SIGNAL ANALYSIS

Name of course: Signal Analysis

Course Code: EE 304

Course Instructor: Eng. Dora Keji

Course Outline: 
 Classification of Signals and Systems
 Linear Time-variant Systems
 Singularity function
 Convolution and Correlation
 Application of Fourier Transforms
 Discrete and fast Fourier Transforms
Discreet and Fast Fourier
 Laplace Transforms and Applications
Transforms
 Signal Analysis
Introduction
 Signals are detectable quantities used to convey information about time-varying or
frequency-varying physical phenomena. Common examples of signals are human
speech, temperature, pressure, and stock prices.
 Electrical signals, normally expressed in the form of voltage or current waveforms,
are some of the easiest signals to generate and process. Mathematically, signals are
modelled as functions of one or more independent variables. Examples of independent
variables used to represent signals are time, frequency, or spatial coordinates.
Figure # illustrates some common signals and systems encountered in different fields of
engineering, with the physical systems represented in the left-hand column and the
associated signals included in the right-hand column.
Figure #: Examples of signals and systems. (a) An electrical circuit; (c) an audio recording system; (e) a
digital camera; and (g) digital thermometer. Plots (b), (d), (f), and (h) are output signals generated,
respectively, by the systems shown in (a), (c), (e), and (g).
The rewards for transforming physical parameters to electrical signals are great, as many
instruments are available for the analysis of electrical signals in the time and frequency
domains. The measurement and analysis capabilities of these instruments can lead to
rapid understanding of the system under study.
There are primarily two ways of viewing any type of a wave:
 Time domain is used to describe the domain for analysis of mathematical functions
or signals with respect to time.
 Frequency domain is used to describe the domain for analysis of mathematical
functions or signals with respect to frequency.
Signal Measurement devices
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is one of the most useful electronic instruments used to display, study,
and measure various quantities associated with time.

Spectrum Analyzer
A spectrum analyzer is a visual analysis device commonly used to visualize real-world
signals in the frequency domain. It displays the amplitude of the individual frequency
components vs. frequency.
A time-domain graph shows how a signal changes over time, whereas a frequency-
domain graph shows how much of the signal lies within each given frequency band over
a range of frequencies
A frequency-domain representation can also include information on the phase shift that
must be applied to each sinusoid in order to be able to recombine the frequency
components to recover the original time signal.
A given function or signal can be converted between the time and frequency domains
with a pair of mathematical operators called a transform. An example is the Fourier
transform, which decomposes a function into the sum of a (potentially infinite) number of
sine wave frequency components. The 'spectrum' of frequency components is the
frequency domain representation of the signal. The inverse Fourier transform converts
the frequency domain function back to a time function.
Classification of Signals
A signal is a function of one or more independent variables which contain some
information: Radio signal, TV signal, Telephone signal etc.
Analog vs. Digital
Analog corresponds to a continuous set of possible function values, while digital
corresponds to a discrete set of possible function values.

A common example of a digital signal is a binary sequence, where the values of the
function can only be one or zero.
Continuous-Time $ Discrete-Time
 A continuous-time (CT) signal will contain a value for all real numbers along the time
axis.
 A discrete-time (DT) signal, often created by sampling a continuous signal, will only
have values at equally spaced intervals along the time axis. The independent variable
(t) takes on only discrete values, for example t = ±1, ±2, ±3, ...

Periodic $ Aperiodic
A signal is said to be periodic signal if it repeats at equal intervals. Aperiodic signals do
not repeat at regular intervals.
A CT signal which satisfies the equation x(t) = x(t+T0) is said to be periodic and a DT
signal which satisfies the equation x(n) = x(n+N) is said to be periodic.

Step, Ramp and Delta functions

Relationship between unit Step, Ramp and unit Delta functions are:
(t)= u(t), (t).dt = r(t)
Causal $ Anticausal ( Noncausal)
Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative time, while anticausal are signals
that are zero for all positive time. Noncausal signals are signals that have nonzero values
in both positive and negative time.
 Even Signal $ Odd Signal

Even signals are symmetric around vertical axis, and Odd signals are
symmetric about origin. Notice that sine function is odd signal and cosine
function is even signal.

Even Signals:

x(t) = x(–t), x[n] = x[–n]

Odd Signals

x(t) = –x(–t), x[n] = –x[–n]

Using the definitions of even and odd signals, we can show that any signal
can be written as a combination of an even and odd signal. That is, every
signal has an odd-even decomposition.
Signal power and signal Energy

The terms signal energy and signal power are used to

characterize a signal. They are not actually measures of
energy and power. The definition of signal energy and refers
to any signal x(t),including
signals that take on complex.

