Continuous Time Signals

UNIT – I

Signal :- A Signal is defined as a function of one or more variables, that conveys

information about the state or behaviour of a physical system. When the function depends
on a single variable, the signal is said to be one dimensional signal.
Ex:- Speech signal (amplitude varies with time)
When the function depends on two or more variables the signal is said to be
multidimensional signal.
Ex :- IMAGE, Two dimensional signal (Horizontal & Vertical coordinates)
At any instant of time the function is having unique value. The value may be a
real number, in which case we have a real valued signal or it may be a complex number,
in which case we have a complex valued signal. In any case the independent variable
(namely time) is real valued.

Classification of signals :-

The signals are classified based on their nature and characteristics. These are
a) Continuous – time signals
b) Discrete – time signals.

a) Continuous – time signal :-

x(t )
↑

A signal x(t ) is said to be continuous – time signal if it is defined for all time –t.

Ex :- Light wave is converted into an Electrical signal by using Transducers.

 b) Discrete – time signal :-

x( n) = x(t ) |t = nT −α < n < α

= x(nT )
if T=1
= x ( n) n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3…….

T = Sampling period (Time period between two successive samples)

A signal x(n) is said to be discrete – time signal if it is defined only at discrete instants of
time.

Analog signal :-
x(t )

A signal is said to be analog signal if both amplitude and time are continuous.
An analog signal can be converted into discrete –time signal by sampling. The Discrete –
time signal is converted into Digital signal by quantization & coding.

Both continuous – time and discrete – time signals are further classified as

1) Even and odd signals

2) Periodic and aperiodic signals
3) Deterministic and stochastic ( random) signals
4) Energy and power signals.

1) Even (symmetric) and odd (anti symmetric) signals.

A continuous time signal x(t) is said to be an even signal if it satisfies the condition
x(t ) = x(−t ) for all t.

A Continuous – time signal x(t) is said to be odd signal if it satisfies the condition
x(t ) = − x(−t ) for all t

Ex :- x(t ) = sin ωt ,odd signal

x(t ) = cos ωt ,even signal

Even signal x(n) = x(− n) for all n

Odd signal x(n) = − x(− n) for all n

x(t) x(n)

t n

Even signal

x(t) x(n)

t n

Odd signal
A signal can be expressed as a sum of two components, namely even component of the
signal and the odd component of the signal. Both can be obtained from signal itself.

x(t ) = xe (t ) + xo (t ) → (1.1)

xe (t ) = even xo (t ) = odd

xe (t ) = xe (−t ) & xo (t ) = − xo (−t )

(or)
xo (−t ) = − xo (t )
put t = −t in equation (1.1)

x(−t ) = xe (−t ) + xo (−t )

x(−t ) = xe (t ) − xo (t ) → (1.2)

1
adding equation (1.1) & (1.2) xe (t ) = ( x(t ) + x(−t ) )
2

1
subtracting equation (1.1) - (1.2) xo (t ) = ( x(t ) − x(−t ) )
2

similarly x( n) = xe (n) + xo ( n) → (1.3)

xe (n) = xe (−n) , xo (n) = − xo (− n)

put n=-n in eqn (3)

x(− n) = xe (−n) + xo (− n)

x(− n) = xe (n) − xo (n) → (1.4)

1
(1.3) + (1.4) xe (n) = ( x ( n) + x ( − n ) ) e = even
2

1
(1.3) – (1.4) xo (n) = ( x ( n) − x ( − n) ) o = odd
2

This is in the case of real valued signal.

A complex valued signal x(t ) is conjugate anti symmetric signal of its real part is odd
and its imaginary part is even.

In the case of complex valued signal, we may speak of conjugate symmetry.

∴ A complex valued signal x(t) is said to be conjugate symmetry signal, If it

satisfies the condition

x(t ) = x* (−t )

(or) x* (t ) = x(−t ) * = conjugate.

Let x(t ) = a (t ) + j b(t )

a(t) = Real part of x(t)
x (t ) = a(t ) − j b(t )
*
b(t) = Imaginary part of x(t)
j 2 = −1 , j = −1
x(−t ) = a(−t ) + j b(−t )
∴ A complex valued signal x(t ) is conjugate symmetric signal, if its real part is
even and its imaginary part is odd.

A complex valued signal x(t ) can also be expressed as sum of conjugate

symmetric and conjugate anti symmetric components.

Let x(t ) is complex valued and satisfying complex conjugate symmetry.

i.e. x(t ) = x* (−t ) (or) x* (t ) = x(−t )

x(t ) = xcs (t ) + xcas (t ) → (1.5)

xcs (t ) is conjugate symmetric signal if it satisfies the condition xcs (t ) = x*cs (−t )

xcas (t ) is conjugate – anti symmetric signal if it satisfies the condition

xcas (t ) = − x*cas (−t )

put t = −t in eqn (1.5) and take conjugate on both sides

x* (−t ) = x*cs (−t ) + x*cas (−t )
x* (−t ) = xcs (t ) − xcas (t ) → (1.6)
 1
adding equation (1.5) & (1.6) xcs (t ) = [ x(t ) + x* (−t )]
2
1
subtracting equation (1.5) - (1.6) xcas (t ) = [ x(t ) − x* (−t )]
2
1
Similarly in the case of discrete time xcs (n) = [ x(n) + x* (−n)]
2
1
xcas (n) = [ x(n) − x* (−n)]
2

P.1# Which of these two signals is even and which one is odd.

x1 (t ) x2 (t )

A
A

-A

Fig 1.a Fig 1.b

x1 (t ) is even x2 (t ) is odd

Express x1 (t ) & x2 (t ) in terms of even & odd components.

1
xe (t ) = [ x1 (t ) + x1 (−t )] = x1 (t ) ∴ x1 (t ) = x1 (t ) + 0
2

1
xo (t ) = [ x1 (t ) − x 1 (−t )] = 0
2

1
x e (t ) = [ x 2 (t ) + x 2 (−t )] = 0
2

1
xo (t ) = [ x2 (t ) − x2 (−t )] = x2 (t ) ∴ x2 (t ) = 0 + x 2 (t )
2
P.2 # if x(t ) = x1 (t ) + jx2 (t ) find x(t ) is a conjugate symmetric signal or not.

x *(t ) = x(−t ) (or) x(t ) = x *( −t )

x* (t ) = x1 (t ) − jx2 (t )

x(−t ) = x1 (−t ) + jx2 (−t )

From fig 1.a x`1 (t ) = x1 (−t ) From fig 1.b x 2(t ) = − x 2(−t )

∴ x(t ) is conjugate symmetric signal.

(2) Periodic and aperiodic (Non periodic) signals :

A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats after a fixed time period

(or) Mathematically a continuous – time signal x(t ) is said to be periodic if it

satisfies the following condition .

x(t ) = x(t + T ) for all t (2.1)

T is positive constant: ie T > 0

The smallest value of T that satisfies eqn (2.1) is called the fundamental period of x(t).
1
Fundamental frequency = f = Hz (or) cycles per second.
T
2π
ω = angular frequency: radians/second.
T

Any signal x(t ) for which there is no value of T to satisfy the eqn (2.1) is called an
aperiodic (or) non periodic signal.

x(t) x(t)
Exponential signal

Periodic signal Non periodic signal

Periodic signal x(t ) = A sin(2π ft ) = A sin ωt
= A sin(2π ft + 2π ) = A sin(ωt + 2π )

The fundamental period of x(t ) is T = 2 π

x(t )
1
0
-1

0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 t (seconds)

P.3 # Find the periodicity of the triangular signal shown above.

Fundamental period is T = 0.2 seconds
1
f= = 5 Hz
0.2
(or) ω = 2 π f = 10 π rad/second.

A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition

x ( n) = x ( n + N ) for all n ( n =integer) ( 2.2)
N is positive integer
1
Fundamental period of x(n) = N Freq F =
N
2π
Fundamental angular frequency Ω = radians
N

Any signal x(n) for which there is no value of N to satisfy the eqn (2.2) is called
aperiodic or non periodic sequence.

x1 (n) x2 (n)

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n -2 -1 0 1 2 3 n

Periodic Aperiodic

1
Fundamental period of x1 (n) = 3 , F =
3
 2π
Ω= radians
3

P.4 # Find the fundamental period x1(t ) = sin15π t & x 2(t ) = sin 2ωπ t

2π 2π 1 2π 1
T= = = = 0.133 & T= = = 0.1
ω 15π 7.5 20π 10

(3) Deterministic signals & Random signals (Non Deterministic signals)

A Deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty w.r.t its

value at any time.

Ex:- A completely specified function time, continuous-time signal or discrete –time

signal or sine wave, cosine wave etc.

A Random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty with respect to its value at
any time.

Ex:- Noise signal.

(4) Energy and power signals :-

In Electrical systems a signal may represent a voltage or current. Consider a

voltage v(t ) developed across a Resistor R , producing a current i (t ) .
The instantaneous power developed across resistor R is defined as

V (t ) 2
P= or → (4.1)
R

2
P = i (t ) .R → (4. 2)

In both case the instantaneous power P is proportional to the squared amplitude of

the signal.

If R = 1 Ω

The above eqn (4.1) & (4.2) takes same mathematical form so that regardless of
whether a given signal x(t ) represents a voltage or current, the instantaneous power
2
associated with the signal is P = x(t )
 The total energy dissipated by the signal x(t ) is the integral of the instantaneous
T T
power during interval − to is defined as
2 2

T /2

∫
2
E = lim x(t ) dt
T →∞
−T / 2

∫
2
E= x(t ) dt . Joules (non periodic signals)
−∞

T T
The average power dissipated by the signal x(t ) during interval − to is defined as
2 2

T /2
1
∫
2
P = lim x(t ) dt
T →∞ T
−T / 2

The average power of a periodic signal x(t ) of fundamental period T is

T /2
1
∫
2
P= x(t ) dt watts.
T −T / 2
Root mean square value of x(t ) = P P = average power

The signal x(t ) is an energy signal if and only if the total energy of the signal satisfies
the condition 0 < E < ∞
Ex : Non periodic signals.

The signal x(t ) is a power signal if and only if the average power of the signal satisfies
the condition 0 < P < ∞
Ex: Periodic signals.

E & P are always real & non negative quantities

2
x(t ) instead of x 2 (t ) to allow for the possibility of complex signal models.

In the case of discrete –time signal, the total energy of x(n) is defined as
∞
E= ∑x
n =−∞
2
(n)

1 N
P = lim
N →∞ 2 N
∑x
n =− N
2
( n)

The average power in a periodic signal x(n) with fundamental period N is given by
1 N −1
P = ∑ x 2 ( n)
N n =0
Note : The Energy signal has zero average power, whereas power signal has infinite
energy.

P.5 # What is the total Energy of Rectangular pulse and average power of square wave
shown in figure.

x(t ) x(t )

1 A
0
-1
t
0.2 0.4 0.6 t
T1
Amplitude A=1

∞
T1 + T1
T1/ 2

E= ∫
−∞
x(t ) 2 dt = ∫
−T1/ 2
A2 dt = A2t* = A2
2
= A2T1

0.2 0.1 0.2

1 1 1
∫ ∫ ∫ 1dt
2
P= x(t ) dt = 1dt +
T 0
0.2 0 0.2 0.1
1
[t ]0
0.2
=
0.2
1 0.2
= [0.1 − 0 + 0.2 − 0.1] = = 1
0.2 0.2

P.6 # What is the average power of the Triangular wave shown in fig.

-1

0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 t

( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 ) = ( y − y1 )( x2 − x1 )

y = 20t − 1 from 0 to 0.1

y = −20t + 3 from 0.1 to 0.2

 T /2 0.1 0.2
1 1 1
∫ ∫ (400t + 1 − 40t )dt + ∫
2 2
Average power = x(t ) dt = 2
(400t + 9 − 120t )dt
T −T / 2 0.2 0
0.2 0.1

1 1
= [ 0.133 + 0.1 − 0.2 + 0.933 + 0.9 − 1.8] = 0.33 = watts
0.2 3

P.7 # What is the total energy of the discrete –time signal shown in fig.

x ( n)
1

-1 0 1 n
∞ 1
E= ∑x
n =−∞
2
( n) = ∑ x 2 ( n)
−1

= 3 joules

1
−
P.8 # Prove that the signal x(t ) = t u (t − 1) is neither an energy nor a power signal.
4

∞1

∫
2
E= x(t ) dt
−∞1
∞1 ∞
2
∫ u (t − 1) dt = ∫ t −1/ 2 dt
−1/ 4
= t
−∞1 1

1/ 2 ∞
= 2t =∞−2=∞
1

E = ∞ It is not an energy signal.

