Module 1.2 - B1B2 - Rev 00 (Full Permission)

Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.2 ALGEBRA
MODULE 1
SUB MODULE 1.2
ALGEBRA
Rev. 00 1.2
Oct 2006 For Training Purposes Only
Table of Contents....................................................Page Table of Contents ................................................... Page

Introduction ..................................................................... 1 Fractional and negative indices .....................................20
Algebraic expressions ..................................................... 2 Fractional index .............................................................20
Positive and negative numbers ....................................... 2 Zero index .....................................................................21
Algebraic addition and subtraction .................................. 4 Binary and other applicable numbering systems ...........23
Algebraic addition ........................................................... 4 Binary number system...................................................24
Algebraic subtraction ...................................................... 5 Octal number system ....................................................26
Use of parentheses ......................................................... 6 Hexadecimal numbering system ...................................28
Order of operation........................................................... 7 Simultaneous equations ................................................29
Algebraic multiplication and division ............................... 8 Quadratic equations ......................................................30
Algebraic multiplication ................................................... 8 Solution of pure and adfected quadratics. .....................31
Multiplication of fractions in algebra .............................. 11 Logarithm ......................................................................32
Algebraic division .......................................................... 12 Determining the logarithm of a number .........................33
Algebraic fractions ........................................................ 14 Log and antilog tables ...................................................34
Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions.............. 15 Determining the log and antilog of any number .............36
Linear equations and their solutions. ............................ 16 General rule to find logs: ...............................................36
Transposition ................................................................ 17 General rules to find antilog...........................................37
Equations involving numerical denominators ................ 19 Multiplication and division examples .............................38
Equations involving decimals ........................................ 19 Evaluating powers, roots and reciprocals ......................39
Indices and powers ....................................................... 20
Rev. 00 i 1.2
The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up
to date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued.
Rev. 00 1 1.2
ALGEBRA
INTRODUCTION
Algebra may be defined as the branch of mathematics that employs
positive and negative quantities, letters, and other symbols to express
and analyse relationships among units of quantitative data. The
processes of algebra enable us to make computations and arrive at
solutions that would be most difficult or even impossible through normal
arithmetic methods. All mathematical systems beyond arithmetic employ
the methods of algebra for computation.
Many of the formulas used by mechanics and technicians are algebraic

expressions with quantities shown as letters or other symbols. The
formula for the area of a rectangle, A = l x w, or A = lw, is an algebraic
expression. A = area, l = length, and w = width. The formula for
computing the speed of an airplane may be expressed s = d/t, where s
is speed in knots, d is distance travelled in nautical miles, and t is time in
hours. These are the simplest types of formulas, but hundreds of more
complex types are used constantly in technical work. The mechanic or
technician who is able to use algebra where necessary finds that it
makes the work easier and more productive.
Rev. 00 2 1.2
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
In algebra we use the same signs that are used in arithmetic; however,
A collection of symbols denoting numbers and operations to be in algebra the signs sometimes have a greater significance than they do
performed on them is called an algebraic expression. in arithmetic. All terms in algebra must have either a positive or a
negative value. Terms having a positive value are preceded by a plus
The parts of an algebraic expression that are connected by the signs + sign (+) or by no sign at all. Negative terms are preceded by a minus
or are called terms. sign (-). A positive number or expression has a value greater than zero.
Thus 3x y+7z pq-8ab c is an algebraic expression of which the This may be understood by considering temperature. If we were told
terms are +3x y, + 7z pq and -8ab c. that the temperature was 10c, we would not know for sure what was
meant unless we knew whether it was 10c above zero or 10c below
Note that the parts of an expression connected by the signs and do
zero. If the temperature were above zero, it could be shown as +10c,
not constitute separate terms, but only a single term, thus 7z pq is a
and if below zero, it could be shown as -10c.
single term.
An expression of one term is called a simple expression; while an
expression containing two or more terms is called compound Another method for illustrating positive and negative values is to
expressions. Thus 5xy is a simple expression and a b + c or a+b consider money received and money spent. If a man receives $500.00
c + d + e are compound expressions. and must pay bills totalling $450.00, we may say he has +500 dollars
and -450 dollars. If the man owes more money than he has to spend,
Expressions are also named monomials, binomials, trinomials, or
then we can say that he has a negative quantity of money. If he has
multinomial (polynomials) accordingly as they consist of one, two, three
$500.00 and owes $550.00 then his net worth is -$50.
or more than three terms respectively. This will be discussed later in this
chapter.
Terms are said to be like when they do not differ at all or differ only in Any quantity with the sign + prefixed or understood is called a positive
their numerical co-efficient. (Each of the factors of a product is called co- quantity and any quantity with the sign prefixed is called negative
efficient or co-factor). Otherwise they are said to be unlike. Thus a, 5a, quantity. Thus 4, +7, a, + b are positive quantities and 4, -7, -a, b are
19a are like terms. But xy and yz are unlike terms minus quantities.
Rev. 00 3 1.2
Positive and negative numbers are called algebraic numbers.

