Signals and System

Classification of Signals and

Systems
 CHAPTER
Introduction
1.1 What is a signal?
A signal is formally defined as a function of one or more variables that
conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
1.2 What is a system?
A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals.

Figure 1.1 (p. 2)

Block diagram representation of a system.

1.3 Overview of Specific Systems

★ 1.3.1 Communication systems
Elements of a communication system Fig. 1.2

Signals_and_Systems_Simon 2
Haykin & Barry Van Veen
 CHAPTER
Introduction

Figure 1.2 (p. 3)

Elements of a communication system. The transmitter changes the message
signal into a form suitable for transmission over the channel. The receiver
processes the channel output (i.e., the received signal) to produce an estimate
of the message signal.
1. Analog communication system: modulator + channel + demodulator
◆ Modulation:
2. Digital communication system:
sampling + quantization + coding → transmitter → channel → receiver
◆ Two basic modes of communication:
Fig. 1.3
1. Broadcasting Radio, television
2. Point-to-point communication Telephone, deep-space
communication
Signals_and_Systems_Simon 3
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Classification of Signals
› CT signals → 𝑥(𝑡)
› DT signals → 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑇𝑠 , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … where 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇𝑠

CT signal. DT signal.

(a) Continuous-time signal x(t).

(b) (b) Representation of x(t) as a discrete-time signal x[n].
Classification of Signals
› Even signals: 𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 for all 𝑡 Symmetric about vertical axis

› Odd signals: 𝑥 −𝑡 = −𝑥 𝑡 for all 𝑡 Antisymmetric about origin

 t 
sin   , − T  t  T
› Example x ( t ) =  T 
 0 , otherwise


› Solution:
  t 
sin  −  , − T  t  T
x(−t ) =   T 
 0
 , otherwise
 t 
 − sin   , − T  t  T
= T 
 0
 , otherwise
= − x(t ) for all t

odd function
Even-Odd Decomposition
› Decomposition of 𝑥(𝑡)
x(t ) = xe (t ) + xo (t )

where xe (−t ) = xe (t )
xo (−t ) = − xo (t )

therefore

x ( − t ) = xe ( − t ) + x o ( − t )
= xe (t ) − xo (t )
1
xe =  x(t ) + x(−t )
2
1
xo =  x ( t ) − x ( − t ) 
2
Check Yourself

Find the even and odd component of the signals

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡)
Check Yourself

Find the even and odd component of the signals

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡)

Odd component:
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 12(𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝑡))
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑡 cos(𝑡)
Event component:
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 12(𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝑡))
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 2𝑡 cos(𝑡)
Check Yourself

Find and draw the even and odd component of the

signals 𝑥(𝑡) given below

𝒙(𝒕)
Even Component

𝒙 𝒕
𝟐𝒙𝒆 𝒕

𝒙 −𝒕

1
xe =  x(t ) + x(−t )
2
Odd Component

𝒙 𝒕
𝟐𝒙𝒐 𝒕

𝒙 −𝒕

1
xo =  x ( t ) − x ( − t ) 
2
Composition

𝒙𝒆 𝒕

𝒙 𝒕

𝒙𝒐 𝒕
𝟏ൗ
𝟐

x(t ) = xe (t ) + xo (t )
Check Yourself

Find and draw the even and odd component of the

signals 𝑥(𝑡) given below
𝒙(𝒕)

𝟐𝒙𝒆 𝒕
𝟐𝒙𝒐 𝒕
Conjugate Symmetric
› A complex-valued signal 𝑥 𝑡 said to be conjugate-
symmetric if 𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)
› Let 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑏 𝑡 and 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑗 𝑏 𝑡

› Then 𝑎 −𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑏 −𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑗 𝑏 𝑡

𝑎 −𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡
› Therefore
𝑏 −𝑡 = −𝑏(𝑡)

(a) One example of continuous-

time signal.
(b) Another example of a
continuous-time signal.
Classification of Signals
› Periodic and non-periodic signals (CT signals)
x(t ) = x(t + T ) for all t

where T = T0 , 2T0 , 3T0 , ......