T /2
1
T →∞ T ∫
2
P = lim x(t ) dt
−T / 2

T /2
1 1 ⎡ 1/ 2 T 2 ⎤
∫t
−1/ 2
lim dt = lim ⎢ 2 t 1 ⎦⎥
T →∞ T T →∞ T ⎣
1

⎡ 2 T 1/ 2 2 ⎤
⎡⎣ 2(T / 2)1/ 2 − 2 ⎤⎦ = lim ⎢ ⎧⎨ ⎫⎬ − ⎥
1
lim
⎣⎢ ⎩ 2 ⎭ T ⎦⎥
T →∞ T T →∞ T
 =0
Since P = 0, it is not a power signal

P.9 # Find the energy and power of the signal x(t ) = e−10t u (t )

∞ ∞
2
E = ∫ e −10tu (t ) dt = ∫ e −20t dt
0 0

1
∞ −1
e −20t e −20 ∞ − e0 e∞
= = =
−20 0
−20 −20

1
= joules
20

T /2
1 2
P = lim
T →∞ T ∫
−T / 2
e −10t u (t ) dt

1 ⎡ e −20t ⎤
T /2 T 2
1
∫
−20 t
P = lim e dt = lim ⎢ ⎥
T →∞ T
0
T →∞ T
⎢⎣ −20 1 ⎥⎦

⎡ −20.T2 ⎤
1 ⎢e − e −20 ⎥
lim =0
T →∞ T ⎢ −20 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

P.10 # Determine the energy of the signal x(t ) = e(2+ j 4)t

∞ ∞
2
∫ ∫
2
E= x(t ) dt = e(2+ j 4) t dt
−∞ −∞

∫e
(2 + j 4) t (2 − j 4) t
= e dt
−∞

∞ ∞
e 4t e∞ − e−∞ ∞ − 0
= ∫ e dt = 4t
= = =∞
−∞
4 −∞
4 4
P.11 # Find the average power of a periodic signal x(t ) = cos(5π t )

2π 2π 2
When T = fundamental period = = = = 0.4
ω 5π 5
T 1

1 2
5 5
(1 + cos10π t )
ρ= ∫ cos (5π t )dt = 2 ∫
2
dt
T −T −1 2
2 5

1/ 5

5 ⎡ sin10π t ⎤
= ⎢t +
4⎣ 10π ⎥⎦ −1 / 5

5 ⎡ 2 sin 2π − sin 2π ⎤ 1
= ⎢ + ⎥⎦ = 2 watts .
4 ⎣5 10π
P.12 # Find the power of the signal ?

x(t )
A

2π 4π
t

x(t ) = A sin t

T 2π
1 2 1
P= ∫ x (t )dt = ∫A
2
sin 2 tdt
T 0 2π 0

2π 2π
A2 1 A2 ⎛1 1 ⎞
P=
2π ∫
0
2
(1 − cos 2t )dt =
2π ∫ ⎜⎝ 2 − 2 cos 2t ⎟⎠dt
0

2π
A2 ⎡ t sin 2t ⎤ A2 2π
P= ⎢ − ⎥ = [ 2t − sin 2t ] 0
2π ⎣ 2 4 ⎦0 8π

A2 A2 A2
= [ 4π − sin 4π ) − (0 − 0) ] = X 4π =
8π 8π 2
Basic Operations on signals :

1) Amplitude Scaling : Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. The signal y(t)
resulting from amplitude scaling applied to x(t) is defined by y(t) = C x(t),
C= scaling factor.

2) Addition : Let x1(t) and x2(t) denote a pair of continuous-time signal. The signal
y(t) obtained by the addition of x1(t) and x2(t) is defined by y(t) = x1(t)+x2(t) .

3) Multiplication : Let x1(t) and x2(t) denote a pair of continuous-time signal. The
signal y(t) resulting from the multiplication of x1(t) by x2(t) is defined by
y(t) = x1(t) x2(t) .

4) Differentiation : Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. The derivation of x(t)

d
w.r.t time is defined by y (t ) = x(t ) .
dt
Ex : Inductor performs Differentiation.

The voltage developed across inductor

d
L is V (t ) = L i (t )
dt

5) Integration : Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. The integral of x(t) w.r.t
t
time is defined by y (t ) = ∫ x(τ )dτ
−∞
τ = integration variable.

Ex : Capacitor performs integration.

i(t)

C
The voltage v(t) devoped across capacitor is defined by
t
1
v(t ) = ∫ i (τ )dτ .
C −∞
6) Time Scaling : Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. The signal y(t) is
obtained by scaling the independent variable time t by a factor a is defined by
y(t) = x(at).
If a > 1 the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t).
(or) 0 < a < 1 the signal y(t) is an expanded version of x(t).
x(t) y(t) = x(2t) y(t) =x(1/2 t)

1 1 1

-1 0 1 t -½ 0 ½ t -2 0 2
 7) Time Shifting

Let y(t) denote a continuous-time signal that is derived from another

continuous-time signal x(t) through Time Shifting .

y (t ) = x(t + 3)

x(t) y (t ) = x(t + 3)

1 1

-1 0 1 t -4 -3 -2 -1 0 t
(a) (b)

8) Precedence rule for time SHIFTING & time SCALING.

Let y(t) denote a continuous-time signal that is derived from another

continuous-time signal x(t) through a combination of time SHIFTING & time SCALING,

y (t ) = x(at − b)
⎛b⎞
(Verification y (0) = x(−b) , y ⎜ ⎟ = x(0) )
⎝a⎠
First perform time shifting operation on x(t),
[Let an intermediate signal be v(t)]
ie
v(t ) = x(t − b)
Next, the time scaling operation is performed on v(t),

y (t ) = v(at )
y (t ) = x(at − b)
x(t) v(t)=x(t+3) y(t)=v(2t)

1 1 1

-1 0 1 t -4 -3 -2 -1 0 t -2 -1 0 t

(a) (b) (c)

Elementary Signals :

(1) Real Exponential signal :- A Real Exponential signal in its general form is
x(t ) = Beat . where B & a are real parameters.

Decaying exponential for which a < 0 Growing exponential a > 0

x(t) x(t)

Be − at Beat

t t

A complex exponential signal in its general form x(t ) = Beat

where B & a assumes complex values.
jω t
Ex : complex exponential signals e (C.T.S),
e jΩn (D.T.S)

D.T.S x(n) = Br n r = eα

=B eα n

(2) Sinusoidal signal :

Its general form x(t ) = A cos(ωt + φ )

A = amplitude, ω = frequency in radians per second, φ = Phase angle in radians.

A sinusoidal signal is an example of a periodic signal. The period of which is

1 2π
ω = 2π f f = ∴T = .
T ω

Complex exponential signal :

General form is x(t) = est s is a complex variable s = σ + jΩ
(σ + jΩ ) t σ t jΩt
x(t ) = e = e
st
=e e

e jΩt = cos Ωt + j sin Ωt

x(t ) = eσ t (cos Ωt + j sin Ωt )

Depending the values of σ & Ω we get different signals

Relation between sinusoidal and complex exponential signals :

Consider the complex exponential signal e jφ

e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ
(or) e jωt = cos ωt + j sin ωt

From the above equation we can express the continuous time sinusoidal signal
i.e. A cos ( (ωt + φ ) as the real part of the complex exponential signal Be jωt . When B is a
complex quantity

Let B= A e jφ
jωt
∴A cos (ωt + φ ) = Real part of ( Be )
= Re { Be jωt }
Be jωt = Ae jφ e jωt = Ae j (ωt +φ ) )
= A cos (ωt + φ ) + j sin(ωt + φ )
A sin (ωt + φ ) = I m { Be jωt }

(3) Exponentially Damped sinusoidal signal :

The multiplication of a sinusoidal signal by a real valued decaying

exponential signal results in a new signal referred to as an exponentially Damped
sinusoidal signal.

x(t ) = Ae− at sin(ωt + φ ) a > 0.

x(t )

φ =0 a > 0.

(4) UNIT STEP – FUNCTION :

The discrete time version of the unit-step function commonly denoted by u(n),
is defined by
u ( n) = 1 n≥0

u ( n) = 0 n < 0.
The continuous-time version of the step function, commonly denoted by u(t)
is defined by
 u(t) = 1 t>0
1
u(t) = t=0
2
u(t) = 0 t<0 u(t)

1.0

0 t

P.13. Express x(t ) in terms of unit step signal.

T
x (t) = A 0≤ t <
2
T
=0 t >
2
Let T = 1 sec A
t < 0.5 is t < 0.5 t > 0.5
t > -0.5 t > 0.5
t < -0.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 t

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x (t) = A u ⎜ t + ⎟ − Au ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

x 1(t) x 2(t)

Rectangular pulse x (t) is represented as the difference between two time shifted
step functions.

x2(t) x1(t)

A A

-0.5 0.5

Unit Impulse function :

The discrete-time version of the impulse- commonly denoted by δ (n) is defined
by
δ ( n) = 1 n=0 δ (n) =1
= 0 n ≠0
0
The continuous-time version of the unit impulse, commonly denoted by δ (t ) is defined
by the following pair of relations.

δ (t ) = 0 t≠ 0
∞

∫ δ (t )dt = 1
−∞

The impulse δ (t ) is zero every where except at the origin. At the origin the total
area under the unit impulse is unity. The impulse δ (t ) is also referred to as the Direct
delta function.

x (t) x (t) x (t)

Area=1 Area=1 Area=1

x (t)

0 t
∴ x(t ) = δ (t )
∴δ (t ) is a limiting form of a rectangular pulse of unit area.
The step function u(t) is the integral of the impulse δ (t ) with respect to time t.

t
u (t ) =
−∞
∫ δ (λ ) d λ t≥0

=0 t<0

The impulse δ (t ) is the derivative of the step function u(t) with respect to time t.

∫ δ (t )dt = u (t )
−∞
d
δ (t ) = u (t ) = 0 t>0 (not defined for t = 0 in terms of u(t))
dt
t<0
Unit Ramp Function :

The integral of the step function u(t) is a ramp function of unit slope.

r(t) = t t≥0
=0 t<0
Which is defined as r(t)

Slope =1

5. FOURIER SERIES :

A motivation for using the Fourier Series or the Fourier Transform is to obtain the
spectrum of a given signal, from the spectrum we can estimate the frequency contents of
the signal.

The Fourier Series is used to resolve the periodic signal in to an infinite sum of
sine and cosine terms.

Periodic signal Ex:

x (t)

T t
-A

x (t) x (t)

A A

T 2T 3T t T 2T t

Periodic signals with period = T

Let gp(t) denote a periodic signal with period T0. By applying Fourier series

∞
g p (t ) = a 0 + 2∑ {an cos(nω0t ) + bn sin(ω0 nt} → (5.1)
n =1
 1
ω0 = 2π f 0 , ∴Fundamental frequency of gp(t)
f0 =
T0
an & bn are the coefficients of the cosine and sine terms.

The terms cos (nω0t ) & sin (nω0t ) are called BASIS Functions.

n = 1,2,3,………… ∞

a0 is the average value of gp(t).

n 1
is nth harmonic of the fundamental frequency, f 0 =
T0 T0

To determine the average value a0 of gp(t) Integrate equation (5.1) on both sides over the
−T T
interval 0 to 0
2 2

T0 T0 T0
2 2 2 ∞

∫ g p (t )dt = ∫ a0 dt + 2 ∫ ∑ {a n cos(nω0t ) + bn sin(nω0t )} dt

−T0 −T0 −T0 n =1
2 2 2

T0 T0
2 2
= ∫ a cos ω tdt + ∫ a
−T0
1 0
−T0
2 cos 2ω0tdt + ........
2 2

2π T0 4π T0
= a1 sin t * + a2 sin t * +.........
T0 2π T0 4π

T0 T
= a1 {sin π + sin π } + a2 0 {sin 2π + sin 2π } + ..........
2π 4π

T0 T
= a1 (0) + a2 0 (0) + .......... = 0
2π 4π

T0 T0
2 2
= ∫ b sin ω tdt + ∫ b sin ω tdt + ....
−T0
1 0
−T0
2 0

2 2

T0 ⎧ 2π ⎫ T ⎧ 4π ⎫
= −b1 ⎨cos t *⎬ − b2 0 ⎨cos t *⎬ + ......
2π ⎩ T0 ⎭ 4π ⎩ T0 ⎭
 T0 T
= −b1 {−1 + 1} − b2 0 {−1 + 1} + ...... = 0
2π 4π
T0
2
⎛T T ⎞
∴ ∫
−T0
g p (t )dt = a0t* = a0 ⎜ 0 + 0 ⎟ = a0T0
⎝2 2⎠
2

T0
2
1
∴ a0 =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )dt
2

Integration of cosine or sine function for a complete period is zero.

