CIRCUIT AND SYSTEMS

COURSE CODE: ETEE-207

By

Mr. LALIT AGARWAL

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
EEE, MAIT
INTRODUCTION
TO SIGNALS
INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS
A Signal is a function, that represents the variation of
a physical quantity with respect to any parameter.

In the above figure, f(x) is the signal or function

and x is the independent variable.
In electrical and electronics, usually signal is a
variation of electrical quantity (generally I or V) with
time i.e. the current and voltages are function of
time.
So in general these function of time are called as
signals i.e. signals are also called as functions.
If current or voltage remains same with change in
time then it is not a signal but a dc value.
 Signal is the key component behind virtually all:
 Communication
 Computing
 Networking
 Electronic devices

 A signal can be either analog or digital.

 Signals can be One-dimensional or multi-
dimensional.
 Example: voice signal, video signal, signals on
telephone wires etc.
Note: Noise is also a signal, but the information conveyed
by noise is unwanted hence it is considered as
undesirable.
 Signal: A function of one or more variables that convey
information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
Examples: v(t),i(t),x(t),heartbeat, blood pressure,
temperature, vibration.
 One-dimensional signals: function depends on a
single variable, e.g., speech signal
 Multi-dimensional signals: function depends on
two or more variables, e.g., image
How is a Signal Represented?

 Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of

one or more independent variables.
 For instance a black & white video signal intensity is
dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f( x, y , t)
 On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with
signals that are a function of a single variable: time
f(t)

t
Classification of signals

 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals

 Periodic and non-periodic signals
 Casual and Non-casual signals
 Deterministic and random signals
 Even and odd signals
Continuous time& discrete time
signals:
 A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all
instants of time.

 A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only

discrete instants of time.
Periodic & Non-periodic Signals
 Periodic si g n a l s h a v e t h e p r o p e r t y that
x (t+T) = x( t) for all t.
 The smallest value o f ‘T’ t h a t satisfies
t h e d efi n i t i on is ca lled
as the p eri od .
 Sh own below are the non- p eri od i c signal (left)
and a p eri od i c si gn a l (ri gh t ).
 Examples:
 sin(t), cos(t), etc are periodic signals.
 et, t2, t etc are non periodic signals.
CAUSAL & NON-CAUSAL SIGNALS:
 A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon
present and past inputs, and does not depend upon future
input.
 For non causal system, the output depends upon future
inputs also.
Deterministic & Random Signals
Deterministic signals :
 Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t
time.
 There is no uncertainty with respect to its
value at any time.
 These signals can be expressed mathematically.
 For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic
signal.
Random Signals
 Behaviorof these signals is random i.e. not
predictable w.r.t. time.
 There is an uncertainty with respect to its
value at any time.
 These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.
 For example: Thermal Noise generated is non
deterministic signal.
EVEN & ODD SIGNALS
A signal x(t) is referred to as an even signal if it is
identical to its time-reversed counterpart.
i.e. x(-t) = x(t)
Examples: cos(t), sin2t, tn where n is even etc. are
even signals.
 A signal x(t) is referred to as an odd signal if the
signal is negative of it’s time-reversed
counterpart.
i.e. x(-t) = - x(t)
Examples: sin(t), tn where n is odd etc. are odd
signals.
NOTE: There are some functions or signals which
are neither even nor odd.
Examples: et, t2+t etc.

Any signal is a sum of unique even and odd

signals.
i.e. x( t )= x e ( t ) + x o ( t )