T = T0  Fundamental period

› Fundamental frequency
1
f =
T (a) Square wave with amplitude A =
› Angular frequency 1 and period T = 0.2s.
2 (b) Rectangular pulse of amplitude
 = 2 f = A and duration T1.
T
Classification of Signals
› Periodic and non-periodic (DT signals)
x  n = x n + N  for integer n

› Fundamental frequency of 𝑥[𝑛]

2
=
N

Discrete-time square Aperiodic discrete-time

wave alternative signal consisting of
between –1 and +1. three nonzero samples.
Basic Operation
› Amplitude scaling › Differentiation (Inductor)
x(t) y(t ) = cx(t ) d
y (t ) = x(t )
x[n] y[n] = cx[n] dt
d
v(t ) = L i(t )
dt
› Addition Inductor with current i(t), inducing
y(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) voltage v(t) across its terminals.

y[n] = x1[n] + x2 [n] › Integration (Capacitor)

t
y (t ) =  x( )d
› Multiplication −

1 t
y (t ) = x1 (t ) x2 (t ) v(t ) =  i( )d
C −
y[n] = x1[n]x2 [n]
Capacitor with voltage v(t) across
its terminals, inducing current i(t).
 Basic Operation
› Time Scaling (CT Signals)
a >1  compressed
y (t ) = x(at )
0 < a < 1  expanded

Time-scaling operation; (a) continuous-time signal x(t), (b) version of x(t)

compressed by a factor of 2, and (c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of 2.
Basic Operation
› Time Scaling (DT Signals)
y[n] = x[kn], k 0 k = integer Some values lost!

Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal: (a) discrete-time signal x[n]

and (b) version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with some values of the
original x[n] lost as a result of the compression.
Basic Operation
› Reflection
y(t ) = x(−t ) The signal y(t) represents a reflected version of x(t)
about t = 0.

x(t ) = 0 for t  −T1 and t  T2

y (t ) = 0 for t  T1 and t  −T2

Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and (b) reflected version of
x(t) about the origin.
Basic Operation
› Time Shifting (CT Signals)
Time-shifting operation: (a)
y(t ) = x(t − t0 ) continuous-time signal in
the form of a rectangular
pulse of amplitude 1.0 and
duration 1.0, symmetric
about the origin; and (b)
time-shifted version of x(t)
by 2 time shifts.

› DT Signals Case
y[n] = x[n − m] where m is a positive or negative integer
Precedence Rule
› Combination of Time Shifting and Time Scaling
y (t ) = x(at − b)
y (0) = x(−b)
b
y ( ) = x(0)
a

› Operations Order
1st step: time shifting v(t ) = x(t − b)
2nd step: time scaling y(t ) = v(at ) = x(at − b)
Check Yourself

› A discrete time is defined by

 1, n = 1,2

x[n] =  −1, n = −1, −2
 0, n = 0 and | n | 2


› Find 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[2𝑛 + 3]
Check Yourself

› A discrete time is defined by

 1, n = 1,2

x[n] =  −1, n = −1, −2
 0, n = 0 and | n | 2


› Find 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[2𝑛 + 3]
Elementary Signals
› Exponential Decay/Growth
d
RC v(t ) + v(t ) = 0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 dt
– 𝑎 < 1→ decay
– 𝑎 > 1→ growth v(t ) = V0e− t /( RC )

(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal. (b) Growing

exponential form of discrete-time signal.
Elementary Signals
› Exponential Decay/Growth (DT Signals)

x[n] = Br n
where r = e

(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal. (b) Growing

exponential form of discrete-time signal.
Sinusoidal Signals
› CT Signals x(t + T ) = A cos( (t + T ) +  )
x(t ) = A cos(t +  ) = A cos(t + T +  )
where = A cos(t + 2 +  )
2 periodicity = A cos(t +  )
T=
 = x(t )

(a) Sinusoidal signal A cos( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.