To determine an multiply both sides of equation (5.1) by cos(n ω0t ) and integrate over
−T T
the interval 0 to 0
2 2

T0

1 2
⎛ 2πη t ⎞
an =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) cos ⎜
⎝ 0 ⎠
T
⎟ dt n=1,2,…….. ∞
2

To determine bn multiply both sides of equation (5.1) by sin(n ω0t ) and integrate over the
−T T
interval 0 to 0
2 2

T0
2
1
bn = ∫ g p (t ) sin ( nω0t ) dt
T0 −T0
2

T0
2
1
∴ a0 =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )dt
2
T0
2
1
an =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) cos(nω0t )dt
2
 T0
2
1
bn =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) sin(nω0t )dt
2
To apply the Fourier Series the function gp(t) must satisfy the following conditions.

1) The function gp(t) should be single valued with in the interval T0.
2) The function gp(t) may have a finite number of discontinuities in the interval T0.
3) The function gp(t) may have a finite number of maxima & minima in the interval
T0.
4) The function gp(t) should be absolutely integrable.

T0
2
∴ ∫
−T0
g p (t ) dt < ∞
2
These conditions are known as DIRICHLET’s Conditons.

The above functions from an orthogonal set over the interval T0 in that they satisfy the
following set of relations.

These relations are used to evaluate an & bn

T0
2
T0
∫ cos(mω t )cos(nω t )dt =
−T0
0 0
2
m=n
2
T0
2

∫ cos(mω t )cos(nω t )dt = 0

−T0
0 0 m ≠n
2

T0
2

∫ cos(mω t ) sin(nω t )dt = 0

−T0
0 0 for all m and n.
2

T0
2
T0
∫ sin(mω t ) sin(nω t )dt =
−T0
0 0
2
m=n
2

T0
2

∫ sin(mω t ) sin(nω t )dt = 0

−T0
0 0 m ≠n
2
Symmetry Conditions :

i) If the function f(t) is even then f(t) = f(-t)

Ex :- cos(t), t2, t sin t (t= odd, sin(t ) = odd)

2 4 6
t t t
Cost = 1 − + + + ........
2 4 6

∞ ∞

∫
−∞
f (t )dt = 2∫ f (t )dt
0
if f(t) is even.

Only cosine terms present (d.c term optional).

The sum (or) product of two or more even functions is an even function.

ii) f(t) is odd f(t) = -f(-t).

Only sine terms are present (d.c term optional)

Ex : sin t, t3, t cos t .

∞
f(t) is odd ∫
−∞
f (t )dt = 0

The sum of two or more odd functions is an odd function and the product of two
odd functions is even function.

P.14 # Obtain the Fourier components of the periodic signal shown below.
f(t)

-T/2 -T/4 0 T/4 T/2 t

−T T
Periodicity = to = T .
2 2

f(t) = f(-t) ∴ odd component is zero.

a0 = 0, bn=0
 T
2
1
an =
T ∫
−T
f (t ) cos nωtdt
2
−T −T
f (t ) = − A <t <
2 4

−T −T
f (t ) = A <t <
4 4

T T
f (t ) = − A <t <
4 2

⎡ −T T T
⎤
A⎢ 4 4 2
⎥
an = ⎢ ∫ − cos nωtdt + ∫ cos nωtdt + ∫ − cos nωtdt ⎥
T −T
⎢⎣ 2 −T
4
T
4
⎥⎦

A ⎡ − sin nωt sin nωt − sin nωt ⎤

= ⎢ *+ *+ *⎥
T ⎣ nω nω nω ⎦

A ⎡ 2π T 2π T Tπ 2π T 2π T 2π T ⎤
= ⎢ − sin n . − sin n . + sin nω − sin n . − sin n + sin n
Tnω ⎣ T 2 T 2 4T T 4 T 2 T 4 ⎥⎦
(sin n π =0)

AT. ⎡ π⎤
=
T .n.2π ⎢⎣ − sin nπ + sin n 2 ⎥⎦

2. A nπ
an = sin
2.π .n 2

a0=0, bn=0

∞
f (t ) = a0 + 2∑ an (cos nω0t + bn sin ω0t )
n =1

∞
A ⎛ nπ ⎞
= 2∑ 2 cos nω0t sin ⎜ ⎟
n =1 2π n ⎝ 2 ⎠

A ∞
cos nω0t ⎛ nπ ⎞
=4
π
∑ n =1 n
sin ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟
P.15 # Obtain the Fourier components of the periodic rectangular wave form shown in
figure.

f(t)

-T/2 -T/4 0 T/4 T/2 t

−T −T
f (t ) = 0 <t <
2 4

−T T
f (t ) = A <t <
4 4

T T
f (t ) = 0 <t <
4 2

f (t) = f (-t) ∴ bn = 0

T T
2 4
1 1
a0 =
T ∫
−T
f (t )dt =
T −∫T
Adt
2 4
1 1 T A
= A* = A. =
T T 2 2
T
4
1 A sin nwt
an =
T ∫ A cos nωtdt = T
−T nω
*
4

A T ⎡ 2π T 2π T ⎤
an = ⎢⎣sin n T 4 + sin n T 4 ⎥⎦
T .n 2π

A ⎛ nπ ⎞
= sin ⎜ ⎟
nπ ⎝ 2 ⎠

A ∞
A⎛ nπ ⎞
∴ f (t ) = + 2∑ ⎜ sin cos nω0t ⎟
2 n =1 nπ ⎝ 2 ⎠
P.16 # Obtain the trigonometric Fourier Series for the Half Wave Rectified sine wave
shown in figure.
f (t)

0 T/2 T 3T/2 t

no symmetry ∴series may contain both sine & cosine terms.

f (t) = A sin ω t

1 2
A ⎡ − cos ωt ⎤
a0 = ∫
T 0
A sin ωtdt = ⎢
T⎣ ω
*⎥
⎦

A ⎡ 2π T ⎤ 2 A A
=− ⎢⎣ cos −1 = =
2π T 2 ⎥⎦ 2π π

A
an = (cos nπ + 1)
2π (1 − n 2 )

for n=1 the above equation is infinite and hence we have to integrate separately to
evaluate a1.

∴a1 = 0.

A
bn = 0, b1 =
4

A⎡ π 2 2 ⎤
f (t ) = ⎢1 + sin ω t − cos 2ω t − cos 4ω0t.....⎥
π⎣ 2 0
3
0
15 ⎦

⎛ T⎞
Note : if f ⎜ t + ⎟ = f (t ) only even harmonics are present .
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ T⎞
f ⎜ t + ⎟ = − f (t ) only odd harmonics are present and hence the waveform has
⎝ 2⎠
Half Wave Symmetry.
P.17 # Obtain the trigonometric Fourier Series of the triangular wave shown in figure.

t
-T -T/2 T/2 T 3T/2

-A

The waveform has equal Positive & Negative area in one cycle ∴a0 = 0

( y − y1 )( x2 − x1 ) = ( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 ) an = 0 odd function

T T
2 2
1 2
bn =
T ∫
−T
f (t ) sin nω0tdt =
T ∫0
f (t ) sin nω0tdt
2

T A
For the region 0 < t < f (t ) = 4 t
4 T

T T A
<t < f (t ) = −4 t + 2A
4 2 T

8A ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
f (t ) = 2 ⎢
sin ω0t − 2 sin 3ω0t + 2 sin 5ω0t + ....⎥ .
π ⎣ 3 5 ⎦
6. Complex Exponential form of Fourier Series :

The trigonometric form of the Fourier series is

∞
g p (t ) = a0 + 2∑ ( an cos nω0t + bn sin nω0t ) → (6. 1)
n =1

e jnω0t + e − jnω0t
cos nω0t =
2
jnω0t
e − e − jnω0t
sin nω0t =
2j

∴substituting in equation (6.1)

∞ ∞
⎧ e jnω0t − e − jnω0t ⎫
{
g p (t ) = a0 + 2∑ an e jnω0t + e − jnω0t + ∑ bn ⎨ } ⎬
n =1 n =1 ⎩ j ⎭

∞
{
= a0 + ∑ (an − jbn )e jnω0t + (an + jbn )e − jnω0t }
n =1

Let cn = an − jbn c-n is the complex conjugate of cn

T0
2
1
c− n = an + jbn an =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) cos nω0tdt
2
T0
2
1
c0 = a0 bn =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) cos nω0tdt
2

T0
2
1
∴ cn = ∫ g p (t ) {cos nω0t − j sin nω0t}dt
T0 −T0
2

T0
2
1
=
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )e − jnω0t dt
2
 T0
2
1
Similarly c− n =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )e jnω0t dt [ c− n = cn for negative values of n]
2

∞ +∞
∴ g p (t ) = c0 + ∑ cn e jnω0t + ∑ c− n e − jnω0t
n =1 n =+1

∞ −∞
= c0 + ∑ cn e jnω0t + ∑ cn e jnω0t
n =1 n =−1

∞
g p (t ) = ∑ce
n =−∞
n
jnω0t

Cn is complex Fourier coefficient.

T0
2
1
cn =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )e − jnω0t dt for n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3,……..∞
2

The complex exponential Fourier Series expansion of gp(t) is

∞
g p (t ) = ∑ce
n =−∞
n
jnω0t
→ (6.2)

In equation (6.1) only positive frequencies occur.

In equation (6.2) both positive & negative frequencies occur.

Advantage of equation (6.2) is over equation (6.1) is compact mathematical description

of the periodic signal.

Properties of Fourier Series :

(1) If gp(t) is real then

cn = c−* n c− n = complex conjugate of Cn

or cn* = c− n

T0
2
1
cn =
T0 −T0
∫ g p (t )e − jnω0t dt .
2
 T0
2
1
cn* =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )e jnω0t dt = c− n
2

(2) If gp(t) is real & even ie gp(t) = gp(-t)

Imaginary part of cn =0
∴ cn is purely real & even symmetry

(3) If gp(t) is odd gp(t) = -gp(-t)

Real part of cn =0
∴ cn is purely Imaginary & odd symmetry
Proof of (2) gp(t) = gp(-t) cn is purely real .

T0
2
1
cn =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )e − jnω0t dt
2

⎡0 T0
2
⎤
1⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ ∫ g p (t )e − jnω0t
dt + ∫ g p (t )e − jnω0t
dt ⎥
T0 −T0
⎢⎣ 2 0
⎥⎦

Put t = -t is the first integral term

⎡ T0 T0
⎤
1 ⎢2 2
⎥
= ⎢ ∫ g p (−t )e dt + ∫ g p (t )e
jnω0t − jnω0t
dt ⎥ gp(t) = gp(-t)
T0 0
⎢⎣ 0
⎥⎦

⎡ T0 ⎤
2 ⎢2 ⎥
cn = ⎢ ∫ g p (t ) cos nω0tdt ⎥ ∴ cn is purely real .
T0 0
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

Proof for (3) gp(t) = -gp(-t) cn is purely Imaginary .

⎡0 T0
2
⎤
1⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ ∫ g p (t )e − jnω0t
dt + ∫ g p (t )e − jnω0t
dt ⎥
T0 −T0
⎢⎣ 2 0
⎥⎦
 Put t = -t is the first integral term

T0 T0
2 2
1 1
=
T0 ∫g
0
p (−t )e jnω0t dt +
T0 ∫g
0
p (t )e − jnω0t dt -gp(t) = gp(-t)

⎡ T20 ⎤
1⎢ ⎥
= − ⎢ ∫ g p (t ) e
T0 0
jnω0t
−e(− jnω0t
dt ⎥ )
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

T0
2
2j
cn = −
T0 ∫g
0
p (t ) sin(nω0t )dt ∴ cn is purely Imaginary .

Spectrum of Signals :

Each harmonic in Fourier Series representation has someone amplitude.

∴A spectrum is drawn between amplitude and harmonic frequencies
We know that cn = c−* n
∴Their magnitudes are equal

cn = c− n
The frequency spectrum of real periodic signals is symmetric.
Phase is arg(cn ) = − arg(c− n )
Phase spectrum is anti symmetric.

