BECE301 Digital Signal Processing

 To summarize and analyze the concepts of signals, systems in time and

frequency domain with the corresponding transformations.

 To inculcate the design concepts of analog, digital IIR, FIR filters.

 To instill diverse structures for realizing digital filters.

 To infuse the novice concepts of Multirate digital signal processing.

 Outcomes

Students will be able to

1. Classify and analyse Signals & Systems along with their time and frequency
domain
transformations.

2. Simplify Fourier transform computations using swift algorithms.

3. Examine various analog filter design techniques and their digitization.

4. Design FIR and IIR digital filters.

5. Realize digital filters using various system interconnections.

6. Design and formulate Multirate systems.

 Course Contents
Module I
Discrete Signals, Systems and frequency analysis
Module II
Discrete Fourier Transform, Properties and its
applications
Module III
Design of Analog Filters
Module IV
Digital transformation of IIR filters
Module V
Design of FIR filters Module VI
Realization structures for Discrete-
Time Systems
Module VII
Multirate digital signal processing
Module VII
 Text Books
1. J. G. Proakis, D.G. Manolakis and D.Sharma, “Digital Signal Processing Principles,
Algorithms and Applications”, 4th edition, Pearson Education, 2012.

2. S.K.Mitra, Digital Signal Processing, 4th edition, TMH, 2013.

References
3. Sophocles J. Orfanidis, “Introduction to Signal Processing” 2nd edition, Prentice
Hall, Inc, 20101.

2. Oppenhiem V.A.V and Schaffer R.W, “Discrete – time Signal Processing”, 3rd edition,
Prentice Hall, 2013.

3. Lawrence R Rabiner and Bernard Gold, “Theory and Application of Digital Signal
Processing”, PHI 2009.

4. Andreas Antoniou, Digital Signal Processing, TMH, 2006

5. Emmanuel C.Ifeachor, “Digital Signal Processing A Practical Approach” 2nd edition

reprint, Pearson Education, 2010.
 What does DSP mean?

 Digital signal processing (DSP) is the process of analyzing and modifying a

signal to optimize or improve its efficiency or performance. It involves
applying various mathematical and computational algorithms to analog
and digital signals to produce a signal that's of higher quality than the
original signal.
 Signal processing is an immense and diverse field. It is also a field that did
not exist 50 years ago and one that remains mysterious, or quite unknown
to most people. Signal processing is not the transmission of signals, as
through telephone wires or by radio waves, but the changes made to
signals so as to improve transmission or use of the signals.
Digital Signal Processing?
Digital versus Analog Processing
DSP as a specific methodology….From a need to design a product
Practical application of DSP: Wearable Sensors and Systems
 Introduction to Signals
Signal and System

Signal: Anything that carries some information can be called signal.

Example: Electrocardiogram (ECG), provides information about the health of the
person’s heart and Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal provides
information about brain activity of a person.

System: System is a device or combination of devices, that generates a

response or an output signal, for a given input signal. Input to a
system is called as excitation and output from it is called as response.
 For one or more inputs, the system can have one or more outputs.
Example: Communication System, electrical system, biological system, etc..
 Representation of DT Signals

To distinguish between continuous-time and discrete time signals,

we will use the symbol ‘t’ to denote the time
continuous independent variable and ‘n’ to
denote thevariable.
independent discrete time
Graphical representation
Functional representation
Tabular representation
Sequence representation
 Classification

 Number of independent variables (i.e., dimensionality):

 A signal with one independent variable is said to
be one dimensional (e.g., audio).
 A signal with more than one independent variable is said to be
multi-dimensional (e.g., image).
 Continuous or discrete independent variables:
 A signal with continuous independent variables is
said to be
continuous time (CT) (e.g., voltage waveform).
 A signal with discrete independent variables is said to be discrete
time (DT) (e.g., stock market index).
 Continuous or discrete dependent variable:
 A signal with a continuous dependent variable is
said to be
continuous valued (e.g., voltage waveform).
 A signal with a discrete dependent variable is said to be discrete
valued (e.g., digital image).
A continuous-valued CT signal is said to be analog (e.g., voltage waveform).
 Signal Classification

 Continuous-time and Discrete-time

 Deterministic and Random
 Causal and anti causal signals
 Energy and Power
 Right-handed and left-handed signals
 Periodic and Non-periodic
 Finite and infinite length
 Even and Odd
Continuous & Discrete-Time Signals

 Continuous-Time
Signals x(t)
• Most signals in the real world
are
infinitesimally
continuous time,fine. as the scale is
• Eg voltage, velocity, t
• Denote by x(t), where the
interval may be bounded (finite) or
time
infinite
 Discrete-Time Signals
• Some real world and many digital x[n]
signals are discrete time, as they are
sampled
• E.g. pixels, daily stock price (anything
that a digital computer processes) n
• Denote by x[n], where n is an integer
value that varies discretely
Deterministic signals, random signals

 Deterministic signal

• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.