The value of a quantity apart from its sign is called its absolute value.
Thus if a stands for 4 and b stands for 5 +ab and ab have the same
absolute value 20.
Quantities, which have the same signs, are said to have like signs and
when they have different signs, they are said to have unlike signs
In algebra, the letters used in, place of numbers are called literal
numbers. Thus, the expression x + y = z, contains all literal numbers.
Rev. 00 4 1.2
show a power and is called an exponent .For example, in the term x2, 2
ALGEBRAIC ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION is the exponent of x, and the term is read "x square"
ALGEBRAIC ADDITION When we wish to add terms containing different literal numbers, we
combine those terms having same letter or symbol. To solve or simplify
Algebraic addition is the process of combining terms to find the actual the expression 4a + 5b -2a -6c + 9b -3a + 8c -3c -4b +3c, we may
value of the terms. The algebraic sum of two or more quantities is the proceed as follows:
result of putting them together with their proper signs. The algebraic
sum has a wider meaning than the arithmetic sum because negative +4a +5b -6c
quantities are peculiar to algebra and are not recognized in elementary -2a +9b +8c
arithmetic. Hence when we speak of an algebraic sum, we mean that -3a -4b -3c
the quantities added together are not necessarily positive. +3c
-a +10b +2c
To add the terms in an algebraic expression when there are both
negative and positive quantities we combine the terms with the same
sign and then subtract the smaller value from the larger and give the
answer the sign of the larger. To add 8 -9 -4 + 6 + 7 -3, we combine the Then expression 4a + 5b -2a -6c + 9b -3a + 8c -3c -4b + 3c can be
8, 6, and 7 to obtain +21 and then combine -9, -4, and -3 to obtain -16. simplified to a+10b+2c
We then subtract the 16 from 21 to obtain +5. If the answer contains a Given below is another example in which we have to add -
minus sign, then the answer would be negative. 7a2+5ab+8b2-6a2-3ab-7b2+8a2+20ab+27b2 +4a2 -22ab +26b2-a2 +8b2
When we combine numbers or terms containing letters or other
symbols, we cannot add those terms having different letters or symbols. -7a2 +5ab +8b2
For example, we cannot add 3b and 5c. The indicated addition of these -6a2 -3ab -7b2
terms would merely be 3b + 5c. We can add 3a and 5a to obtain 8a, in 8a2 +20ab +27b2
which case we would show the expression as 3a + 5a = 8a. 4a2 -22ab +26b2
-a2 + 8b2
In the term 3a, 3 is the coefficient of a. Though it is discussed later in
another chapter it is better to keep in mind that a number placed above -2a2 + 62b2
and to the right of another number or symbol to
Rev. 00 5 1.2
ALGEBRAIC SUBTRACTION
Any quantity b is said to be subtracted from another quantity a if a third
quantity c is found such that the sum of b and c is equal to a.
This means that if 7-4 = 3 then 7=4+3
This can also be written as 7+(-4) = 3 and the value is not changed
Hence generally,
ab=a+(-b)
So when 6x+5y-8z is subtracted from 2x+3y+4z, the answer is
That is, to subtract a positive quantity is the same as to add a negative
8x-2y+12z.
quantity having the same absolute value. Also to subtract a negative
quantity is the same as to add a positive quantity having the same Similarly
absolute value. 3a2b +5ab2-6a2b2+7abc
Therefore in algebraic subtraction the sign of the subtrahend is changed -3a2b +5ab2-3a2b2- -2abc
and added instead of subtraction.
Lets see this with the example at the next column in which 6x+5y-8z is = 3a2b +5ab2-6a2b2+7abc
to be subtracted from 2x+3y+4z. What we are going to do in this +
+3a2b -5ab2+3a2b2+2abc
example is to change the signs of every term of the subtrahend from +
to and - to + (as the case may be) and then write down those terms in +6a2b -3a2b2+9abc
succession after the minuend.
Change of signs
2x +3y +4z 2x +3y +4z