P.18# Obtain the complex Fourier Series representation of the train of rectangular pulses
of duration T and period T0 as shown in figure.

gp(t)

-T0 -T/2 0 T/2 T0 t

−T −T
g p (t ) = A ≤t ≤
2 2
g p (t ) = 0 for remaining period over one period
 ∞
g p (t ) = ∑ce
n =−∞
n
jnω0t

T0 T
2 2
1 1
∫ g p (t )e − jnω0t dt = ∫ Ae
− jnω0t
cn = dt
T0 −T0 T0 −T
2 2

A ⎡ e − jnω0t ⎤ A T0 ⎡ − jnω0 T2 + jnω0 ⎤

T
= ⎢ *⎥ = − ⎢ e − e 2
⎥
T0 ⎣ − jnω0 ⎦ jT 0 n 2π ⎣ ⎦
⎡ jnω0 T2 − jnω0 ⎤
T
−e ⎥ = A sin ⎛ nω0T ⎞
2
A ⎢e
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ for n=0, ±1, ±2, ±3,……..
nπ ⎢ 2j ⎥ nπ ⎝ ⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

∞
A ⎛ nω0T ⎞ jnω0t
∴ g p (t ) = ∑ nπ sin ⎜⎝
n =−∞ 2
⎟e
⎠
complex Fourier Series

Sinc Function :

sin(πλ )
sinc (λ ) =
πλ

λ = Independent variable
It has maximum value at λ =0 and approaches to 0 as λ approaches to infinity. It goes
through zero at λ = ±1, ±2, ±3,……..
Sinc ( λ )

A ⎛ nω T ⎞ n 2π f 0T nT
cn = sin ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin = sin π
nπ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 T0

⎛ nT ⎞
sin ⎜ π ⎟
⎝ T0 ⎠ T0 AT0 ⎛ nT ⎞
=A . = sin c ⎜ ⎟
T T0 T0 ⎝ T0 ⎠
πn
T0
n
= nth harmonic of the fundamental frequency f0.
T0

AT0 ⎛ nT ⎞ T T0
cn = sin c ⎜ ⎟ Let = 0.2 (Duty cycle) =5
T0 ⎝ T0 ⎠ T0 T

ATp/T0

-10/T0 -5/T0 5/T0 10/T0 n/T0

n/T0

-π

Phase spectrum.

A ⎛ nπ T ⎞ ⎡ I .p ⎤ ⎡ sin 0 ⎤
cn = sin ⎜ ⎟ arg(cn ) = tan −1 ⎢ m ⎥ = tan −1 ⎢
nπ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎣ R.P ⎦ ⎣ cos 0 ⎥⎦

1 5
=0 cn > 0 to
T0 T0
⎛ nπ T ⎞ T0 ⎡ sin π ⎤ 5 10
sin ⎜ ⎟ > 0, = 5 arg(cn ) = tan −1 ⎢ = ±π cn < 0 to
⎝ T0 ⎠ T ⎣ cos π ⎥⎦ T0 T0

⎛ nπ ⎞ 1 5 1 5
T0 = 5T : sin ⎜ ⎟ > 0 true for to <m<
⎝ 5 ⎠ T0 T0 T0 T0

⎛ nπ ⎞ 5 10 5 10
sin ⎜ ⎟ < 0 true for to <n<
⎝ 5 ⎠ T0 T0 T0 T0
The above spectrum is Discrete spectrum. The spacing between two successive samples
1
is .
T0
The amplitude spectrum has zero values at frequencies that are integer multiplies of
1 ⎡1 2 3 ⎤
. , , ....
T ⎢⎣ T T T ⎥⎦
T0 1 1 5
= =5 ∴ =
T 0.2 T T0

P.19 # Find the exponential Fourier Series & plot the amplitude & phase spectrums for
the periodic waveform shown in figure.

x(t)

e-t

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 t

T0=0.5
T0
2
1
x(t ) = e − t cn =
T0 ∫
−T0
x(t )e − jnω0t dt
2

2π 2π 20
ω0 = 2π f 0 = = = π = 4π
T0 0.5 5
0.5 0.5
cn = 2 ∫ e − t e − jn 4π t dt = 2 ∫ e− (1+ j 4π n ) t dt
0 0

2
= e − (1+ j 4π n )t *
−(1 + j 4π n)

2
=
−(1 + j 4π n)
{e−(0.5+ j 2π n) − 1}
−2
=
(1 + j 4π n)
{e −0.5e − j 2π n − 1} e − j 2π n = 1

e-0.5=0.606
 (−2)(−0.393) 0.79
cn = =
1 + j 4π n 1 + j 4π n

1 1
cn = 0.79 = 0.79
1 + 16π 2 n 2 1 + (ω0 n) 2

arg(cn ) = − tan −1 (4π n)

P.20 # Find the exponential Fourier Series and find an & bn of the Trigonometric series
and compare the results.
f(t)

-T -T/2 0 T/2 T t

-A
−T
f (t ) = − A <t <0 Half wave symmetry
2
T
2
T 2
T ∫0
f (t ) = A 0<t < ∴ bn = f (t ) sin nω0tdt
2
T
2
1
cn =
T ∫
−T
f (t )e − jnω0t dt
2

⎡0 T
2
⎤
1⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ ∫ = (− A)e − jnω0t
dt + ∫ Ae − jnω0t
dt ⎥
T −T
⎢⎣ 2 0
⎥⎦

A⎡ e − jnω0t 1 ⎤
= ⎢(−1) ( − jnω0 ) * + ( − jnω0 )
e − jnω0t *⎥
T⎣ ⎦
=
A
− j 2π n
{ −e0 − e0 + e jnπ + e − jnπ } =
A
−2 jπ n
[ 2ω jnπ − 2]
cn = j
nπ
( e − 1)
A jnπ
e jnπ = 1 if ‘n’ is even

e+ jnπ = −1 if ‘n’ is odd

⎛ 2A ⎞
∴ cn = − j ⎜ ⎟ for ‘n’ is odd
⎝ nπ ⎠

∞
A
f (t ) = ∑ nπ c e
n =−∞
n
jnω0t

cn = an − jbn ∴ an = Re [cn ]
bn = − I m [cn ]
f(t) is Ant symmetrical about the cosine. f(t) is ODD

a0 = an =0
T
2
1
bn =
T ∫
−T
f (t ) sin nω0tdt
2
T
0 2
1
=
T ∫ (− A) sin nω tdt + ∫ A sin nω tdt
−T
0
0
0

A ⎡ − cos nω0t ⎤ A ⎡ − cos nω0t ⎤

=− ⎢ *⎥ + ⎢ *⎥
T ⎣ nω0 ⎦ T ⎣ nω 0 ⎦

⎡ T ⎤ ⎡ T ⎤
⎢ cos nω0 ⎥ ⎢ cos nω0
A 1
= ⎢ − 2* −A 2 − 1⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
T ⎢ nω0 nω0 ⎥ T ⎢ nω0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
A ⎡ T T⎤
= ⎢1 − cos nω0 + 1 − cos nω0 ⎥
nT ω0 ⎣ 2 2⎦
2A ⎡ 2π T ⎤ A
=
2π ⎣ ⎢1 − cos n . ⎥= [1 − cos nπ ]
nT T 2 ⎦ n π
T
cos nπ = 0 n = even
cos nπ = -1 n = odd

A 2A
bn = [1 + 1] = for n = odd.
nπ nπ
 |Cn|

0 4π 8π 12 π ω0

arg Cn

0 4π 8π 12 π ω0

P.21 # Determine the complex exponential Fourier Series of the signal shown below.
x(t)

0 2π 4π 6π ω0t
T0=Periodicity= 2 π ( y − y1 )( x2 − x1 ) = ( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 )

( x1 y1 ) ( x2 y2 ) ( y − 0)(2π − 0) = ( x − 0)(5 − 0)
(0 0) (2 π ,5) 2 π y=5x x= ω0t
y=x(t)
5
2 π x(t) = 5 ω0t ∴ x(t ) = ω0t
2π
2π
1 ⎛ 5 ⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ 2π ⎟⎠ ω te
− jnω0t
cn = d ω0 t .
2π
0
0

5 ⎡ e − jnω0t ⎤ 5
2 (
= ⎢ − jnω0t − 1) *⎥ = j
( 2π ) ⎣ (− jn) 2π n
2
⎦
7. FOURIER TRANSFORM

A periodic signal may be expressed as a sum of spectral components by using

Fourier series. These components have finite amplitudes and represented by finite
1
frequency intervals f 0 =
T0

To represent a signal g(t) i.e. non periodic in terms of exponential signals. First
construct a periodic function g p (t ) of period T0 in such a way that g(t) defines one cycle
of the periodic function
g (t ) = lim g p (t )
T0 →∞

g(t)

0 t
gp(t)

-T0 0 T0 t
The periodic function g p (t ) in terms of the complex exponential form of the Fourier
series
∞
g p (t ) = ∑ce
n =−∞
n
jnω0 t
→ (7.1)

T0
2
1
cn =
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t )e − jnω0t d ω0tdt → (7.2)
2

1 n
Define Δf = , fn = G ( f n ) = cnT0
T0 T0
∞
g p (t ) = ∑ G( f
n =−∞
n )e j 2π fnt .Δf → (7.3)
T0
2
G( fn ) =
−T0
∫ g p (t )e − j 2π fnt dt → (7.4)
2
Let the period T0 approaches infinity, the discrete frequency fn approaches the continuous
frequency variable f, and the discrete sum in equation (7.3) becomes an integral defining
the area under a continuous function of frequency f, the function g p (t ) approaches g(t).

∫ G( f )e
j 2π ft
g (t ) = df → (7.5)
−∞
∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt → (7.6)
−∞

The function G(f) is a Transformed version of g(t) and is referred to as the Fourier
transform of g(t). The time function g(t) is similarly referred to as the Inverse Fourier
Transform of G(f). The functions g(t)and G(f) are said to constitute a Fourier Transform
pair.

g (t ) ⇔ G ( f )

A signal g(t) to be Fourier Transformable for that g(t) must satisfy the following
conditions.
1) The function g(t) should be a single valued, with a finite number of maxima & minima
and a finite number of discontinuities in any finite time interval.
2) The function g(t) is absolutely integrable.

∫
−∞
g (t ) dt < ∞

F [ g (t ) ] = G ( f )

F [G ( f ) ] = g (t ) .

g(t) is real G(f) = G*(-f).

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt
−∞
∞

∫ g (t )e
j 2π ft
G* ( f ) = dt
−∞
∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
Replace f = -f G* (− f ) = dt
−∞

G ( f ) = G (− f )

Arg {G ( f )} = − Arg {G (− f )}
Amplitude spectrum of real valued signal g(t) is even function of frequency & phase
spectrum of real valued signal g(t) is even function of frequency.
∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt .
−∞
∞
G (ω ) = ∫ g (t )e
− jωt
Or dt .
−∞
∞

∫ G( f )e
j 2π ft
g (t ) = df .
−∞
∞
1
∫ G(ω )e
jωt
Or g (t ) = dω
2π −∞

Let g(t) is a Real Valued signal then its Fourier Transform satisfies Complex-Conjugate
symmetry

is G ( f ) = G * (− f )
G * ( f ) = G (− f ) .
∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt → (7.7)
−∞
∞ ∞
GR ( f ) + jGI ( f ) = ∫
−∞
g (t ) cos 2π ftdt − j ∫ g (t ) sin 2π ftdt
−∞
→ (7.8)
∞

∫ g (t )e
j 2π ft
G (− f ) = dt
−∞
∞ ∞
GR (− f ) + jGI (− f ) = ∫ g (t ) cos 2π ftdt + j ∫ g (t ) sin 2π ftdt
−∞ −∞
→ (7.9)
∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G* (− f ) = dt → (7.10)
−∞
∴7.7 = 7.10

Comparing (7.8) & (7.9) GR ( f ) = GR (− f )

Real component is even function

GI ( f ) = −GI (− f )
Imaginary component is ODD function.

Magnitude spectrum is even function :

 G ( f ) = G (− f )
G ( f ) = G ( f )G * ( f ) = G* (− f )G (− f ) = G (− f ) .
Phase spectrum is ODD function:
⎡G ( f )⎤ −1 ⎡ −GI ( − f ) ⎤ −1 ⎡ GI ( − f ) ⎤
ArgG ( f ) = tan −1 ⎢ I ⎥ = tan ⎢ ⎥ = − tan ⎢ ⎥
⎣ GR ( f ) ⎦ ⎣ GR (− f ) ⎦ ⎣ GR (− f ) ⎦
P.22 # Find the Fourier Transform of Rectangular pulse shown in figure and draw the
Amplitude spectrum.

g(t)

-T/2 0 T/2 t
(a)

Consider a rectangular pulse of unit Amplitude and unit duration centered at t = 0. Its
mathematical form is
g(t)

-1/2 0 1/2 t

1 1
rect (t) = 1 − <t <
2 2

1
rect (t) = 0 t >
2

∴ g(t) = rect (t)

⎛t⎞
For fig (a) g(t) = A rect ⎜ ⎟
⎝T ⎠

T T
2
e − j 2π ft 2

∫ Ae
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt = A
−T − j 2π f −T
2 2

A ⎡ − j 2π f T2 + j 2π f ⎤
T
A ⎡ e jπ fT − e − jπ fT ⎤
= ⎢ e − e 2
⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
− j 2π f ⎣ ⎦ πf ⎣ 2j ⎦
 A sin(π fT )
= sin(π fT ) = AT = AT sin c( fT )
πf π f .T
⎛t⎞
∴A rect ⎜ ⎟ ⇔ AT sin c( fT ) .
⎝T ⎠
G ( f ) = AT sin c( fT )

G( f )

AT

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
0 f
T T T T T T T T T T

The above spectrum is Continuous spectrum.