Exp. sin(3t)

 Random signal

• There is uncertainty before its actual occurrence

Causal and anti causal Signals

 Causal signals : zero for all negative time

 Anti-causal signals : zero for all positive time

 Non-causal : non-zero values in both positive and negative time

Even Signals

 A function x is said to be even if it satisfies

x(t) = x(−t) for all t.

 A sequence x is said to be even if it satisfies

x(n) = x(−n) for all n.

 Geometrically, the graph of an even signal is symmetric about the origin.

 Some examples of even signals are shown below.

Odd Signals

 A function x is said to be odd if it satisfies

x(t) = −x(−t) for all t.
 A sequence x is said to be odd if it
satisfies
x(n) = −x(−n) for all n.
 Geometrically, the graph of an odd signal is antisymmetric about the
origin.
 An odd signal x must be such that x(0) = 0.
 Some examples of odd signals are shown below.
Decomposition of a Signal into Even and Odd Parts

 Every function x has a unique representation of the form

x(t) = xe(t)+xo(t),

where the functions xe and xo are even and odd, respectively.

 In particular, the functions xe and xo are given by

xe(t) = 1/2 [x(t)+x(−t)] and xo(t) = 1/2 [x(t)−x(−t)] .

 The functions xe and xo are called the even part and odd part of x,
respectively.
 For convenience, the even and odd parts of x are often denoted as Even{x}
and Odd{x}, respectively.
Periodic Signals

 A function x is said to be periodic with period T (or T-periodic) if, for some
strictly-positive real constant T, the following condition holds:

x(t) = x(t +T) for all t.

 A periodic function x is said to have frequency 1/T and angular frequency
2𝜋/T .
 A sequence x is said to be periodic with period N (or N-periodic) if, for
some strictly-positive integer constant N, the following condition holds:

x(n) = x(n + kN) for all n.

where integer k may be positive, negative or zero.

 N = 2π(m/ω0)

 To compute N, we must have to choose the smallest value of m that will

make N = 2π(m/ω0) an integer.

 A discrete time complex exponential signal will always periodic

with period 2 π.
 A discrete time complex exponential signal will periodic if and only if
ω0 is
multiple of π. This requires ω0n = 2πk where k is an integer.
Numerical problems
Periodic Signals

 Some examples of periodic signals are shown below.

Periodic Signals

 The period of a periodic signal is not unique. That is, a signal that is
periodic with period T is also periodic with period kT, for every (strictly)
positive integer k.

 The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called

the
fundamental period and its corresponding frequency is
called the
Sum of Periodic Functions
 Sum of periodic functions. Let x1 and x2 be periodic functions with
fundamental periods T1 and T2, respectively. Then, the sum y = x1 +x2 is a
periodic function if and only if the ratio T1/T2 is a rational number (i.e.,
the quotient of two integers). Suppose that T1/T2 = q/r where q and r are
integers and coprime (i.e., have no common factors), then the
fundamental period of y is rT1 (or equivalently, qT2, since rT1 = qT2).
(Note that rT1 is simply the least common multiple of T1 and T2.)

 Although the above theorem only directly addresses the case of the sum
of two functions, the case of N functions (where N > 2) can be handled by
applying the theorem repeatedly N −1 times.

 The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called

fundamental period and its corresponding frequency is the
fundamental frequency.
called the
Signal Energy and Power
Energy and Power of Unit Step Sequence
Right-handed and left-handed signals

 Right-handed and left-handed signal : zero between a given variable and

positive or negative infinity.

Finite and Infinite length

 Finite-length signal : nonzero over a finite interval tmin< t< tmax.

 Finite-length signal : nonzero over all real numbers.

 Elementary Signals or Basic Signals

1. Unit step signal

2. Unit impulse or Unit sample signal
3. Unit ramp signal
4. Sinusoidal signal
5. Exponential signal
Unit step signal

Shift a
1
ta
u(t  a)  1,
0 , t  a a t
Unit Impulse or Unit sample signal
Unit ramp signal
Sinusoidal signal
DT Real Exponential signal
DT Complex Exponential signal
 Basic Operations on Signals

 Shifting

 Time reversal

 Time scaling

 Scalar multiplication

 Signal multiplier

 Signal addition
Amplitude Scaling

 C x is a amplitude scaled version of x whose amplitude is scaled by a factor C.