6x +5y -8z - 6x -5y +8z +
-8x -2y +12y
Rev. 00 6 1.2
USE OF PARENTHESES Brackets [x] or {x} are also used to group terms that are to be
considered as one term. Usually the brackets are used only when
Parentheses are used in algebra to indicate that two or more terms are
parentheses have already been used inside the bracketed expression.
to be considered as a single term. For example, 3 x (5 + 2) means
that 5 and 2 are both to be multiplied by 3. Also, 5 and 2 can be added The following expression illustrates the use of brackets:
and then multiplied by 3, and the answer will be the same. If the
9 + [7a -(3b + 8x) -2y + 4z] -2c
parentheses were not used in the above example, the solution would be
3 x 5 + 2 and 15 + 2 = 17. The most common use of parentheses is to indicate multiplication of
terms.
From this we observe that parentheses cannot be ignored in solving an
algebraic problem.
In an expression where no multiplication or division in involved and
parentheses are used, careful attention must be paid to the signs of the
various terms.
In the expression (3a + 7b -6c) + (4a -3b-2c), the parentheses actually
have no effect and the expression would be written 3a+7b-6c+4a-3b-2c.
If however, a minus sign precedes the term enclosed by parentheses,
then the signs of the quantities in the parentheses must be changed
when the parentheses are removed:
(3a + 7b -6c) -(4a -3b -2c) = 3a + 7b -6c -4a + 3b + 2c
The foregoing expression means that the quantity 4a -3b- 2c is to be

subtracted from the quantity 3a + 7b -6c. From the rule for subtraction
we know that the sign of the subtrahend must be changed and then the
terms added.
Rev. 00 7 1.2
ORDER OF OPERATION When an expression involves all (or some of) the signs x, , +, - the
operations of division and multiplication must be followed by addition
As the value of an expression depends upon the order in which the
and subtraction.
operations indicated by the signs involved are performed, certain
conventions are followed to avoid the ambiguity.
When an expression involves the sign + and -, the order of operations is
from left to right 25p-6px3+24p 4 = 25p-18p+6p = 7p+6p = 13p
16a-11a+6a-4a = 5a+6a-4a = 11a-4a = 7a

Any expression within brackets is regarded as a single number. But
within the brackets the above rules will apply.
When an expression involves the signs x and , the order of operation 9a+5(3a-5a+7a) + {2(22a-9a+3a)-25a}
is division first and multiplication next.
+&-
+&-
=9a+5(5a)+{2(16a)-25a}
48m 6x2 = 8mx2 = 6m and not 48m 12 = 4 X X
=9a+25a+{32a-25a}
+&-
=9a+25a+7a
=39a
Rev. 00 8 1.2
Hence in general we can say that a x b = b x a where a, b are any

ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION positive quantities integral or fractional.
ALGEBRAIC MULTIPLICATION This is known as the Commutative law of multiplication, which tells us
that the factors of a product may be taken in any order.
When the quantities to be multiplied are positive integers, multiplication
may have to be regarded as repeated addition; the multiplier denoting
the number of times the multiplicand is to be repeated. Thus in 5 x 4, 4 Also we know that 4 x 5 x 7 = 4 x (5 x 7) = 5 x (4 x 7)
is the multiplier and 5 is the multiplicand. But 5 x (-4) is meaningless
according to the above definition and as in algebra we have to deal with
quantities of all kinds, integral, fractional, positive and negative. And generally, a x b x c = a x (b x c) = b x (a x c) and so on.
Therefore we need a more comprehensive definition.
This is known as the Associated law of multiplication, which tells that the
factors of the product may be grouped together in any manner.
In general if a, b and c be any positive integers,
a x b = b x a. Lastly in general (a + b) c = ac + bc
Also a x b x c= b x a x c= b x c x a = a x c x b and so on. This is known as the Distribution law of multiplication, which tells us that
In arithmetic it was shown that the product of a composite expression by a monomial is found by
multiplying each of its terms by the monomial and adding the partial
4 3 43 product so obtained.
=
7 5 7 5
Hence the following definition is suggested.
Algebraic multiplication is such an operation that the statements in the
4 3 3 4 three laws concerning it, which are true in form whether these quantities
And therefore =
7 5 5 7 are integers or fractions, positive or negative.
Rev. 00 9 1.2
In order to explain multiplication clearly, certain arrangements of These rules may be demonstrated as follows:
algebraic terms previously not defined must be discussed. These are
monomials, binomials and polynomials. A monomial is an expression
containing only one term such as x, ab, 2z, xy2m, 2xy, and a2b3y. A (+a) x (+b) = +ab
binomial is an expression containing two terms connected by a minus (-) (+a) x (-b) = -ab
or plus (+) sign, as a + b, 2x + 3y, abc + xyz, and 4y2 - 3z. A
polynomial is a general term describing expressions containing two or (-a) x (+b) =-ab
more algebraic terms. (-a) x (-b) = +ab
In the multiplication of algebraic terms, monomials, binomials, any other
polynomials can be multiplied by any other expression regardless of
whether it is a monomial, binomial, or other polynomial. Fractional To multiply purely literal terms, which are unlike, the terms are merely
terms and expressions can be multiplied by any other term or gathered together as a unit.
expression. a x b = ab, ab x cd = abcd aby x cdx = abcdxy
In the algebraic multiplication of terms and expressions, the signs of To multiply literal terms by like terms, the power of the term (which will
each term or expression must be carefully noted and properly handled. be discussed later) is raised.
The following rules apply:
a x a=a2, ab x ab = a2b2 abx x aby = a2b2xy
When two terms of like signs are multiplied, the sign of the product is
positive.
When two terms of unlike signs are multiplied, the product is negative. bc x bc x bc= b3c3 abc bcx cxy =ab2c3x2y
Multiplication in algebra can be indicated in four ways.

For example: ab = a x b = a.b = (a) (b)
xyz = x x y x z = x.y.z. = (x)(y)(z)
Rev. 00 10 1.2
When you perform multiplication in algebra, you must be alert to The above expression can also be written as
observe what the indications are and to perform the computation
a(a+b)+b(a+b)
accordingly. It must be noted whether there is no sign, a regular
multiplication sign, or a dot placed between the terms to be multiplied. And now we can multiply the binomial (a + b) by a and b separately. By
doing so w will get the same answer we obtained from the example
In multiplying a binomial by a monomial, which we studied under
above.
distribution law of multiplication, we multiplied each term of the binomial
separately by the monomial. a2 + 2ab + b2
a ( b+c ) = ab + ac and The multiplication of polynomials follows the same pattern as that shown
2 above.
a ( ab + xy ) = a b +axy
When multiplied the polynomial 2x + 3y - z
4x - 5y + 6z
To multiply a binomial by another binomial, multiply each term of one by term +4x, 8x2+12xy-4xz
binomial by each term of the other binomial and then combine terms. by term -5y, -10xy -15y2 + 5yz
by term +6z 12xz + 18yz + 6z2
a x + x b The answer we get is 8x +2xy +8xz-15y +23yz - 6z2
2 2
x x
a + b The sequence of terms in a polynomial does not affect the value
of the expression; however, It is customary to arrange the terns in
a2 + ab descending powers of some particular literal number, thus:
ab b2 4a3 6a2b + 5ab +4b2
a2 + 2ab b2
Note that the spaces between terms are shown larger than normal for
the explanation purposes. You may write the answer in the normal
manner as a2 + 2ab + b2.
Another method of multiplying the terms given in the above example is
that
(a + b) (a + b)
Rev. 00 11 1.2
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS IN ALGEBRA