The above example shows that the relation ship between the time domain & frequency
domain description of a signal.

A pulse narrow in time has a significant frequency description over a wide range of
frequencies and vice versa.
G( f )

-3/T -2/T -1/T

0 1/T 2/T 3/T f
-π

Phase Response G ( f ) = 0 G( f ) > 0

G ( f ) = ±π G( f ) < 0

A
G( f ) = sin(π fT ) = AT sin c( fT )
πf
If G(f) is positive then its phase is zero, if G(f) is negative then its phase is 1800 or -1800.
Choose phase as + π for positive frequencies - π for negative frequencies or vice versa.
Properties of the Fourier Transforms :
(1) Linearity :

g1 (t ) ⇔ G1 ( f ) , g 2 (t ) ⇔ G2 ( f )
ag1 (t ) + bg 2 (t ) ⇔ aG1 ( f ) + bG2 ( f )
∞
F [ ag1 (t ) + bg 2 (t )] = ∫ {ag (t ) + bg (t )}e
1 2
− j 2π ft
dt
−∞

= aG1 ( f ) + bG2 ( f )
P.23# Find the Fourier Transform of the decaying exponential as shown in figure.
g(t)

g (t ) = e − at u (t )
∞

∫e u (t )e − j 2π ft dt .
− at
G( f ) =
−∞
∞ ∞
e − ( a + j 2π f ) t 1
= ∫e − ( a + j 2π f ) t
dt = =
0
−(a + j 2π f ) 0 a + j 2π f
1
e − at u (t ) ⇔
a + j 2π f

1 ⎡ 2π f ⎤ −1 ⎡ ω ⎤
G( f ) = A rg[G ( f )] = −tan −1 ⎢ ⎥⎦ = tan ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦
a 2 + (2π f ) 2 ⎣ a

|G(f)| G( f )

π
2

-ω 2a ω

-ω -2a 0 2a ω −π
2

Amplitude spectrum Phase spectrum

Note : a > 0 then only g(t) is Fourier Transformable.
P.24# Find the Fourier Transform of the Raising exponential pulse shown in figure.
g(t)

-t -1/a 0

g (t ) = e at u (−t )
a > 0
if a < 0 ? then only g(t) is Fourier Transformable

∞
F [ g (t ) ] = G ( f ) = ∫e
at
u (−t )e − j 2π ft dt .
−∞
0 0

∫e ∫e
at − j 2π ft t ( a − j 2π f )
= e dt = dt
−∞ −∞
0
1 1 1
= e ( a − j 2π f ) = ⎡⎣1 − e −∞ ⎤⎦ =
a − j 2π f −∞
a − j 2π f a − j 2π f

1 2π f
G( f ) = phase = tan −1
a + (2π f )
2 2 a

1/a π Phase
2

-π
2
Amplitude spectrum Phase spectrum
P.25# With the help of Linearity property obtain the Fourier Transform of double
exponential pulse as shown in fig.
g(t)
− at
g (t ) = e t > 0 1
g (t ) = 1 t = 0
g (t ) = e at
t < 0
-t -1/a 1/a t
∞
F [ g (t ) ] = G ( f ) = ∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
dt
−∞
0 0+ ∞
=
−∞
∫ e at e − j 2π ft dt + ∫ 1.e − j 2π ft dt + ∫ e − at e − j 2π ft dt
0− 0+
0−
e − j 2π ft
= ⎡⎣ e0+ − e0− ⎤⎦ = 0 .
− j 2π f 0+

1 1 2a
∴G( f ) = + = 2 .
a − j 2π f a + j 2π f a + (2π f ) 2

Note : g (t ) = e − a t t = t, t > 0 t = −t , t < 0

g (t ) = e at t < 0 |G(f)|
g (t ) = e − at t ≥ 0

2a
∴ e− a t ⇔
a + (2π f ) 2
2

-f 0 f

P.25# Obtain the Fourier Transform of the anti symmetric exponential pulse as shown
in figure. g(t)
1

-1/a
-t 1/a t

g (t ) = e − at t > 0
g (t ) = 1 t = 0 -1
g (t ) = −e at t < 0
0− 0+ ∞

∫ −e ∫ 1e dt + ∫ e at e − j 2π ft dt
at − j 2π ft − j 2π ft
G( f ) = e dt +
−∞ 0− 0+

1 1 − j 4π f
=− +0+ = 2 .
a − j 2π f a + j 2π f a + (2π f ) 2

(2) Time Scaling Property :

g (t ) ⇔ G ( f )
1 ⎛ f ⎞
Then g (at ) ⇔ G ⎜ ⎟ a=constant (a>0)
a ⎝a⎠
Case (i) a > 0

∞
F [ g (at ) ] = ∫ g (at )e
− j 2π ft
dt
−∞
λ
Let λ = at t= d λ = adt
a
∞ f
1 − j 2π λ
= ∫
a −∞
g ( λ ) e a
dλ

1 ⎡f⎤
= G
a ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦

∞
Case (ii) a < 0 F [ g (−at )] = ∫ g (−at )e
− j 2π ft
dt
−∞
λ = − at

−λ
d λ = − adt t= Limits + ∞ to - ∞
a

−∞ ⎛−f ⎞
⎛ −1 ⎞ − j 2π t ⎜ ⎟
F [ g (− at )] = ⎜ ⎟ ∫ g ( λ ) e ⎝ a ⎠
dλ
⎝ a ⎠ +∞
∞ ⎛−f ⎞
1 − j 2π t ⎜ ⎟
= ∫ g (λ ) e ⎝ a ⎠
dλ
a −∞
 1 ⎡− f ⎤
F [ g (−at ) ] =G
a ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦
1 ⎡f⎤
F [ g (at ) ] = G ⎢ ⎥
a ⎣a⎦
1 ⎡f⎤
∴ g (at ) ⇔ G ⎢ ⎥
a ⎣a⎦

This property states that the compression of a function g(t) in the time domain is
equivalent to its Fourier Transform G(f) in the frequency domain by the same factor or
vice versa.

P.26 #Find the Fourier Transform of e −0.5t u (t ) using scaling property.

1
Let g (t ) = e − t u (t ) g (t ) ⇔
1 + j 2π f
1 ⎡f⎤ 1 1
g (at ) = G g (at ) ⇔ .
a ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦ 1 + j 2π
f a
a

1
∴ F [ g (at ) ] = F ⎡⎣e −0.5t u (t ) ⎤⎦ =
0.5 + j 2π f

(3) Duality property :

if F [ g (t ) ] = G ( f ) then

F [G (t ) ] = g (− f )
∞

∫ G( f )e
j 2π ft
g (t ) = df
−∞

replace t = -t

∫ G( f )e
− j 2π ft
g (−t ) = df
−∞
Interchange t & f
 ∞
g (− f ) = ∫ G(t )e
− j 2π ft
dt = F [G (t )]
−∞
∴ G (t ) ⇔ g (− f )

P.26 # Consider a signal g(t) in the form of a sine function is g(t) = A sinc(2 ω t) find
the Fourier Transform using duality & Time scaling properties.

⎛t⎞
We know that A rect ⎜ ⎟ ⇔ AT sin c( fT ) .
⎝T ⎠

A AT

⇔
−T T
0 t
2 2
-1/T 0 1/T f

g(t) = A sinc(2 ω t)
g(t) G(f)
A A/2 ω

⇔
-ω 0 ω f
-1/ ω 1/ ω t

rect (t ) ⇔ sin c( f ) (rect (f) = rect (-f)) even function

Arect (t ) ⇔ A sin c( f )
sin c(t ) ⇔ rect ( f )
⎛t⎞
Arect ⎜ ⎟ ⇔ AT sin c( fT ) A sin c(t ) ⇔ Arect ( f )
⎝T ⎠
Scaling
⎛f ⎞
AT sin c(tT ) ⇔ Arect ⎜ ⎟
⎝T ⎠
A ⎛ f ⎞
∴ A sin c(2ωt ) ⇔ rect ⎜ ⎟ Duality.
2ω ⎝ 2ω ⎠

(4) Time Shifting property :

F [ g (t ) ] = G ( f )
F [ g (t − t0 ) ] = G ( f )e − j 2π ft0
 ∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
F [ g (t )] = dt
−∞
∞

∫ g (t − t )e
− j 2π ft
F [ g (t − t0 )] = 0 dt
−∞
Let λ = t − t0 t = λ + t0 d λ = dt

∞ ∞

∫ g (λ )e − j 2π f ( λ +t0 ) d λ = ∫ g (λ )e
− j 2π f λ − j 2π ft0
= e dλ
−∞ −∞

= G ( f )e − j 2π ft0
This property states that a time shift to has no change on the amplitude spectrum but then
is a phase shift of -2 π ft0.

F [ g (t + t0 ) ] = G ( f )e j 2π ft0
P.27 #Find the Fourier Transform of Rectangular pulse (a) and then applying Time
shifting property find the Fourier transform of (b) & (c)

g(t)

−T T
0 t G(f) = AT sinc(fT)
2 2
(a)

g(t)

A
T
− j 2π f
G ( f ) = AT sin c( fT )e 2

0 T t = AT sin c( fT )e − jπ fT
(b)

g(t)

A
T
j 2π f
G ( f ) = AT sin c( fT )e 2

-T 0 t = AT sin c( fT )e jπ fT .
(c)
(5) Frequency Shifting :

g (t ) ⇔ G ( f )

F ⎡⎣ e j 2π fct g (t ) ⎤⎦ = G ( f − f c ) f c is a real constant.

∞

∫ g (t )e
j 2π f c t − j 2π t ( f − f c )
F ⎡⎣ e g (t ) ⎤⎦ = dt .
−∞

= G( f − fc )

Multiplication of a function g(t) by the factor e j 2π fct is equivalent to shifting its Fourier
Transform G(f) in the positive direction by amount fc.

This property is called modulation theorem or frequency translation theorem.

P.28 #Obtain the Fourier Transform and amplitude spectrum of the RF pulse shown in
fig.

⎛t⎞
g (t ) = A cos(2π f c t )rect ⎜ ⎟ g(t)
⎝T ⎠
A
j 2π f c t − j 2π f c t
e +e
cos 2π f c t = t
2

⎛t⎞
A
rect ⎜ ⎟ e j 2π fct + e − j 2π fct
g (t ) =
2 ⎝T ⎠
( ) 1/fc

⎡A ⎛ t ⎞ ⎤ AT
F ⎢ rect ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = sin c( fT )
⎣2 ⎝ T ⎠⎦ 2

AT
F [ g (t ) ] = [sin c{( f − fc )T } + sin c{( f + fc )T }]
2

AT/2

-fc fc

(a)
 π

-fc fc

-π

(b)

(a) Amplitude modulation (b) Phase modulation

P.29 #Find the Fourier transform of exponentially Damped sinusoidal signal.