Definition

The signal energy in signal x(t) is

∞
E= ∫ x(t )
2
dt .
−∞

The signal power in the signal x(t ) is

∫
x(t ) dt .
T
P = lim
1 2

T →∞ 2T
−T

If 0 < E < ∞, then the signal x(t) is called an energy signal. However, there are
signals where this condition is not satisfied. For such signals we consider the
power. If 0 < P < ∞ , then the signal is called a power signal. Note that the power
for an energy signal is zero (P = 0) and that the energy for a power signal is
infinite (E = ∞). Some signals re neither energy nor power signals.
Deterministic vs. Random
 A deterministic signal is a signal in which each value of the signal is fixed and can be
determined by a mathematical expression, rule, or table. Because of this the future
values of the signal can be calculated from past values with complete confidence.
 A random signal has a lot of uncertainty about its behaviour. The future values of a
random signal cannot be accurately predicted and can usually only be guessed based
on the averages of sets of signals.

Sinusoidal Functions
The sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical function that describes a smooth repetitive
oscillation. It occurs often in pure and applied mathematics, physics, engineering, signal
processing and many other fields.
Sinusoidal function is a linear combination of Cosine and Sine functions. Generally, it is
written as a as a “phase-shifted” Sin or Cos function:
y(t) = Mcos(ωot + φ) = Acos(ωot) − B sin(ωot)

Where:
M: Amplitude
ωo = 2Foπ: Angular frequency, Unit: radians or degrees
Fo = 1/To: Fundamental frequency, Unit: Hz (or 1/s)
To: Period, Unit: seconds (s)
φ: Phase shift, Unit: radians or degrees
 When the phase is non-zero, the waveform is shifted in time by the amount φ/ω
seconds.
 A negative value represents a delay, and a positive value represents an
advance.
The sinusoidal form includes ω which is related to T, as is shown in the graph,
by ωT = 2π.

So if we are given a sine signal (instead of the cosine

version), we see via the equivalence property that
x(t) = Asin(ωot) = Acos(ωot + φ – π/2)
Periodic Function
For example, the London Eye is a huge Ferris wheel (135 m
diameter) in London, England, completes one revolution
every 30 minutes, and then repeats this revolution over and
over again.
This is an example of a periodic function, because the Ferris wheel repeats its revolution
or one cycle every 30 minutes, and so we say it has a period of 30 minutes.
A periodic function occurs when a specific horizontal shift, T, results in the original
function; where f(x + T) = f(x) for all values of x.
When graphed over time, the “wave” traced by this wheel takes on a distinct shape,
known as a sine wave:

The sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical function that describes a smooth repetitive
oscillation. It occurs often in pure and applied mathematics, physics, engineering, signal
processing and many other fields.
Sine and Cosine functions are periodic functions, i.e., the waveform repeats in certain
interval, called the period, T.
 Sketch the graph of y(x) = sin(x) and y(x) = cos(x), from x = -2π to x = 2π.

From the above figures, we see that cosine function is identical to the sine function,
except that they are phase shifted to the left by 90°. Any sine function can be written as a
cosine function, and any cosine function can be written as a sine function.
Asin(ωt) = Acos(ωt - π/2)
Both sin(x) and cos(x) are periodic on the interval 2π and integrate to 0 over a full period,
i.e.

General Definition
General form of sinusoid or sinusoidal function can be written in sine form as:

,
where A, B, C and D are fixed constants; A and B are both positive.
This also applied to cosine function, since cosine function is identical to the sine function
(except shifted to the left by 90º or π/2 radians).
The four constants can be interpreted graphically as indicated:

General Sine Curve

A is called the amplitude (the height of each peak above the baseline)
C is the vertical offset (height of the baseline)
T is the period or wavelength (the length of each cycle)
ω is the angular frequency, given by ω = 2π/T
Phase Shift and Time Shift
The phase shift parameter in the sinusoid moves the waveform left or right on the time
axis.
Example: Consider a triangularly shaped signal having piece wise continuous definition

Now we wish to consider the signal x1(t) = s(t - 2)

 As a starting point we note that s(t) is active over just the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2, so with t
→ t – 2 we have
0≤t–2≤22≤t≤4
which means that x1(t) is active over 2 ≤ t ≤ 4
 The piece wise definition of x1(t) can be obtained by direct substitution of t – 2 every
in equation #
Example: Plot s(t) with we expect that the signal will shift to the left by one second

 The new equations are obtained as before

0 ≤ t + 1≤ 2  - 1 ≤t ≤ 1
Review of Complex Numbers
A complex number is an ordered pair of real part and imaginary part, which can be
written in:
 Rectangular form: z = (x, y) = x + jy
 Polar form:
Where |z| = (x2 + y2)½

x = rcosθ
y = rsinθ
r = |z| = (x2 + y2)½
θ = tan–1(y/x)
Example: Plot a complex number as a vector (x, y),
where z = 2 + j5, z = 4 – j3, z = – 5 + j0, z = – 3 – j3