Signal:

Signal is a set of data or function of one or more independent variables,

which contain some information.
Example: voice signal, video signal
Note: Noise is also a signal, but the information conveyed by noise is
unwanted hence it is considered as undesirable.
Signals are classified into the following categories:
 Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
 Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
 Even and Odd Signals
 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
 Energy and Power Signals
 Real and Imaginary Signals
Continuous Time Signal:
A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

Discrete Time Signal:

A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of
time
Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to
its value at any instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by
a mathematical formula are known as deterministic signals.

A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect

to its value at some instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random
in nature hence they are called random signals. Random signals cannot be
described by a mathematical equation. They are modelled in probabilistic
terms.

Even and Odd Signals

A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition x (t) = x (-t)
Example 1: t2, t4… cost etc.
Let x (t) = t2
X (-t) = (-t) 2 = t2 = x (t)
t2 is even function.
A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x (t) = -x (-t)
Example: t, t3 ... And sin t
Let x (t) = sin t
x (-t) = sin(-t) = -sin t = -x(t)
∴, sin t is odd function.
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(t + T) or
x(n) = x(n + N).
Where
T = fundamental time period,
1/T = f = fundamental frequency.

The above signal will repeat for every time interval T0 hence it is periodic
with period T0.
A signal that does not repeat itself after a specific interval of time is
called an aperiodic signal.

Energy and Power Signals

A signal is said to be energy signal when it has finite energy.
A signal is said to be power signal when it has finite power.
∞
E=∫ x ( t ) dt
2

−∞

T
1
P= lim
T →∞
∫ x2 ( t ) dt
2 T −T

Power of energy signal = 0

Energy of power signal = ∞
Real and Imaginary Signals
A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x*(t)
A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x*(t)
Example:
If x(t)= 3 then x*(t)=3*=3 here x(t) is a real signal.
If x(t)= 3j then x*(t)=3j* = -3j = -x(t) hence x(t) is a odd signal.
Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero. Similarly for an
imaginary signal, real part should be zero.
Unit step signal:
If a step signal has unity magnitude, then it is known as unit step signal or
unit step function. It is denoted by u(t).
Continuous-Time Unit Step Signal
The unit step signal which is defined for every instant of time is known as
continuous-time unit step signal.
Mathematically, the continuous-time unit step signal u(t) is defined as
follows –
u(t)={1 for t ≥ 0 0 for t < 0
The graphical representation of the continuous-time unit step signal u(t) is
shown
Discrete-Time Unit Step Signal
The unit step signal which is defined only at discrete instants of time is
known as discrete-time unit step signal. It is denoted by u(n).
Mathematically, the discrete-time unit step signal or sequence u(n) is
defined as follows –
u(n)={1 for n ≥ 0 0 for n < 0
The graphical representation of the discrete-time unit step signal u(n) is
shown

Unit Ramp Signal

A ramp function or ramp signal is a type of standard signal which starts at
𝑡 = 0 and increases linearly with time. The unit ramp function has unit
slop.
Continuous-Time Unit Ramp Signal
The continuous-time unit ramp signal is that function which starts at 𝑡 = 0
and increases linearly with time. It is denoted by r(t). Mathematically, the
continuous-time unit ramp signal is defined as follows −
r (t )={1 for t ≥ 0 0 for t <0
r (t )=t u(t)
Discrete-Time Unit Ramp Sequence
The discrete time unit ramp signal is that function which starts from n = 0
and increases linearly. It is denoted by r(n). It is signal whose amplitude
varies linearly with time n. mathematically, the discrete time unit ramp
sequence is defined as –
r ( n)={n for n ≥ 0 0 for n< 0
r ( n)=n u(n)

Relationship between Unit Ramp and Unit Step Signals

r (t )= ∫ u( t)dt =∫ dt=t ; fort ≥ 0
d
u(t )= r (t)
dt

Unit Impulse Signal

The unit impulse signal has zero amplitude everywhere except at t = 0.
δ (t)={1 for t=0 0 for t ≠ 0

The continuous-time impulse signal is also called Dirac Delta Signal.

The discrete-time unit impulse signal is denoted by δ(n) and is defined as –
 δ (n)={1 for n=0 0 for n ≠ 0

Relationship between Unit Impulse Signal and Unit Step Signal

∞

∫ δ (t)dt=u( t)
−∞

d
δ (t)= u(t)
dt

Signum Function/ signal

The Signum function or sign function is an odd mathematical
function which extracts the sign of a real number. The signum
function is represented as (sgn). Mathematically, the unit signum
function is defined as

sgn(t)={1 for t >0−1 for t< 0

The signum function can also be expressed in terms of the unit step
function as follows −

𝑠𝑔(𝑡) = −1 + 2𝑢(𝑡)
Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signal
A sinusoidal signal which is defined for every instant of time is
called continuous-time sinusoidal signal. The continuous time
sinusoidal signal is given as follows –
x (t)= A sin(ωt +φ)= A sin (2 πft +φ)