Addition

 Addition of two signals is

nothing but of
addition
amplitudes. This can their
be best explained by
corresponding
using the following example:

 As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 0 + 2 = 2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 0 + 2 = 2
Subtraction

 subtraction of two signals is nothing but

subtraction of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by
the following example:

 As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z = x1 - x2 = 0 - 2 = -2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z = x1 - x2 = 1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z = x1 + x2 = 0 - 2 = -2
Multiplication

 Multiplication of two signals is nothing but

multiplication of their corresponding
amplitudes. This can be best explained by
the following example:

 As seen from the diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z = x1 ×x2 = 0 ×2 = 0
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z = x1 ×x2 = 1 ×2 = 2
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z = x1 × x2 = 0 × 2 = 0
Time Shifting

 x(t ± t0) is time shifted version of the signal x .

x (t + t0) negative shift
x (t - t0) positive shift
Time Scaling

 x At is time scaled version of the signal xt . where A is always positive.

|A| > 1 = Compression of the signal
|A| < 1 = Expansion of the signal

Note: uat = ut time scaling is not applicable for unit step function.
Time Reversal

 x (-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t) .

 Transformation of Independent Variable

 Sometimes we need to change the independent variable axis for

theoretical analysis or for just practical purposes (both in CT and DT
signals).
 Time shift x[n]=x[n-no]
 – Time reversal x(t)=x(-t) (reverse playing of magnetic tape)

 – Time scaling x(t)=x(t/2) (slow playing, fast playing)

Time Reversal (Folding) and Shifting
Examples of Transformations

 Given the signal x(t)

Examples of Transformations

 For the general case, i.e., x(at+b),

 1. first apply the shift (b),
 2. and then perform time scaling (or reversal) based on a.
Examples of Transformations
Examples of Transformations
Examples of Transformations
 Useful Mathematical Formulas
Summation Formulas Euler's Formulas

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Trigonometric Identities
Power Series Expansions

Some Definite Integrals

Numerical Problems
Prob.1 Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If the signal is
periodic, determine its fundamental period.
(a) x(t) = 2 cos(2t + π/5).
Solution. This signal is a CT sinusoid so it is periodic. Its fundamental angular frequency is
2rad/sec and hence its fundamental period is T = 2π/ω0 = π.

(b) x(t) = ej(πt−2).

Solution. This signal is periodic and its fundamental angular frequency is π rad/sec. Thus its
fundamental period is T = 2π/π = 2.

(c) x(t) = [cos(4t + π/3)]2.

Solution. This signal can be rewritten as x(t) = 1/2 + 1/2 cos(8t + 2π/3). We can see that this
signal is periodic since the first term is constant and the other term is a CT sinusoid. The CT
sinusoid term has fundamental angular frequency 8 rad/sec and thus x(t) is periodic with
fundamental period T = 2π/8 = π/4.
(d) x[n] = cos(πn/2) cos(πn/4).
Solution. We can rewrite x[n] as x[n] = 1/2 cos(3πn/4) + 1/2 cos(πn/4). Thus, x[n] is
the sum of two DT sinusoidal signals of fundamental periods N1 = 8 and N2 = 8.
Hence, x[n] is periodic and its fundamental period is the least common multiple of 8
and 8 which is N = 8.

(e) x[n] = 2 cos(πn/4) − sin(πn/8) + cos(πn/2 − π/6).

Solution. The fundamental periods of the individual DT sinusoidal signals are N1 = 8,
N2 = 16, and N3 = 4. Hence, x[n] is periodic and its fundamental period is the least
common multiple of 8, 16, and 4 which is N = 16.

(f) x[n] = sin(6πn/7 − 1)

Solution. This DT sinusoid is periodic with fundamental period N = 7.
Prob.2 A CT signal x is defined for all t by
x(t) = 3u(t) − 2u(t − 2) − u(t − 3),
where u is the CT unit step. CT signals x1 and x2 are defined for all t
by
x1(t) = x(−t/4)
x2(t) = x(1 − t)x(2 − t)
(a) Sketch x and x1 as a function
of t

Figure 1: Plot of signal x(t) Figure 2: Plot of signal x1(t)

(a) Sketch x3 as a function of t

Figure 3: The plot of (a) x(1 − t), (b) x(2 − t), and (c) x2(t)
Prob.3 Find the fundamental frequency of the following continuous signal:
x(t) = cos(10πt/3) + sin(5πt/4)

The frequencies and periods of the two terms are, respectively,

ω1 = 10π /3 , f1 = 5 /3 , T1 = 3/ 5 , ω2 = 5π /4 , f2 = 5 /8 , T2 = 8 /5,
Alternatively, the period of the fundamental T0 is the LCM of
T1 = 3/5 and T2 = 8/5:
T0 = LCM( 3 /5 , 8 /5 ) = 24/ 5
Now we get ω0 = 2πf0 = 2π/T0 = 5π/12 and the signal can be written as;
x(t) = cos(8 (5π /12) t) + sin(3 (5π/ 12) t) = cos(8ω0t) + sin(3ω0t)
i.e., the two terms are the 3th and 8th harmonic of the fundamental
frequency ω0,
respectively.
Prob.4 Determine whether or not each the following signals is periodic through
using fundamental period.