When multiplying fractions in algebra, we follow procedures similar to
those used in arithmetic. When a fraction is multiplied by a monomial,
the numerator of the fraction is multiplied and the denominator remains
the same as before the multiplication.
2b 3a 2b 6ab
3a x = =
5c 5c 5c
If the fraction is multiplied by a binomial, the numerator is multiplied by

both terms of the binomial and the denominator remains the same.
5 xy 5 xy ( 4 x + 2y ) 20 x 2 y + 10 xy 2
(4x +2y) = =
7z 7z 7z
When fractional polynomials are multiplied, the numerators and the
denominators of the two fractions are separately multiplied to calculate
the final answer.
7 x 2y 2 x + 7 y (7 x 2y )(2 x + 7 y )
=
5z 3z 15 z 2
14 x 2 + 49 xy 4 xy 14 y 2
=
15z 2
14 x 2 + 45 xy 14 y 2 ALGEBRAIC DIVISION
=
15z 2 Division in algebra may be considered the reverse of multiplication, just
as in arithmetic. The division, sign is not usually employed, and
Rev. 00 12 1.2
making the dividend the numerator of a fraction, and the divisor the ac
denominator of the fraction indicates division. Also it can be proven that a b x c = a x c b =
b
a Thus in a chain of divisions and multiplications, the factors and divisions
For example a b usually written as
b may appear in any order. This is called Commutative law of division.
2a + 5b
And (2z +5b) (x + y) is written as
x+y When we have (a + b) c
Similar to the laws we studied under multiplication, there are three such (a + b) c = ac + bc
laws under division.
Now if we divide (a + b) c by c it is the same as dividing (ac +bc)
c.
It can be proven that a b c = a bc Thus the quotient of a composite quantity divided by a monomial is
found by dividing each of its terms by the monomial. This is known as
That is to divide any quantity successively by two others is the same as
Distribution law of division.
to divide it by their product. This is known as Associative law of division.
If we have a6 a4
a 1
We already know that a b = = a x aaaaaa
b b a6 a4 = = a a =a2
aaaa
1
is the reciprocal of b
b
Thus to divide one quantity by another is the same as to multiply the This can also be written as
former by the reciprocal of the latter. a6 a4 = a6-4 = a2
Hence a power of a quantity is divided by a lower power of the same
quantity by subtracting the index of the divisor from the index of the
dividend. This is called the Index law of division.
Similar to the rules of signs in multiplication there are rules of signs in