1
e-t
g (t ) = e −t sin(2π f c t )u (t )

1
F.T ⎡⎣ e − t u (t ) ⎤⎦ = 0 t
1 + j 2π f

1 j 2 π f c t − j 2π f c t
sin(2π f c t ) =
2j
e ( −e ) -1

1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
F .T .[ g (t ) ] = ⎢ − ⎥
2 j ⎣1 + j 2π ( f − f c ) 1 + j 2π ( f + f c ) ⎦

1 ⎡1 + j 2π f + j 2π f c − 1 − j 2π f + j 2π f c ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
(1 + j 2π f ) + ( 2π fc )
2 2
2 j ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥

2π f c
= .
(1 + j 2π f ) + ( 2π fc )
2 2

(6) Area under g(t) :

if F [ g (t ) ] = G ( f )
∞
then ∫ g (t )dt = G (0)
−∞
The Area under a function g(t) is equal the value of its Fourier Transform G(f) at f = 0.
 ∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt
−∞
∞
at f = 0 G (0) = ∫ g (t )dt
−∞

P.30 # Find area of g (t ) = sin c(t )

⎛t ⎞
A rect ⎜ ⎟ ⇔ AT sin c( fT )
⎝T ⎠

rect (t ) ⇔ sin c( f )
rect (f)

Duality
−1 1
sin c(t ) ⇔ rect ( f ). f
2 2

G ( f ) = rect ( f )
G (0) = 1

A
P.31 # if g (t ) = sin c(2ωt ) find G (0)
2ω
A ⎛ f ⎞
A sin c(2ωt ) ⇔ rect ⎜ ⎟
2ω ⎝ 2ω ⎠
A/2 ω
A ⎛ f ⎞
G( f ) = rect ⎜ ⎟
2ω ⎝ 2ω ⎠
-ω ω f
A
G (0) =
2ω
(7) Area under G(f):

if F [ g (t )] = G ( f )
∞
g (0) = ∫ G( f )df .
−∞
The area under a function G(f) is equal to the value of its inverse F.T g(t) at t = 0

∫ G ( f )e
j 2π ft
g (t ) = df
−∞
∞
at t = 0 g (0) =
−∞
∫ G( f )df .
P.32 # Find Area under sinc(f)

G ( f ) = sin c( f ) sin c( f ) ⇔ rect (t ) .

g ( f ) ⇔ rect (t )

∴ g (0) = 1

(8) Differentiation in the time domain

g (t ) ⇔ G ( f ) Assume that the first derivative of g(t) is Fourier transformable

then

⎡d ⎤
F ⎢ g (t ) ⎥ = j 2π fG ( f )
⎣ dt ⎦
∞
d d
dt
g (t ) = ∫
dt −∞
G ( f )e j 2π ft df .

∞
d
∫ G( f )df dt e
j 2π ft
=
−∞
∞

∫ G( f )e df .( j 2π f )
j 2π ft
=
−∞
d
g (t ) = F −1 [ j 2π fG ( f ) ]
dt
⎡d ⎤
F ⎢ g (t ) ⎥ = j 2π fG ( f )
⎣ dt ⎦

∴ Differentiation of a time function g(t) has the effect of multiplying its Fourier
transform G(f) by the factor j 2π f .

Similarly, the result can be extended to the nth derivative

 dn
n
g (t ) ⇔ ( j 2π f ) n G ( f ) .
dt

(9) Differentiation in the frequency domain:

g (t ) ⇔ G ( f )

d
− j 2π tg (t ) ⇔ G( f )
df
∞
d d
∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G( f ) = dt
df df −∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft
= dt (− j 2π t )
−∞

d
G ( f ) = F [ − j 2π tg (t ) ]
df

dn
For higher derivative (− j 2π t ) n g (t ) ⇔
G( f ) .
df n
∴ The differentiation on the frequency domain is equal to the multiplication of g(t) by
(− j 2π t ) in the time domain.

(10) Integration in the time domain :

∞
g (t ) ⇔ G ( f ) then provided G(0) = 0 = ∫ g (t )dt = 0 = G (0)
−∞
t
1
We have
−∞
∫ g (λ ) d λ ⇔
j 2π f
G( f ) .

Integration of a time function g(t) has the effect of dividing its F.T. G(f) by the factor
j 2π f assuming G(0) is zero.

t
Let ∫ g (λ ) d λ = φ (λ )
−∞
Taking differentiation on both sides
d ⎡ ⎤
t
d
g (λ ) = φ (λ ) = ⎢ ∫ g (λ ) d λ ⎥
dλ d λ ⎣ −∞ ⎦
 ⎡ d t ⎤ ⎡t ⎤
F [ g (λ )] = F ⎢ ∫
⎣ d λ −∞
g ( λ ) d λ ⎥
⎦
= j 2π fF ⎢ ∫ g (λ ) d λ ⎥
⎣ −∞ ⎦

⎡t ⎤
G ( f ) = j 2π fF ⎢ ∫ g (λ )d λ ⎥
⎣ −∞ ⎦

t
1
∫ g (λ )d λ ⇔ G( f ). j 2π f .
−∞

If G(0) is non zero then the definite integral of g(t) has a Fourier Transform that includes
a dirac delta function or impulse δ ( f ) at the origin.

t
1 G (0)
∫ g (λ ) d λ ⇔
−∞
j 2π f
G( f ) +
2
δ( f ).

(11) Conjugate factors :

If g (t ) ⇔ G ( f ) then for a complex valued time function g(t) we have

g * (t ) ⇔ G* (− f ) .

* denotes the complex conjugate operation.

∞

∫ G( f )e
j 2π ft
g (t ) = df .
−∞

Taking complex conjugate on both sides

∫ G ( f )e
− j 2π ft
g * (t ) = *
df .
−∞
Replace f = -f

−∞ ∞
g * (t ) = − ∫ G * (− f )e j 2π ft df = ∫ G (− f )e
* j 2π ft
df .
∞ −∞

= F −1 ⎡⎣G* (− f ) ⎤⎦

∴ g * (t ) ⇔ G* (− f ) .
(12) Multiplication in the time domain

Let g1 (t ) ⇔ G1 ( f )
 g 2 (t ) ⇔ G2 ( f )

∞
g1 (t ) g 2 (t ) ⇔
−∞
∫ G (λ )G ( f − λ )d λ
1 2

g1 (t ) g 2 (t ) ⇔ G12 ( f ) or G1 ( f ) * G2 ( f )

∫ g (t ) g (t )e
− j 2π ft
G12 ( f ) = 1 2 dt
−∞
Substitute the inverse F.T of g2(t) in the above equation

∫ G (f
1
g 2 (t ) = 2
1
)e j 2π f t df 1
−∞

∞ ∞

∫∫
1
G12 ( f ) = g1 (t )G2 ( f 1 )e − j 2π ft e j 2π f t dtdf 1
−∞ −∞

∞ ∞

∫ ∫ g (t )G ( f
1
= 1 2
1
)e − j 2π t ( f − f ) df 1dt .
−∞ −∞

or inner integration in w.r.to df1

λ = f − f1 d λ = − df 1 f appears as constant

Limits + ∞ to - ∞ and –ve sign = - ∞ to + ∞ & +ve sign

∞ ∞

∫ ∫ g (t )G ( f − λ )e
− j 2π t λ
= 1 2 d λ dt
−∞ −∞

∞ ∞

∫ G2 ( f − λ )d λ ∫ g1 (t )e dt
− j 2π t λ
=
−∞ −∞

∞
G12 ( f ) = ∫ G ( f − λ )G (λ )d λ.
−∞
2 1

The above integral is known as the Convolution integral expressed in the frequency
domain, and the function G12 ( f ) is referred to as the convolution of G1 ( f ) & G2 ( f ) .
∴ The multiplication of two signals in the time domain is transformed into the
Convolution of their individual Fourier Transforms in the frequency domain.
 G12 ( f ) = G1 ( f ) * G2 ( f )

Convolution is a Commutative

G12 ( f ) = G21 ( f ) .

(13) Convolution in the time domain :

Let g1 (t ) ⇔ G1 ( f ) and g 2 (t ) ⇔ G2 ( f )
∞

∫ g (λ )g (t − λ )d λ ⇔ G ( f )G ( f ) .
−∞
1 2 1 2

∞
F −1 [G1 ( f )G2 ( f ) ] = ∫ G ( f )G ( f )e
1 2
j 2π ft
df
−∞
∞

∫ g (t )e
− j 2π ft1
G2 ( f ) = 2
1
dt1 . or let t1 = τ
−∞

∞ ∞

∫ ∫ G (t ) g (t )e
− j 2π ft1
= 1 2
1
e j 2π ft dt1df .
−∞ −∞

∞ ∞

∫ ∫ g (t )e
j 2π f ( t − t1 )
= 2
1
G1 ( f )dt1df
−∞ −∞

Let λ = t − t1 d λ = −dt1 + ∞ to - ∞

∞ ∞

∫ ∫ g (t − λ )e
j 2π f λ
= 2 G1 ( f )d λ df
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞
= ∫
−∞
g 2 (t − λ )d λ ∫ G1 ( f )e j 2π f λ df .
−∞

∞
= ∫ g (λ ) g (t − λ )d λ
−∞
1 2

∴ F [ g1 (t ) * g 2 (t ) ] = G1 ( f ).G2 ( f )

This property states that the Convolution of two signals in the time domain is transformed
into the multiplication of their individual Fourier Transforms in the frequency domain.
This property is known as the Convolution theorem.
Convolution is commutative operation.
 ∞
g1 (t ) * g 2 (t ) = ∫ g (λ ) g (t − λ )d λ
−∞
1 2

Let t − λ = x λ =t−x d λ = −dx + ∞ to - ∞

∞
= ∫ g (t − x) g ( x)dx
−∞
1 2

= g 2 (t ) * g1 (t ).
∞ ∞
= ∫
−∞
g1 (λ ) g 2 (t − λ )d λ = ∫ g (t − λ ) g (λ )d λ.
−∞
1 2

Dirac Delta function (or) Unit impulse :

δ (t ) = 0 t ≠0
∞

∫ δ (t )dt = 1
−∞

Properties of δ (t ) :

(1) The product of δ (t ) and any time function g(t) that is continuous at t = 0
∞

∫ δ (t ) g (t )dt = g (0)
−∞
∞
(2) ∫ δ (t − t ) g (t )dt = g (t )
−∞
0 0

(3) The Convolution of any function with the delta function leaves that function
unchanged.

δ (t ) * g (t ) = g (t )
∞

∫ δ (t − λ ) g (λ )d λ = G ( f ).G ( f )
−∞
1 2

∞
G1 ( f ) = F .T .[δ (t )] = ∫ δ (t )e
− j 2π ft
dt = 1
−∞

G2 ( f ) = F .T .[ g (t ) ] = G2 ( f )
G1 ( f )G2 ( f ) = 1.G2 ( f ) = G2 ( f )
∴ F −1 [G2 ( f ) ] = g (t ) δ (t ) ⇔ 1
∞
∴ ∫ δ (t − λ ) g (λ )d λ = g (t )
−∞
 g(t) G(f)

0 t -f 0 f

The spectrum of the delta function δ (t ) extends uniformly over the entire frequency
interval from - ∞ to ∞ .

1 ⎛f ⎞
(4) F [δ (at ) ] = G⎜ ⎟ G ( f ) = F .T [δ ( f ) ]
a ⎝a⎠
=1
⎛ f ⎞
G⎜ ⎟ =1
⎝a⎠
1
∴=
a

P.33 # Find the Fourier Transform of the d.c. signal.

g(t)
g (t ) ⇔ G ( f ) 1.0
G (t ) ⇔ g (− f )
δ (t ) ⇔ 1 0 t
1 ⇔ δ (− f ) or 1⇔ δ( f ) G(f)
^

0 f
∴ A dc signal is transformed in the frequency domain into a delta function
δ ( f ) occurring at zero frequency.

P.34 # Fourier Transform of Complex exponential signal : e j 2π fct

1⇔ δ( f )
1.e j 2π fct ⇔ δ ( f − f c )
fc f
Similarly F .T [δ (t − t0 )] = 1.e − j 2π ft0

P.35 # Find the Fourier Transform of cos 2π f c t

1 j 2 π f c t − j 2π f c t
cos 2π f c t = ⎡e +e ⎤⎦
2⎣
 F .T ⎡⎣e j 2π fct ⎤⎦ = δ ( f − f c ) G(f)
1
∴ cos 2π f c t ⇔ [δ ( f − fc ) + δ ( f + fc )] 1/2
2

-fc 0 fc f

Spectrum

G(f)
P.36 # g (t ) = sin 2π f c t
1/2
1 j 2π f c t − j 2 π f c t
= ⎡e −e ⎤⎦ -fc fc f
2j ⎣
1
sin 2π f c t = [δ ( f − f c ) − δ ( f + f c ) ] -1/2
2j
1
G ( f ) = [δ ( f − f c ) − δ ( f + f c ) ]
2

Unit Step Function :

u(t) = 1 t>0 g(t)

u(t) = 0 t<0 1

∫ δ (λ )d λ = u(t )
−∞
0 t

t
1 G (0)
We know that ∫ g (λ ) d λ ⇔
−∞
j 2π f
G( f ) +
2
δ( f ).

Where G(f) : F.T [ g (λ ) ]

⎡t ⎤ 1 δ(f )
∴ F .T ⎢ ∫ δ (λ )d λ ⎥ = + G(f) = F.T[ δ (t )
⎣ −∞ ⎦ j 2π f 2
=1
G(0)=1
 |G(f)|

0 f
Amplitude Spectrum.