Where,
 A is the amplitude of the signal. That is the peak deviation of
the signal from zero.
 ω=2πf is the angular frequency in radians per seconds.
 f is the frequency of the signal in Hz.
 φ is the phase angle in radians.
The graphical representation or waveform of a continuous time sinusoidal
signal x(t) is show

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal

A sinusoidal signal which is defined only at discrete instants of time is
called discrete-time sinusoidal signal. The discrete-time sinusoidal signal
is given as follows –
x (n)= A sin( ωn+ φ)=A sin(2 πfn +φ)

Where,
 A is the amplitude of the signal.
 ω=2πf is the angular frequency in radians per seconds.
 f is the frequency of the signal in Hz.
 φ is the phase angle in radians.
 n is an integer.

Exponential Signal
Exponential signal is in the form of x(t)¿ e αt
Case i:if α =0 → x (t)=e 0=1
Case ii :if α < 0 i. e .−ve then x (t)=e−α t . The shape is called decaying exponential.

Case ii :if α > 0 i. e .+ ve then x (t )=e

αt
. The shape is called raising exponential.

Analog Signal:
An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time
varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time
varying quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal.

Digital Signal:
A digital signal is a physical signal that is a representation of a sequence of
discrete values. Example of an arbitrary bit stream.
Causal Signal
A continuous time signal (𝑡) is called causal signal if the signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡
< 0. Therefore, a causal signal does not exist for negative time.
Similarly, a discrete time sequence x(n) is called the causal sequence if the
sequence x(n) = 0 for n < 0.

Non-causal signal
A signal which is not causal is called the non-causal signal. Hence, by the
definition, a signal that exists for positive as well as negative time is
neither causal nor anti-causal, it is non-causal signal. The sine and cosine
signals are examples of non-causal signal.

Even Signal
A signal which is symmetrical about the vertical axis or time origin is
known as even signal or even function. Therefore, the even signals are
also called the symmetrical signals. Cosine wave is an example of even
signal.
Continuous-time Even Signal
A continuous-time signal x (t) is called the even signal or symmetrical
signal if it satisfies the following condition,
x ( t )=x (−t ) ; for−∞< t< ∞

Discrete-time Even Signal

A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be even signal or symmetrical
signal if it satisfies the condition,
x (n)=x (−n) ; for−∞< n<∞

Odd Signal
A signal that is anti-symmetrical about the vertical axis is known as
odd signal or odd function. Therefore, the odd signals are also called
the antisymmetric signals. Sine wave is an example of odd signal.
Continuous-time Odd Signal
A continuous time signal x(t) is called an odd signal or antisymmetric
signal if it satisfies the following condition,
x (−t)=−x (t); for−∞<t <∞

Discrete-time Odd Signal

A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be an odd signal or antisymmetric
signal, if it satisfies the following condition,
x (−n )=−x ( n ) ; for−∞<n< ∞

Numerical Example
Find whether the signals are even or odd.
 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒−5𝑡
 𝑥(𝑡) = sin 2𝑡
 𝑥(𝑡) = cos 5𝑡
Solution
 Given signal is,
(𝑡) = 𝑒−5𝑡
(−𝑡) = 𝑒5𝑡
−(𝑡) = −𝑒−5𝑡
It is clear that (𝑡) ≠ 𝑥(−𝑡) and 𝑥(−𝑡) ≠ −𝑥(𝑡), thus the given signal is
neither even signal nor odd signal.
 The given signal is,
(𝑡) = sin 2𝑡
(−𝑡) = −sin 2𝑡
−(𝑡) = −sin 2𝑡
Hence, (𝑡) ≠ 𝑥(−𝑡); but 𝑥(−𝑡) = −𝑥(𝑡), thus the given signal is an odd
signal.
 Given signal is,
(𝑡) = cos 5𝑡
(−𝑡) = cos 5𝑡
−(𝑡) = −cos 5𝑡
Therefore, (𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) and 𝑥(−𝑡) ≠ −𝑥(𝑡), thus the given signal is an
even signal.

Time Shifting
Time shifting or Shifting of a signal in time means that the signal may be
either delayed in the time axis or advanced in the time axis.

Time Shifting of a Discrete-Time Signal

Time Scaling
The process of multiplying a constant to the time axis of a signal is known
as time scaling of the signal.
x (t)→ y (t )=x (αt )

Case I – Consider the time scaling (compression) of the signal as

x (t)→ y (t )=x (2 t)

Case II – Consider the time scaling (expansion) of the signal as,
t
x (t)→ y (t )=x ( )
2

Time Scaling of Discrete-Time Sequence

 x (n)→ y (n)=x (2 n)

x (n)→ y (n)=x ( n2)

Time Reversal
x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).
Time Invariance:
The property of a system which makes the behaviour of the system
independent of time is known as time invariance