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1 Periodic functions
A continuous signal x(t) is called periodic if there is a strictly-positive real constant T such that
x(t) = x(t + T ) , for all t. Such a T is called the period of the signal.
- For sequences, similar periodicity condition can be written as (for strictly-positive integer
N ) x(n) = x(n + N ) for all n (where n is an integer)
• A T-periodic function x is said to have frequency 1/T and angular frequency ω = 2πf =
2π/T
• An N-periodic function x is said to have frequency 1/N and angular frequency Ω = 2πf =
2π/N
• The period of a periodic signal is not unique. A signal that is periodic with period T is
also periodic with period kT , for every strictly positive integer k.
• The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the fundamental period and
its corresponding frequency is called the fundamental frequency.
• For two periodic functions x1 and x2 with fundamental periods T1 and T2 : the sum
y = x1 + x2 is periodic if and only if the ratio T 1/T 2(= q/r) is a rational number. The
fundamental period will be T0 = rT1 = qT2
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2 Right and Left sided signals
Right sided function:
A function x is said to be right sided if, for some (finite) real constant T , the following
condition holds:
x(t) = 0 for all t < T
(i.e., x is only potentially nonzero to the right of T ).
A signal x is said to be causal if x(t) = 0 for all t < 0. A causal signal is a special case of a
right-sided function. A causal signal is not to be confused with a causal system. In these two
contexts, the word “causal” has very different meanings.
Figure: Example of (a) right sided (continuous time) and (b) left sided (discrete time) signals
A function x is said to be left sided if, for some (finite) real constant t0 , the following
condition holds:
x(t) = 0 for all t > t0
A signal x is said to be anticausal if x(t) = 0 for all t > 0. An anticausal signal is a special
case of a left-sided signal. An anticausal signal is not to be confused with an anticausal system.
A function that is both left sided and right sided is said to be finite duration (or time
limited).
A function that is neither left sided nor right sided is said to be two sided.
Figure: Example of (a) right sided (continuous time) and (b) left sided (discrete time) signals
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3 Elementary Operations on the Independent Variable
t
Time scaling:
• If a < 1, y is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the horizontal axis by a factor of 1/a ,
relative to x.
Time Shift:
Time reversal:
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Figure: Time shifting properties of a signal
Suppose y(t) = x(at − b). It is tempting to think about this as two operations in sequence
– a scale followed by a shift, or a shift followed by a scale. This is dangerous in that a wrong
choice leads to incorrect answers. The recommended approach is to ignore shortcuts, and fig-
ure out the result by brute-force graphical methods: substitute various values of t until y(t)
becomes clear.
Homework: For the x(t) signal drawn in previous figure; draw the sketch for the following
new operation: y(t) = x(2t − 1).
Time scaling and time shifting do not commute, and we must be particularly careful about
the order in which these transformations are applied. y(t) = x(at − b) has two distinct but
equivalent interpretations:
• first, time shifting x by b, and then time scaling the result by a. Or:
• first, time scaling x by a, and then time shifting the result by b/a.
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Figure: Time shifting and scaling together
4 Bounded functions
A function x is said to be bounded if there exists some (finite) positive real constant A such
that
|x(t)| ≤ A for all t
(i.e., x(t) is finite for all t).
For example, the sine and cosine functions are bounded as | sin t| ≤ 1 for all t and | cos t| ≤ 1
for all t.
lim | tan t| = ∞
t→π/2
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4.1 Absolute integrability
An absolutely integrable function is a function whose absolute value is integrable (i.e. the
integral is finite) : Z ∞
|x(t)|dt < ∞
−∞
Clearly,
Homework:
Is x(t) = e−|t| absolutely integrable?
If a signal has finite energy, then the signal values must approach zero as t approaches
positive and negative infinity. (commonly also described as area under the curve be finite)
Energy signal:
An energy signal is a signal with finite energy. Examples: x(t) = e−|t| ; x(t) = 0 etc.
We also say that any energy signal has 0 average power (we will see later why).
For example a constant signal x(t) = 1 (for all t) has average power = 1.
Power signal:
A power signal is a signal with finite, nonzero average power. For a power signal, the
total energy tends to be infinite. Example: x(t) = sin t;
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Example: Find total energy and average power of a rectangular pulse limited between
[-1,1]. Is it an energy signal? If it is an energy signal, is the average power 0? Verify!
Homework:
Find average power of x(t) = tan(t). Is it a power signal? What is the energy? Is it infinite?
Verify!
Energy signal and power signals are defined in the same way as continuous case.
Examples
Q1. The unit step function defined as u[n] = 1 for n > 0; and u[n] = 0 for n < 0. Is it an
energy signal or power signal?
Answer: Power signal, since average power is finite (Pavg = 1/2) and E = ∞.
Q2. A signal is defined as x(t) = t(−1/2) for t ≥ 1 and x(t) = 0 for t < 1. What is the total
energy and average power? Is it neither energy nor power signal?
Answer. Yup. E = ∞ and Pavg = 0.
2π
Remark: A discrete sinusoidal signal is periodic only if Ω
is rational.
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Q3. What is the fundamental period of sin(3t)?
Answer:
sin 3(t + T ) = sin 3t
3T = 2kπ ∀k ∈ Z; (T should be +ve)
T = 2kπ/3
c = |c|ejϕ0
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Remarks: Period of an exponential signal = 2π/ω.
Sum of two exponential signal is periodic iff the ratio ω1 and ω2 is rational. i.e.
ω1 k
=
ω2 l
and fundamental frequency = ω0 = ω1 /k = ω2 /l.
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Example
Q. (
1, 0 ≤ n ≤ 9
x[n] =
0 otherwise
Write x[n] in forms of u[n].
Answer: x[n] = u[n] − u[n − 10].
δ(t) = 0, ∀t ̸= 0
and Z ∞
δ(t)dt = 1
−∞
Remarks:
• And, u[n] = ∞
P
k=0 δ[n − k]
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6.4.1 Properties of delta function
The equivalence property:
Comparing the above two equation will get you the desired result.
⋆ The unit impulse function is also called as basic singularity function. Because:
Z ∞
x(t)δ(t)dt = x(0)
−∞
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Reference material
1. Textbook: Signals and Systems by Simon Haykin
2. Lecture notes are inspired from the course materials of JHU 520.214; MIT 6.003; Purdue
ECE-301; UVic ECE-260; and Imperial College E2.5
[Please report any typos in the notes by sending an email to the instructor.]
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