Signum function: The signum function denoted by Sgn(t) is defined as follows.

g(t)=Sgn(t)
Sgn(t) = 1 t>0 1.0

Sgn(t) = 0 t=0
0 t
Sgn(t) = -1 t<0
-1.0

The signum function in terms of unit step function

Sgn (t) = 2 u(t)-1 u(t)=1 t>0

=½ t=0
=0 t<0

F [ Sgn(t )] = F .T [2u (t ) − 1]
|G(f)|
2 δ( f ) 1
= + .2 − δ ( f ) =
j 2π f 2 jπ f
-f f
1
Sgn(t ) ⇔
jπ f

1
Duality : ⇔ Sgn(− f ) .
jπ t

Sgn(t ) = − Sgn(−t )

Multiplying with ‘j ‘ on both sides

1
∴ ⇔ − jSgn( f ) Sgn(f) = 1 f > 0
πt
Sgn(f) = 0 f = 0

Sgn(f) = -1 f < 0.
 g (t ) * δ (t ) = g (t )
g (t ) * δ (t − t0 ) = g (t − t0 )
G1 ( f ) = F [ g (t )] : G2 ( f ) = F [δ (t − t0 ) ] λ = t − t0
∞
= ∫ δ (t − t0 )e − j 2π ft dt . t = λ + t0
−∞
∞
= ∫ δ (λ )e − j 2π f λ d λ e − j 2π ft0
−∞

= e − j 2π ft0
G1 ( f )G2 ( f ) = G1 ( f )e − j 2π ft0

= F −1[G1 ( f )e − j 2π ft0 ] = g (t − t0 )

P.37 # Evaluate the following expressions with g (t ) = (t − 3) 2

∞
(a) ∫ g (t )δ (t + 4)dt = g (−4)
−∞

∴= (−4 − 3) 2 = 49
(b) g (t ) * δ (t + 4) = g (t + 4)
= (t + 4 − 3) 2 = (t + 1) 2
⎛ −t ⎞
(c) g (t ) * δ ⎜ ⎟ = ?
⎝ 4⎠
1 1
F .T [δ (at ) ] = .1 =
a a
⎡ ⎛ −t ⎞ ⎤ 1
∴ F ⎢δ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = =4
⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎦ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠
F [ g (t )] = G ( f )
F −1[G ( f ).4] = 4.g (t )
= 4(t − 3) 2 .
P.38 # A function of time g(t) has the following Fourier Transform

−2ω 2
1
G (ω ) = 2
2
e ω +1
ω +1

Using the properties of the F.T. Write the Fourier Transforms of

(a) g(2t).
1 ⎛ω ⎞
Using the Scaling property g (at ) ⇔ G⎜ ⎟
a ⎝a⎠
1 ⎛ω ⎞
g (2t ) ⇔ G⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝2⎠
ω2
−2 *4
⎛ω ⎞ 4 4
G⎜ ⎟ = 2 e ω2 +4
⎝ 2 ⎠ ω +4
ω2
2 −2 2
g (2t ) ⇔ 2 e ω +4
(ω + 4 )
(b) g (t − 2)e jt

Using the time shifting property g (t − t0 ) ⇔ G (ω )e − jωt0

g (t − 2) ⇔ G (ω )e − j 2ω
−2ω 2
1
∴ g (t − 2) ⇔ 2 e ω +1 e − j 2ω
2

(ω + 1)
Using the frequency shifting property g (t )e jω0t ⇔ G (ω − ω0 )

∴ g (t )e jt ⇔ G (ω − 1)

g (t − 2)e jt ⇔ G (ω − 1)e − j 2(ω −1)

−2(ω −1)2
1 (ω −1) 2 +1 − j 2(ω −1)
⇔ e e
(ω − 1)
2
+1

e j 2π fct g (t ) ⇔ G ( f − f c )
e jω0t g (t ) ⇔ G (ω − ω0 )
 d
(c) 4 g (t )
dt
d
Using the differentiation property g (t ) ⇔ jωG (ω )
dt

−2 ω 2
d 1
4 g (t ) ⇔ j 4ω 2
2
e ω +1
dt ω +1
t
(d)
−∞
∫ g (τ )dτ .
Using the integration property

G (ω ) G (0)
t

∫ g (τ )dτ ⇔
−∞
jω
+
2
δ (ω )

−2ω 2
1
G (ω ) = 2
2
e ω +1 G(0)=1
ω +1
−2ω 2
1 1
⇔ + δ (ω )
2
eω +1
jω (ω + 1)
2
2
P.39 # Find the F.T of Gate function.

g(t)

−T T
0 t
2 2
−T T
g(t) =1 <t <
2 2
=0 otherwise

G ( f ) = T sin c( fT )
P.40 # Find the F.T of the Triangular pulse shown in figure.
g(t)

−T T
0 t
2 2

−T
to 0 ( x1 , y1 )( x2 , y2 )
2
⎛ -T ⎞
⎜ , 0 ⎟ (0, A)
⎝ 2 ⎠

( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 ) = ( y − y1 )( x2 − x1 ) = ( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 )
⎛T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
(y-0) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ x + ⎟ ( A)
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
T T
y = Ax + A x=t y=g(t)
2 2

AT 2 At
∴ g(t)=At+ . =2 +A
2 T T

A −T
=A+2. .t for to 0
T 2

T
Similarly 0 to ( x1 , y1 )( x2 , y2 )
2
⎛T ⎞
(0, A) ⎜ , 0 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
⎛T ⎞
( y − A) ⎜ ⎟ = x(− A)
⎝2⎠
2 2
( y − A) = − Ax ∴ g(t)=-At +A
T T
A T
g(t)=A-2 t for 0 to
T 2
T
0 2
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ A + 2 T t ⎟⎠e dt + ∫ ⎜ A − 2 t ⎟e− j 2π ft dt .
− j 2π ft
G( f ) =
0⎝
−T T ⎠
2
 T
2
T
2
⎡ T2 T
2
⎤
2 A ⎢ jωt ⎥
A∫ e dt + A∫ e dt −
jωt − jωt
⎢ ∫ te dt + ∫ te dt ⎥
− jωt

T 0
0 0
⎢⎣ 0
⎥⎦
T T
2 2
2A
= A∫ 2 cos ωtdt −
T ∫0
2t cos ωtdt.
0

⎡ T T ⎤
⎢ sin ω
sin ωt 2 − sin ωt dt ⎥
2
A T
= 2A
ω
* −4 ⎢
T ⎢2 ω ∫0 ω ⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎦

4A ⎡ ωT ⎤ 4 A ⎡ 2 ωT ⎤
= ⎢⎣1 − cos 2 ⎥⎦ = T ω 2 ⎢⎣ 2sin 4 ⎥⎦
Tω 2

8A 2π fT 2π fT
= sin sin
Tω 2
4 4

fT fT
sin π sin π
8A 2 2 fT fT
= π .π
Tω π
2
fT
π
fT 2 2
2 2
8A ⎛ fT ⎞ ⎛ fT ⎞ fT fT
sin c ⎜ ⎟ sin c ⎜ ⎟ π .π
T .2π f .2π f ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2

AT ⎛ fT ⎞
= sin 2 c ⎜ ⎟.
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
P.41 # Find the Fourier transform of Gaussian pulse f(t)
2
This is defined as f (t ) = e −π t

∞
F .T ⎡e −π t ⎤ = ∫e
2
−π t 2 − jωt
e dt 0 t
⎣ ⎦
−∞
Gaussian pulse
∞

∫e
2
− (π t + jωt )
F (ω ) = dt .
−∞
2
⎧ 2 jω ⎫ ω 2
Substituting π t + jω t = ⎨ π .t + ⎬ +
⎩ 2 π ⎭ 4π
 2
∞ ⎛ jω ⎞ −ω 2
−⎜ π t + ⎟
∫e ⎝ 2 π ⎠ 4π
= e dt
−∞

2
−ω 2 ∞ ⎛ jω ⎞
−⎜ π t + ⎟
∫e
2 π ⎠
=e 4π ⎝
dt
−∞
jω du
Putting u = π t + du = π dt dt =
2 π π

−ω 2
−ω 2 ∞ 4π ∞
du e
∫ = ∫ e − u du
2 2
=e 4π
e−u =
−∞ π π 0
∞
π
We know that ∫ e − u du =
2

0
2
2
−ω −ω 2 −4π 2 f 2
2 π 2
F ( f ) : G( f ) = e 4π
=e 4π
=e 4π
= e −π f
π 2
The area under the Gaussian pulse if G(0) at f = 0
= ⎡ e −π f ⎤ = 1
2

⎣ ⎦
2 2
e −π t ⇔ e −π f
2 2
P.42 # Find the F.T of the Gaussian pulse g (t ) = e − a t

∫e
2 2
−(a t + jωt )
= dt
−∞

2
⎛ jω ⎞ ω2
a 2t 2 + jωt = ⎜ at + ⎟ +
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2

∞ ⎛ jω ⎞ 2
−ω 2
− ⎜ at + ⎟
= ∫e
⎝ 2a ⎠ 2
e 4 a dt
−∞

−ω 2 ∞ ⎛ jω ⎞ 2
−⎜ at + ⎟
=e ∫e
4 a2 ⎝ 2a ⎠
dt .
−∞

jω
u = at + du = adt
2a
 2
−ω 2 −ω 2 ⎛ ω ⎞
2 π π 4 a2 π −⎜⎝ + 2 a ⎟⎠
= e 4a = =
2
e e
a 2 a a
2
⎛π f ⎞
− a 2t 2 π −⎜ ⎟
e ⇔ e ⎝ a ⎠
.
a

P.43 # Find the Fourier Transform of the signal f(t) shown below.
g(t)

0 to T A
A
g (t ) = t 0<t<T
T
=A T < t < 2T 0 T 2T t
T 2T
A
G ( f ) = ∫ te − jωt dt + ∫ Ae
− jωt
dt
0
T T

A ⎡ − jω T2 ⎛ ωT ⎞ − j 2ωt ⎤
= ⎢e sin c ⎜ ⎟−e ⎥
j 2π f ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
P. 44 # Obtain the Fourier Transform of the trapezoidal pulse shown in figure.
g(t)

A
At At p
g (t ) = + −t p < t < −ta
t p − ta t p − ta
-tp- ta 0 t a tp t
=A −t a < t < t a

At p At
= − for ta < t < t p .
t p − ta t p − ta

2A
G( f ) = ⎡cos ωta − cos ωt p ⎤⎦
ω ( t p − ta ) ⎣
2
P. 45 # Find the Fourier Transform of the signal shown in figure
g(t)

-2 -1 0 1 2 t

g(t) = 2 -1 < t < 1

=1 -2 < t < -1 &
=1 1<t<2

G ( f ) = 2sin c(2π f ) + 4sin c(4π f )

P. 46# Fourier Transform of g (t ) = e − at cos bt

∞
1 − at jbt
G( f ) = ∫
20
e ⎡⎣e + e − jbt ⎤⎦e − jωt dt

a + jω
=
( a + jω )
2
+ b2
P. 47 # Fourier Transform of g (t ) = t cos at.

a2 + ω 2
G( f ) = −
(a −ω2 )
2 2

j d
P. 48 # Fourier Transform of [tx(t ) ] = (f)
2π df

d
We know that − j 2π tg (t ) ⇔ G( f )
df

∞
j d j d
∫ x(t ) df e
− j 2π ft
= (f)= dt
2π df 2π −∞

∞
j
∫ x(t ) ( − j 2π t ) e
− j 2π ft
= dt
2π −∞
∞
j
= (− j 2π ) ∫ tx(t )e − j 2π ft dt
2π −∞
P. 49 # Fourier Transform of [t.x(2t ) ]

1 ⎛ f ⎞
F .T [ g (at )] ⇔
G⎜ ⎟
a ⎝a⎠
1 ⎛ f ⎞
Similarly, x(2t ) ⇔ G ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝2⎠

j d
We know that tx(t ) ⇔ X(f )
2π df
j d ⎛ f ⎞
∴ tx(2t ) ⇔ X⎜ ⎟
4π df ⎝ 2⎠
∞
j d − j 2π 2f t
= ∫ df e dt
4π −∞
x (t )
∞
j t − j 2π 2f t
=
4π ∫
−∞
x(t ) − j 2.2π
2
e dt
∞
1
= ∫ 2t.x(2t )e− j 2π ft dt.2
4 −∞
j d ⎛ f ⎞
X ⎜ ⎟ = F .T [t.x(2t )]
4π df ⎝ 2 ⎠
P. 50 # Fourier Transform of [ (t − 2) x(t ) ] = F .T [t.x(t ) − 2 x(t ) ]

j d
= x( f ) − 2 x( f )
2π df

P. 51 # Fourier Transform of [ (t − 2) x(−2t )] = F .T [t.x(−2t ) − 2 x(−2t ) ]

j d f ⎛−f ⎞
= x(− ) − x ⎜ ⎟
4π df 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎡ d ⎤
P. 52 # Fourier Transform of ⎢t. x(t ) ⎥
⎣ dt ⎦

j d ⎛ ⎧d ⎫⎞
= ⎜ F ⎨ x(t ) ⎬ ⎟
2π df ⎝ ⎩ dt ⎭⎠
 j d
= ( j 2π fx( f ) )
2π df
d
= − { fx( f )}
df

∞
P. 53 # Fourier Transform of [ x(1 − t ) ] = ∫ x(1 − t )e
− j 2π ft
dt.
−∞
1− t = m 1− m = t dt = − dm

∫ x(m)e
− j 2π f (1− m )
= dm
−∞
∞

∫ x(m)e
+ j 2π fm
= dm.e − j 2π f
−∞

= e − j 2π f x ( − f ) .
∞

∫ x(t )e
− j 2π ft
Since G ( f ) = dt .
−∞
Replace f = -f

∫ x(t )e
j 2π ft
G (− f ) = dt .
−∞
P. 54 # Find Fourier Transform of −tx(1 − t ) + x(1 − t ) .