division. They are
Rev. 00 13 1.2
(+ab) (+b) = +a Arrange the problem as shown

(-ab) (-b) = +a
3x + 4y
(-ab) (+b) = -a 2x y 6 x 2 + 5 xy 4y 2
(+ab) (-b) = -a 6x2 3xy
8xy 4y22
8xy 4y
Lets study the division through some examples.
4 a + 6 ab
= 2 + 3b
2a Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term, of the divisor. Write
In the above example the monomial divisor 2a was divided into both the resulting term as the first term of the answer, and then multiply the
terms of the binomial dividend (numerator). In this example the divisor complete divisor by the term. Place the product of this multiplication
divided evenly into both terms of the dividend. If, however, the divisor under the dividend so that like terms are under like terms.
will not divide evenly into both terms, a part of the quotient will have to Subtract the lower number from the upper number by changing the
be fractional. signs of the subtrahend and adding. Bring down the remainder and the
rest of the terms in the dividend.
3x + 2y 2y Divide the first term of the new dividend (8xy -4y2) by the first term of the
=3+ divisor, and write the quotient in the answer with the correct sign.
x x
Multiply both terms of the divisor by the second term in the answer, and
place the product below the last dividend. Subtract as before. In this
The division of polynomials may be done according to the examples case the division is even and the problem is complete.
given in the next column. However, this method is not particularly useful ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
in algebraic operations, because it is rare that one would encounter
polynomials of more than three terms which are perfect multiplies of We have already seen fractions in arithmetic and they are parts of a
other polynomials. quantity, unit, or an object. Also a fraction may be considered an
indication of a division. For example, the fraction indicates that the
6 x 2 + 5 xy 4 y 2 numerator 3 is to be divided by the denominator 4. This is true also in
2x y algebra.
Rev. 00 14 1.2
In arithmetic we came across terms like proper fractions, improper

fraction and mixed numbers. But in algebra we do not use these terms.
Similarly when both numerator and denominator of a fraction are divided
In algebra they are just fractions.
by the same expression the value of the fraction remains unchanged.
Like in arithmetic, algebraic fractions also may be changed in form
without changing their values. If the numerator and the denominator of a ( 2x + 3y ) ( 3x + 5 ) ( 2 x + 3 y ) (7 x 5 y )
fraction are both multiplied by the same term or expression or number, =
(7 x 5 y ) ( 3 x + 5 ) (3x + 5 ) (3x + 5 )
the value of the fraction remains unchanged. For example
(2x + 3y ) (3x + 5 ) (2x + 3y )
= =
3x 3 9x ( 3 x + 5 ) (7 x 5 y ) (7 x 5 y )
=
4 3 12
3x 9x In a similar manner larger algebraic fraction may be simplified in some
The value of is the same as .
4 12 cases. This process is called reducing the fraction. To reduce the
fraction to its lowest terms, we divide both the numerator and the
denominator by the largest number that will go into each without leaving
A fraction may contain whole numbers, monomials, binomials and a remainder. This is very similar to what we did in arithmetic to reduce a
polynomials in its numerator and denominator. When both the larger fraction to simplified fraction.
numerator and the denominator of such a fraction is multiplied or divided
by the same whole number, or a decimal, or a monomial, or a binomial
or any type of algebraic expression, the value of the fraction remains
unchanged.
(2x + 3y )
Thus when both numerator and denominator of are
(7 x 5 y )
multiplied by 3x+5 the value of the original fraction does not change.
(2x + 3y ) (3x + 5 ) (2x + 3y ) (3x + 5 ) 2x + 3y

