Introduction to Signal and Systems

A. Signals
A signal carries information and is defined as a physical quantity that varies
with one or more independent variables.
1. Classification of Signals

Signals are classified into the following categories:

● Analogue and Digital
● Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
● Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
● Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
● Causal , non-causal and anti-causal
● Energy and Power Signals
● Even and Odd Signals
1.1 Analogue vs digital
Analog signal:
A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as analog signal. Analog
signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by x(t). It is also called
as Continuous time signal. Example for Continuous time signal is shown below

Digital signal:
The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude is called digital signal

1.2 Continuous-time vs Discrete-time signals

Continuous-time signals
x(t) where t can take any real value
x(t) may be 0 for range of values of t

Discrete-time signals
x[n] where n ∈ {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3...}
n is sample index
Amplitude value may be real or complex.

1.3 Deterministic vs Random signal

Deterministic signal can be mathematically described
e.g. x(t) = cos(2πf0 t)

Random amplitudes
Cannot be predicted exactly or described by a formula
Distribution of amplitude values can be defined
1.4 Periodic vs non periodic
A signal has period T if x (t + T) = x(t) for all t
Smallest positive period is called the fundamental period
Example of periodic signal is the sinusoid
Mathematical form: A cos (wt + 𝛷)
A is amplitude/magnitude
w is frequency in rad/s where w= 2 π f0
and f0 is in cycles/s or Hz
𝛷 is phase shift in radians
Smallest period: T = 1 / f0
1.5 Causal vs Non-causal. vs Anti-causal signal
Causal signal:
A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for n≥0.
𝑖. 𝑒[𝑛] = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-causal signal:
A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for n< 0
or for both n < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑖. 𝑒[𝑛] ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
When a non-causal signal is defined only for n<0, it is called as anti-causal signal

1.6 Energy vs power signal

Energy signals:
Signals which have finite energy and zero average power are called energy signals. The
i.e., For energy signal, 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 0
Non periodic signals are energy signals.
T
2
For continuous signal Energy E=∫ | x| dx
−T

N
2
For discrete signals Energy E=∑ |x|
−N

Power signals:
Signals which have finite average power and infinite energy are called power signals.
i.e., For power signal, 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = ∞
Periodic signals are power signals.
 T
1 2
For continuous signals Average Power P= ∫ |x| dx
2 T −T
N
2
For discrete signals Average power P=∑ |x|
−N

1.7 Even vs odd

Even signal:
A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to t=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)
Example: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡2
Odd signal:
A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to t=0 is called odd signal
Odd signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)

2 Some Common signal functions

Below are some common signal functions:
2.1 Unit ramp function
A signal whose magnitude increases same as time. It can be obtained by integrating unit step.
Its defined as: r ( 𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

r[ 𝑛 ]= 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

 A discrete unit ramp function can be defined as −

.
2.2 Unit Step function

u(t)= 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Unit step function is denoted by u (t ) and is defined as:

Discrete Unit step is defined as: u[n]= 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 n ≥ 0

= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 n < 0

2.3 Unit Impulse function (Dirac delta function)

 ∞
The unit impulse signal is defined as: δ (t)=0 for t ≠ 0 and ∫ ∂ ( t ) dt=1
−∞

Properties of the impulse signal

Property 1: ∫ x ( t ) ∂ ( t ) dt =x (0)
−∞

∞
Property 2: ∫ x ( t ) ∂ ( t−t o ) dt=x (t o)
−∞

In the discrete time domain δ(n) is defined as;

δ(n) =1, for n=0 and δ(n)= 0 for n ≠0

2.4 Unit pulse function

1 1
Unit Pulse signal is defined as: rect(t)= 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤t≤ and 0 elsewhere
2 2
Rectangular pulse function rect[ 𝑛 ]= 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 and 0 elsewhere
.

2.5 Parabolic function

Unit parabolic:
A signal whose magnitude increases with the square of time. It can be obtained by
integrating unit ramp.

t2
It is defined as; p(t) = for t ≥ 0
2
=0 for t<0

2.6 Sinusoidal function

Mathematical form: A cos (wt + 𝛷)

A is amplitude/magnitude
w is frequency in rad/s where w= 2 π f0
and f0 is in cycles/s or Hz
𝛷 is phase shift in radians
Smallest period: T = 1 / f0

2.7 Sinc Function

It is denoted as sinc(t) and it is defined as sinc(t)=sint/t
=0 for t=±1, ±2, ±3.

2.8 Signum Function

Signum function is denoted as sgn(t). It is defined as; sgn(t) = 1 for t >0
= 0 for t =0
=1 for t <0

.
2.9 Exponential Signal

An exponential signal is given by x(t)= Ae at

When a= 0 x(t) is a Dc signal

a¿ 0 x(t) is an exponentially growing signal

a¿ 0 x(t) is an exponentially decaying signal

2.10 Complex Exponential Signal

A complex exponential signal is given by x(t)= Ae (σ + jω ) t = Ae σt (cosωt + i sinωt)
.