− j d − j 2π f
=
2π df
{e x(− f )} + e− j 2π f x(− f ).

1
P. 55 # Find Hilbert Transform of
t

1 1
gˆ (t ) = −
t πt

1
F .Tof = − jSgn( f )
πt

1
F.T of ⇔ -j π Sgn( f )
t

= (− jSgnf )[− jπ Sgn( f )] = −π

 Inverse Fourier transform of [−π ] = −πδ (t ) .

d
P. 56 # − j 2π tg (t ) ⇔ G( f )
df
j d
t.g (t ) ⇔ G( f )
2π df
d
t.g (t ) ⇔ j G (ω ) put t = 2t
dω
j d ⎡ ⎛ ω ⎞⎤
∴ t.g (2t ) ⇔ G⎜ ⎟
2 dω ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
∞ ω
j d −j t
= ∫ g (t )e 2 dt
2 d ω −∞
∞
j d
∫ g (2t )e dt.2
− jωt
=
2 dω −∞
∞
= j ∫ g (2t )(− jt )e− jωt dt .
−∞

∫ t.g (2t )e
− jωt
= dt : F.T [t g(2t)]
−∞
8. Fourier Transform of periodic signals

gp(t)

-T0 0 T0 t

Let gp(t) a periodic signal of period T0.

g(t)

t
T0 T0
− 0
2 2

In terms of Complex Exponential Fourier series

∞ n
j 2π t
g p (t ) = ∑Ce
n =−∞
n
T0
→ (8.1)

Cn is complex Fourier coefficient.

T0
2 n
1 − j 2π t
Cn = ∫ g p (t )e → (8.2)
T0
dt
T0 −T0
2

∞
Note :
−∞
∫ g p (t ) dt = ∞ for a periodic function.

as Cn → 0 as T0 → ∞ ∴ equation (8.1) is Fourier Transformable.

⎡ j 2π Tn t ⎤ ⎛ n⎞
The F.T of equation (8.1) is Q F .T ⎢ e 0 ⎥ = δ ⎜ f − ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎝ ω⎠
∞
⎛ n⎞
F .T ⎣⎡ g p (t ) ⎦⎤ = ∑ C δ ⎜ f −T
n ⎟ → (8.3)
n =−∞ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Let g(t) be a pulse like function, which equals to gp(t) over one period and is zero else
where.

T0 T
∴ g (t ) = g p (t ) − ≤t ≤ 0
2 2
=0 otherwise

The periodic signal g p (t ) in terms of g (t )

∞
g p (t ) = ∑ g (t − mT )
m =−∞
0

Based on above representation we can say g(t) is a generating function which generates
the periodic signal g p (t ) .

The function g (t ) is a Fourier Transformable.

T0
2 n
1 − j 2π t
∴ Cn = ∫ g p (t )e dt .
T0

T0 −T0
2

−T0 T0
2 − j 2π
n 2 − j 2π
n ∞ − j 2π
n
1 t 1 t 1 t
Cn = ∫ g (t )e dt + ∫ g p (t )e dt + ∫ g (t )e
T0 T0 T0
dt
T0 −∞
T0 −T0 T0 T0
2 2

∞ − j 2π
n
1 t
= ∫ g (t )e
T0
dt
T0 −∞

1 ⎛n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ j 2π t
∞ n
1
Cn = G⎜ ⎟
T0 ⎝ T0 ⎠
(or) g p (t ) = ∑ G ⎜ ⎟e T0
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠

∴ equation (8.3) can be written as

∞
1 ∞ ⎛n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
∑
m =−∞
g (t − mT0 ) ⇔ ∑ G ⎜ ⎟δ ⎜ f − ⎟
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠
The above relation states that the Fourier Transform of a periodic signal consists of Delta
1
function occurring at integer multiplies of the fundamental frequency including the
T0
1 ⎛n⎞
origin, and each Delta function weighted by a factor equal to G⎜ ⎟ .
T0 ⎝ T0 ⎠
 The above relation is alternative way to display the frequency content of a
periodic signal g p (t ) .

g (t ) has Continuous spectrum of G(f)

g p (t ) has Discrete spectrum of G(f)

P. 57 # Find the Fourier Transform of the periodic pulse train shown in figure.

δT (t )
0

-3T0 -2T0 -T0 T0 2T0 3T0

g p (t ) = δ T0 ( t )
⎛n⎞
g (t ) = δ (t ) ∴ G ⎜ ⎟ = F .T [ g (t ) ] = F .T [δ (t ) ] = 1.
⎝ T0 ⎠
∞
δT (t ) =
0 ∑ δ (t − mT )
m =−∞
0

F ⎡⎣δ T0 ( t ) ⎤⎦
∞
1 ∞
⎛ n⎞
∑ δ (t − mT ) ⇔ T ∑ δ ⎜ f − T
0 ⎟
m =−∞ 0 n =−∞ ⎝ 0 ⎠

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0 f
T0 T0 T0 T0 T0 T0
Spectrum
9. RAYLEIGH’S ENERGY THEOREM:

The signals for which the Energy E is finite are known as Energy signals.

The Energy of the signal g (t ) in time domain is

∫
2
E= g (t ) dt → (9.1)
−∞

By using Rayleigh’s Energy theorem, it is possible to define (find) total energy of the
signal in the frequency domain

∫
2
E= G ( f ) df
−∞

2
From Equation g (t ) = g (t ) g * (t )
g * (t ) ⇔ G* (− f )

∫ G ( − f )e
j 2π ft
g (t ) =
* *
df
−∞

∞ ∞ ∞
E=
−∞
∫ g (t )g * (t )dt = ∫
−∞
g (t ) ∫ G * (− f )e j 2π ft dfdt.
−∞

∞ ∞

∫ G (− f ) ∫ g (t )e
j 2π ft
= *
dtdf
−∞ −∞

∞
= ∫ G (− f )G(− f )df G ( f ) = G* (− f )
*

−∞

G* ( f ) = G (− f )
∞
= ∫ G( f )G ( f )df
*

−∞

∫ G( f )
2
= df .
−∞

2
The above equation satisfies that the energy of a signal is equal to area under the G ( f )
curve.
P. 58 # find the total energy of the sine function given below.

g (t ) = A sin c(2ωt ).

∫
2
E= g (t ) dt
−∞
∞
= ∫A sin 2 c(2ωt )dt.
2

−∞
A sin c(t ) ⇔ Arect ( f )
A ⎛ f ⎞
A sin c(2ωt ) ⇔ rect ⎜ ⎟
2ω ⎝ 2ω ⎠

∞ 2 ∞
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
E = ∫ G ( f ) df = ⎜ ∫ rect
2 2
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ df
−∞ ⎝ 2ω ⎠ −∞ ⎝ 2ω ⎠

2 ω 2
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2ω ⎠
∫−ω df = ⎜⎝ 2ω ⎟⎠ [ω + ω ]
A2 A2
= 2ω = Joules .
4ω 2 2ω

Similarly, The average power in the frequency domain

T
2
1
∫
2
P = lim g (t ) dt.
T →∞ T
−T
2

The average power of a periodic signal g p (t ) of fundamental period T0 is

T0
2
1 2
P=
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) dt
2
T0
2
1
=
T0 ∫
−T0
g p (t ) g p* (t )dt.
2

⎛ n ⎞ j 2π T0 t
∞ n
1
g p (t ) = ∑ ⎜ T ⎟e
G
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ 0⎠
 ⎛n⎞
Where G ⎜ ⎟ is Fourier Transform of the generating function g (t )
⎝ T0 ⎠
T T
i.e g (t ) = g p (t ) − 0 to 0
2 2
=0 otherwise.

∞
⎛ n ⎞ j 2π t
∞ n
1
P= ∫−∞ n∑
*
g (t ) G ⎜ ⎟e T0 dt .
T0 2 =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠

Interchanging the order of summation and integration we get

⎛n⎞∞ *
∞ n
1 j 2π t
P=
T0 2
∑ G ⎜ ⎟ ∫ g (t )e
T0
dt .
n =−∞ ⎝ 0 ⎠ −∞
T

⎛n⎞ ∞
n
− j 2π t
G ⎜ ⎟ = ∫ g (t )e T0 dt .
⎝ T0 ⎠ −∞

⎛n⎞ ∞ *
n
j 2π t
G ⎜ ⎟ = ∫ g (t )e T0 dt.
*

⎝ T0 ⎠ −∞

2
1 ∞
⎛n⎞ ⎛n⎞ 1 ∞
⎛n⎞
= 2 ∑ G ⎜ ⎟G * ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ∑ G⎜ ⎟
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠ T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠

This relation is known as Parseval’s power Theorem.

It states that the average power of a periodic signal g p (t ) is equal to the sum of
the squared amplitudes of all the harmonic components of the signal g p (t ) .
10. SPECTRAL DENSITY : (Energy or power per unit Area).

The Spectral Density of the periodic or non periodic signal g (t ) represents the
distribution of Power or Energy in the frequency domain.

(or) The total area under the spectral density as a function of frequency is equal to total
energy or Average power of the signal.

(i) Energy Spectral Density (esd)

(ii) Power Spectral Density (psd)

(i) Energy Spectral Density :

This spectral density gives the distribution of energy of the signal in the frequency
domain .

we know that
∞ ∞

∫ ∫ G( f )
2 2
E= g (t ) dt = df
−∞ −∞

G ( f ) is the amplitude spectrum.

2
Let’s denote the squared amplitude spectrum G ( f ) of the signal g (t ) by Ψ g ( f )

2
Ψ g ( f ) = G( f )

∴ The Energy of the signal g (t ) in terms of Ψ g ( f ) is

∞
E= ∫Ψ
−∞
g ( f )df .

The above equation shows that the total energy of the signal is given by total area under
curve Ψ g ( f )

∴ Ψ g ( f ) represents the energy spectral density of the signal g (t ) in joules per Hertz.

We know that amplitude spectrum of real valued signal is an even function of f.

∴ Energy Spectral Density of such signal is symmetrical about the vertical axis at
frequency f = 0.
(ii) Power Spectral Density :

This spectral density function gives the distribution of power of the signal in the
frequency domain .

T0
2
1 2
1 ∞
⎛n⎞
∑
2
P=
T0 −T0
∫ g p (t ) dt = 2
T0 n =−∞
G⎜ ⎟
⎝ T0 ⎠
2

Let S g p ( f ) = power spectral density

∞
∴P = ∫S
−∞
gp ( f )df
2
1 ∞
⎛n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
S gp ( f ) = 2 ∑ G⎜ ⎟ δ ⎜ f − ⎟
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠

2
∞
1 ∞ ⎛n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
P = ∫ 2 ∑ G ⎜ ⎟ δ ⎜ f − ⎟ df
T
−∞ 0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠

2
∞
1 ∞
⎛n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
= 2 ∑ G⎜ ⎟ ∫δ⎜f − ⎟ df
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠ −∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠

2
1 ∞
⎛n⎞
= 2 ∑ G⎜ ⎟
T0 n =−∞ ⎝ T0 ⎠

∞
∴P = ∫S
−∞
gp ( f )df

∴ The average power is the area under the power spectral density S gp ( f ) .