SIGNAL

 Signal is something that carries information. It is a pattern

of variations of a physical quantity that can be
manipulated, stored, or transmitted by physical processes.
 A signal is a function of independent variables such as
time, distance, position, temperature, and pressure. In our
discussions we will be dealing with time, t, as the
independent variable.
 Examples of signal that we encounter frequently are
speech, music, picture, and video signal.
 Most signals that we encounter are generated by natural
means. However, a signal can also be generated
synthetically or by computer simulation.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
 Signal processing is concerned with the mathematical
representation of the signal and the algorithmic
operation carried out to extract the information
present in the signal, to enhance it, or to change its
characteristic.
Signals can be Analog or Digital
 Analog Signal pertains to signal in which the
amplitude is continuous, that is, having an infinite
number of values.
 The amplitude of Digital Signal, on the other hand,
has finite number of values.
Characteristics and
Classifications of Signals
I. Continuous-time versus Discrete-time
 Signals can either be continuous or a discrete function
of the independent variable. If time is the
independent variable, then we have what we call
Continuous time (CT) and Discrete time (DT) signals.
In the case of a continuous-time signal, x(t),
the independent variable, t, is continuous and
thus x(t) is defined for all t . In other words, t
is any real number along the time axis(x-axis).
Example: 1.5sec, 0.0005sec, 5sec, ... etc.

t = Continuous time-independent variable

(-∞< t <∞)
▪ On the other hand, discrete-time signals,
x[n],are defined only at discrete times and
consequently the independent variable takes
on only a discrete set of values. A discrete-time
signal is thus a sequence of numbers.

n is a discrete time-independent variable

(n= … -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …)
▪ A discrete-time signal, x[n], is often
formed by getting samples from the
continuous-time signal x(t).
Some notes on the mathematical
symbols x(t) and x[n]
 Continuous time signal x(t)
 x is the dependent variable and t is the independent variable.
 t is the time on the x-axis
 t can be any value of time such as 3sec, 1.125ms , 4.0sec
 x(t) is the signal amplitude at time t.
 Discrete time signal x[n]
 Taking samples from the CT signal will result to DT signal.
 Example. If 3 samples are taken every 3ms (0, 3ms, 6ms),
then time variable, n, will be 0,1, and 2.
 Another example. If 5 samples are taken at some interval,
then the time variable, n, will be 0,1,2,3,4
 The parenthesis and square brackets are just conventions
in some books. Some authors may be using parenthesis for
both. What matters most are the variables n and t.
 These are called stems.
Few books use dot only.
You will notice that
n=1.5, n=2.75, etc
do not exist.

In the illustration you will see that getting samples from x(t) every 1.5 ms will
result to x[n] with n=0,1,2, ......,8. The total number of samples taken is 9.
The amplitude of each sample will be the same as the amplitude of x(t) at those
particular time.
II. Continuous-valued versus Discrete-valued
 If a signal takes on all possible amplitude values (any
real number), it is said to be continuous-valued.
Example: 1.1V, 1.215V, -6.741 mV
 If a signal takes on amplitude values from a finite set of
possible values, it is said to be discrete-valued.
Example 1: -1V, 0V, 1V, 2V, 3V, 4V, ... Increment of 1
Example 2: 0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.0V, ... Increment of 0.5
 It is important to recognize that x[n]
is only defined for integer values of n. It is
not correct to think of x[n] as being zero
for non integer value of n, say n =1.5, x[n] is
simply undefined.
In other words, x[0], x[1], and x[-2]
are all valid. But x[1.5] does not exist.
III.One-dimensional versus Multidimensional Signals
 One-dimensional Signal is a function of a single
independent variable. Example of this is the speech
signal wherein the independent variable is time.
 A signal is called multidimensional if its value is a
function of 2 or more independent variables. Examples
are:
 b/w or color image(2-dimensional). The independent
variables are width and height (spatial variables).
 b/w video signal(3-dimensional). Width, height, and time
are the independent variables.
 color video signal(three 3-dimensional). This is composed of
three-3 dimensional signals representing the primary colors
red, green, and blue (RGB).
Representation of 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D DT Signals
1 Dimensional such as speech: u(t)

2 Dimensional such as photograph: u(x,y)

Three 2-D such as color

photograph

3-D such as B/W video signal u(x,y,t)

Three 3-D such as color

Video signal
Representation of 1-D DT Signals
 IV. Deterministic versus Random Signals
 A deterministic signal is a signal in which each value is fixed and
can be determined by a mathematical rule, expression, or table. On
the other hand, a random signal has a lot of uncertainty about its
behavior. The pattern of this signal is irregular.
V. Periodic versus Aperiodic Signals
(This will be further discussed on the next pdf file)

 Periodic signal consists of a continuously

repeated pattern. The completion of one full
pattern is called a cycle. A period is defined as
the amount of time required to complete one
full cycle.
 Aperiodic signals are non-periodic.
Periodic Signal

Period =5 samples
Aperiodic or Non-periodic Signal
VI. Even versus Odd Signal
 An even signal is any signal f such that f(t)=f(-t).
Even signals can be easily spotted as they are
symmetric around the vertical axis.
 An odd signal, on the other hand, is a signal f such
that f(t) = -( f(-t) ). It is symmetric about the origin.
VII. Multichannel Signals
 Multichannel Signals are signals generated by
multiple sources or multiple sensors that can be
represented in vector form. Example is ECG signal.
VIII. Right handed versus Left handed Signal
 Right-handed signal and left-handed signal are those
signals whose value is zero between a given variable
and negative or positive infinity respectively.
IX. Causal versus Anticausal versus
Noncausal
 Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative
time.
 Anticausal are signals that are zero for all positive
time.
 Noncausal signals are signals that have nonzero values
in both positive and negative time