(b) Sinusoidal signal A sin ( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.
Sinusoidal Signals
› DT Signals
x[n] = A cos(n +  )

› Periodic condition: x[n + N ] = A cos(n + N +  )

2 m
where N = 2 m = radians/cycle, integer m, N
N

Discrete-time
sinusoidal signal.
Complex Exponential Signals
› Euler identity: e j = cos  + j sin 
𝑗𝜔𝑡
› Complex exponential signals: 𝐵𝑒
where 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜙
j t
› Therefore Be
= Ae j e j t
= Ae j ( + t )
= A cos( t +  ) + jA sin( t +  )
= 𝑅𝑒 𝐵𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼𝑚 𝐵𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

› DT Signals:
A cos(n +  ) = Re{Be jn }
A sin(n +  ) = Im{Be jn }
2D Complex Exponential Signals
› Consider a complex exponential signal as 𝑒 𝑗Ω𝑛
where Ω = 𝜋ൗ4 and 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … , 7.

› Projection on real axis: cos(n);

› Projection on imaginary axis: sin(n)

Complex plane, showing

eight points uniformly
 /4 distributed on the unit
− / 4 circle.
Exp. Damped Sinusoidal Signals
› Let a signals as
x(t ) = Ae− t sin(t +  ),   0

where 𝐴 = 60, 𝛼 = 6, 𝜙 = 0

Exponentially damped
sinusoidal signal Ae −at
sin(t), with A = 60 and
 = 6.
Step Function
› DT Signals

u[n] = 1,0, n 0
n 0
x[n]

Discrete-time version of 1
step function of unit
amplitude. n
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

› CT Signals

u(t ) = 
1, t  0
0, t  0
Continuous-time version
of the unit-step function
of unit amplitude.
 Impulse Function
› DT Signals
 [n] = 
1, n = 0
0, n  0

› CT Signals
 t
 (t ) = 0 for t  0 −
 (t )dt = 1 u (t ) =   ( )d
−

(t) a(t)
Figure 1.41 (p. 46)
Discrete-time form of impulse.

(a) Evolution of a rectangular pulse of unit area into an impulse of unit strength
(i.e., unit impulse). (b) Graphical symbol for unit impulse.
(c) Representation of an impulse of strength a that results from allowing the
duration Δ of a rectangular pulse of area a to approach zero.
 CHAPTER
Introduction
◆ Continuous-time case: Figure 1.38 (p. 44)


Continuous-time
1, t  0
u(t ) = (1.54) version of the unit-step
0, t  0 function of unit
amplitude.
Example 1.8 Rectangular Pulse
Consider the rectangular pulse x(t) shown in Fig. 1.39 (a). This pulse has an
amplitude A and duration of 1 second. Express x(t) as a weighted sum of two
step functions.
<Sol.>
 A, 0 t 0.5
1. Rectangular pulse x(t): x(t ) =  (1.55)
 0, t 0.5
 1  1
x (t ) = Au  t +  − Au  t −  (1.56)
 2  2
Example 1.9 RC Circuit
Find the response v(t) of RC circuit shown in Fig. 1.40 (a).
<Sol.>

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 CHAPTER
Introduction

Figure 1.39 (p. 44)

(a) Rectangular pulse x(t) of amplitude A and duration of 1 s, symmetric about the
origin. (b) Representation of x(t) as the difference of two step functions of amplitude
A, with one step function shifted to the left by ½ and the other shifted to the right by
½; the two shifted signals are denoted by x1(t) and x2(t), respectively. Note that x(t)
= x1(t) – x2(t).

Signals_and_Systems_Simon 35
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Ramp Function
› CT Signals
 t, t  0
r (t ) =  or r (t ) = tu (t )
0, t  0

› DT Signals
n, n  0 r[n] = nu[n]
r[ n ] =  or
0, n  0

Ramp function of unit

slope.