ground. Thus, this
signal can be expressed as the vector
s t
= s t
s t
Signals that are dependent on two or more variables are called multidimensional signals.
Example: images, video signal.
Image signals are two-dimensional signals; i.e. dependent on two variables. The intensity or
brightness of a picture element is a function of its coordinates x and y on a rectangular
coordinate scale.
Black-and-white television signals, on the other hand, are three-dimensional signals; i.e.
dependent on three variables. The intensity of each picture element, aside from its space
coordinates, is also dependent on the time (since video are considered moving pictures).
A color TV picture may be described by three intensity functions corresponding to the brightness
of the three principal colors (red, green, blue) as functions of space-time coordinates. Hence it is
a three-channel, three-dimensional signal.
Continuous-time signals are defined for every value of time (and hence, take on any possible
values). These signals can be described by functions of continuous variables. Examples: speech
waveform of Figure 1.1, x t = cos t, x t = e for < t < +.
Discrete-time signals are defined only at specific values of time. Example: xt = e| | for
n = 0, 1, 2 . If we use the index n of the discrete-time instants as the independent
variable, the signal value becomes a function of an integer value, that is, it becomes a sequence
of numbers.
In this course, we shall denote x(t) as a continuous-time signal and x(n) as discrete-time signal.
In later sections, we shall establish important relationships between the continuous-time index t
and discrete-time index n.
If a signal takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range, it is said to be continuous-
valued signal.
If a signal takes on values from a finite set of possible values, it is said to be discrete-valued
signal.
Note that:
o A continuous-time signal is automatically continuous-valued signal. This signal is
considered an analog signal.
o A discrete-time signal is obtained by the process called sampling the analog signal.
Sampling the analog signal, however, does not make the signal discrete-valued. To make
a discrete-time signal discrete-valued, an additional process called quantization must be
done.
o A discrete-time, discrete-valued signal is the one considered a digital signal.
The mathematical analysis and processing of signals requires the availability of a mathematical
description, called the signal model, for the signal itself. Thus, we can describe signal the way
they are mathematically modeled.
Deterministic signals are any signals that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical
expression, a table of data, or a well-defined rule. This term is used to emphasize the fact that
all past, present and future values of the signal are known precisely, without any uncertainty.
Random signals are signals that evolve in time in an unpredictable manner. Most of the
practical signals fall under this category, as these are cannot be described to any reasonable
degree of accuracy by explicit mathematical formulas, or such description is too complicated to
be of any practical use.
Figure 1.9. Two random signals with almost the same histogram
The analysis and description of random signals are accomplished using statistical techniques
instead of explicit formulas. The mathematical framework for the theoretical analysis of random
signals is provided by the theory of probability and stochastic processes.
Example:Classify the following signals according to whether they are (1) one or multi
dimensional; (2) single or multichannel; (3) continuous time or discrete-time and (4) analog or
digital. Give a brief explanation.
A color movie
Weight and height measurements of a child taken every month
Speech signal
Image on an LCD monitor
Stereo sound
White Gaussian Noise
Gold code
= 2F 1.3.2
with F as the frequency whose dimension is cycles per second or Hertz (Hz).
The signals defined by Eqs. 1.3.1 and 1.3.3 has the following properties
o For every fixed value of the frequency F, xa(t) is periodic.
This can be easily seen when we express Eq. 1.3.4 in terms of sinusoids using the Eulers identity
Using Eq. 1.3.5, we can express Eq. 1.3.3 into the following form
A ./ 0 A ./ 0
x% t = A cost + = e + e
2 2
1.3.6
Thus, we can say that a sinusoidal signal can be obtained by adding two-equal amplitude
complex-conjugate exponential signals, sometimes called phasors.
As time progresses, the phasors rotate in opposite directions (the positive frequency denotes
counterclockwise direction; negative frequency denotes clockwise direction). The rate of rotation
hence of oscillation is the angular frequency , the instantaneous phase or angle from the
reference point is given by t + , and the amplitude of the phasor is denoted by its length
A/2.
This signal is periodic with period N. It indicates the number of samples before repeating a
pattern.
The angular frequency can be expressed as
= 2f
1.3.8
thus Eq. 1.3.7 can be written as
Figure 1.13. Signal x(n) = cos 89n for various values of the frequency 89
As for the case of continuous-time signals, negative frequencies can be introduced as well for
discrete-time signals. For this purpose, we use the identity
xn = A cosn + = e + e
A .;/ 0 A .;/ 0
1.3.15
The fundamental range for the frequency of the discrete-time sinusoid is < < or
< f < .
Examples:
1. Determine which of the following sinusoids are periodic and compute their fundamental
period.
cos 0.01n
cos = >? @
>
cos 3n
sin 3n
sin = @
B
>
2. Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. In case a signal is
x% t = 3 cos5t + 6
periodic, specify its fundamental period.
xn = 3 cos5n + 6
xn = 2 expGjn6 H
xn = cosn8 cosn8
xn = cosn2 sinn8 + 3 cosn4 + 3
These are sets of periodic complex exponentials with fundamental frequencies that are
multiples of a single positive frequency.
Continuous-time exponentials. The basic signals for continuous-time, harmonically related
exponentials are
KQ P KQ P
This signal is periodic with fundamental period Tp = 1/F0, and its representation in terms of
the above equation is called the continuous-time Fourier series expansion for xa(t). The
complex-valued constants ck are the Fourier series coefficients and the signal sk(t) is called
the kth harmonic of xa(t).
Discrete-time exponentials. Choosing f0 = 1/N to ensure the periodicity of our complex
exponential, we define the sets of harmonically related complex exponentials by
There are only N distinct periodic complex exponentials in the set of sk.
All members of the set have a common period N.
We can choose exactly N members of this set in accordance to the sequence
From this, we can form a linear combination of harmonically related complex discrete-time
exponentials with fundamental frequency f0 = 1/N. It is of the form
N N
KQ > KQ >
This signal is periodic with fundamental period N, and its representation in terms of the
above equation is called the discrete-time Fourier series expansion for x(n). The complex-
valued ck are the Fourier series coefficients and sk(n) is called the kth harmonic of x(n).
Reference:
John G. Proakis, Dimitris G. Manolakis. Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and
Applications: Third Edition. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 1996