Sum of even functions = Even functon

Sum of odd functions = Odd function
Multiplication of even and even functions = Even
function
Multiplication of odd and odd functions = Even
function
Multiplication of even and odd functions = Odd
function
Sum of even and odd functions = Neither even
nor odd
 What is a System?
 Systems process input signals to produce output signals.
Examples:
 A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a
system that transforms the source voltage (signal) to the
voltage (signal) across the capacitor
 A CD player takes the signal on the CD and transforms it
into a signal sent to the loud speaker
 A communication system is generally composed of
three sub- systems, the transmitter, the channel and the
receiver.
 The channel typically attenuates and adds noise to the
transmitted signal which must be processed by the
receiver
 System is a device or combination of devices,
which can operate on signals and produces
corresponding response. Input to a system is
called as excitation and output from it is called
as response.
 For one or more inputs, the system can have
one or more outputs.
 Example: Communication System
Types of Systems
 Continuous time & Discrete time
 Causal & Non-causal
 Linear & Non Linear
 Time Variant &Time-invariant
 Stable & Unstable
 Static & Dynamic
 Invertible & Non-invertible
Linear time-invariant systems (LTI
systems)
 Linear time-invariant systems (LTI systems) are a class
of systems used in signals and systems that are both linear and
time-invariant.
 Linear systems are systems whose outputs for a linear
combination of inputs are the same as a linear combination of
individual responses to those inputs.
 Time-invariant systems are systems where the output does
not depend on when an input was applied.
 These properties make LTI systems easy to represent and
understand graphically.
 LTI systems are superior to simple state machines for
representation because they have more memory. LTI systems,
unlike state machines, have a memory of past states and have
the ability to predict the future.
 LTI systems are used to predict long-term behavior in a
system. So, they are often used to model systems like power
plants.
 Another important application of LTI systems is electrical
circuits. These circuits, made up of inductors, transistors, and
resistors, are the basis upon which modern technology is
built.
STANDARD TEST SIGNALS OR
SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
 To simulate any signal some standard signals , which
are realizable in the laboratory environment are
given below:
 Step function
 Ramp function
 Impulse function

 These singularity functions can be obtained from

one another by successive differentiation or
integration.
STEP SIGNAL
 The step signal fs(t) is defined as,

fs(t) = 0 ; t<0
K ; t>0 , where k is the amplitude of
the step signal
 Now if k =1 here then it will become a unit step signal.
 Now the unit step signal U(t) is defined as:

U(t) = 0 ; t<0
1 ; t>0
At t = 0 , the value of unit step signal is undefined.
 It is used as best test signal.
 Area under unit step function is unity.
 SHIFTED UNIT STEP FUNCTION ( U(t-a))
 The shifted or delayed unit step function is defined as:

U(t-a) = 0; t < a
1; t > a
&

fs(t-a) = 0 ; t<a
K ; t>a
RAMP SIGNAL
 The ramp signal fr(t) is defined as,

fr(t) = 0 ; t<0
Kt ; t ⩾ 0 , where k is the slope of the
ramp signal.
 Now if k =1 here then it will become a unit ramp signal.
 Now the unit ramp signal r(t) is defined as:

r(t) = 0 ; t<0
t ; t⩾0
 Area under unit ramp is unity.
 SHIFTED RAMP SIGNAL
 The shifted or delayed ramp function is defined as:
fr(t-a) = 0 ; t<a
K(t-a) ; t ⩾ a
&
r(t-a) = 0 ; t<a
(t-a) ; t⩾a
 Relationship between Step and Ramp signal

 r(t) = t U (t)
 r(t-a) = (t-a) U(t-a)
 Similarly, fr(t) = k r(t) = Kt U(t)
 fr(t-a) = k r(t-a) = k (t-a) U(t-a)
IMPULSE SIGNAL
 It is also known as dirac delta function.
 The Impulse signal fδ(t) is defined as:

fδ(t) = 0; t ≠ 0
A; t = 0
Where A is the area of the impulse signal and sometimes called
as the strength of the impulse.
Now if A = 1, then it is called as Unit impulse function.
Now the unit impulse function δ(t) is defined as:

δ(t) = 0; t ≠ 0
1; t = 0
 SHIFTED IMPULSE SIGNAL
 The shifted or delayed Impulse function is defined as:
fδ(t-a) = 0; t ≠ a
A; t = a

& δ(t-a) = 0; t ≠ a
1; t = a
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STANDARD SIGNALS:
 Derivative of step signal = Impulse signal
 Derivative of ramp signal = Step signal
 Derivative of parabolic signal = Ramp signal
 Integral of Impulse signal = Step signal
 Integral of step signal = Ramp signal
 Integral of ramp signal = Parabolic signal
 Mathematically;
OTHER BASIC SIGNALS
EXPONENTIAL SIGNAL:
Exponential signal f(t) is expressed as:

f(t) = 0 ; t<0
Ke-at ; t ≥ 0
(where a and K are real constants)
 The inverse of a has the dimension of time and is called as the
time constant(T).
T = 1/a
 Time period is the time taken to reach 63.2 % of the total
change from initial value to final value.
SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL:
Sinusoidal signal f(t) is expressed as:
f(t) = 0 ; t <0
Vm sin ωt ; t ≥ 0
Where Vm is peak amplitude and ω is angular
frequency in rad/sec.
GATE SIGNAL (FUNCTION)
 A rectangular pulse of unit height (i.e. unity amplitude) ,
starting at t = a and ending at t = b is called as a gate
function and it is represented as:
G a, b (t) = U(t-a) – U(t-b)