= =
(7 x 5 y ) ( 3 x + 5 ) (7 x 5 y ) ( 3 x + 5 ) 7 x 5y
Rev. 00 15 1.2
3 a _ 2 b 11a + 13 b
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC -
4 a + 5 b 13 a + 12 b
FRACTIONS
Similar to the arithmetic addition and subtraction In order to add or
Now in this case it is difficult to find the LCD as it with arithmetic
subtract algebraic fractions, it is necessary that the denominators of the
fractions. Therefore the easiest way is to use product of 4a+5b and
fractions have equal values. For example, it is not possible to add
13a+12b.
2x +7 5x + 9
to until the denominators of the fractions have been ( 3 a 2 b )(13 a + 12 b ) (11a + 13 b )( 4 a + 5 b )
3 4 Hence =
changed to equal values. Since 3 and 4 will both go evenly into 12, we ( 4 a + 5 b )(13 a + 12 b )
2 x + 7 4( 2 x + 7 ) 5x + 9 3( 5 x + 9 )
can change to and to having 12 as ( 39a 2 + 36 ab 26 ab 24 b 2 ) ( 44 a 2 + 55 ab + 52 ab + 65 b 2 )
3 3 4 4 4 3 =
the LCD. ( 4 a + 5 b )(13 a + 12 b )
39a 2 + 10 ab - 24 b 2 44 a 2 107 ab 65 b 2
=
2x +7 5x + 9 4( 2 x + 7 ) 3( 5 x + 9 ) ( 4 a + 5 b )(13 a + 12 b )
Thus + = +
3 4 3 4 4 3 5 a 2 97 ab 89 b 2 ( 5 a 2 + 97 ab + 89 b 2 )
= =
( 4 a + 5 b )(13 a + 12 b ) ( 4 a + 5 b )(13 a + 12 b )
8 x + 28 + 15 x + 27 If the answer cannot be further reduced it is left as it is.
=
12
We will not discuss algebraic fraction multiplication and division in this
place as we have already discussed those subjects.
23 x + 55
=
12
In the above example of addition we had whole numbers in the
denominators. But when they are algebraic expressions, the operation
becomes complex.
Lets study a complex problem. In this example we use a sum with
subtraction.
Rev. 00 16 1.2
B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.2-ALGEBRA
LINEAR EQUATIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS. Hence we distinguish between two kinds of equations.
An equation, which is true for all values of the letter or letters involved, is
Any two expressions connected by the sign of equality form an called an identical equation
equation, and each of the expressions so connected is called a member
or a side of the equation. Sometimes the sign is used for an identity.
2(x+1)+(3x-1) = 5x+1
An equation, which is true only when the letters involved have particular
values, is called an equation of condition or merely an equation.
Left Hand Side (LHS) RHS We see that the equation x - 5 = 0 is true when x=5. The value 5 is said
to satisfy the equation.
If in this equation we put x=2,say, The process of finding that value of x, which will satisfy an equation, is
We get the LHS = 2(2+1)+(3x2-1) = 6+5 =11 called solving the equation.
And for RHS = 5x2+1=10+1= 11 The value of the unknown quantity, which satisfies an equation, is called
a root or solution of the equation.
Thus LHS = RHS
A equation which when simplified involves one symbol in the first degree
In other words the equation is true for x=2. Similarly by actual is called a simple equation with regard to that symbol.
substitution we can see that the equation is true for any other value of x.
Examples are
Similarly
2x +3=5
(a-b)(a+b) = a2 b2
4a 3 = 13
If you substitute any set of values to a and b, the LHS will be equal to
RHS.
On the other hand in the equation 5x=10 is true only when x=2. Simple equations are also called equations of first degree or linear
equations.
Also equation (x+2)+2(x-1) =4x-3 is true only when x=3.
Oct 2006 17 1.2

For Training Purposes Only
In the case of simple equations with one unknown quantity, the process TRANSPOSITION
of solving equation consists mainly in the use of the following four
Suppose x a = b
axioms or self-evident truths.
Then adding a to both sides we get
xa+a=b+a or x=b+a
If equals were added to equals, the sums are equal.
Thus if x = a, then x + 2 = a + 2.
Comparing above equations, we observe that a disappears from the
LHS and appears on the RHS with its sign changed.
If equals were taken from equals, the remainders are equal.
By taking a few more illustrations of a similar nature, we deduce the
Thus if x = b, then, x 3 = b 3 following general principle.
Any term may be removed from one side of an equation to the other
side by simply changing its sign.
If equals multiply equals, the products are equal.
The process of removing terms from one side to the other side is called
Thus if x = a, then, 4x = 4a
Transposition.
It is always advisable to check the correctness of the solution by
If equals divide equals, the quotients are equal. substituting the numerical value of x in both the sides of the equation
Thus if 7x = 14, then, x = 2. and verifying that the two sides have the same numerical value.
Lets see some examples.

Solve 2x-13 =7
Adding 13 to both the sides
2x-13+13=7+13
2x=20
Dividing both sides by 2 we get, x=10
Oct 2006 18 1.2

It will also be useful to remember that the sign of every term of an
equation may be changed without destroying the equality.
x a =b + c
When multiplied the expression by -1 (x a)(-1)=(b + c)(-1)
Hence
-x + a= -b c
And also the positions of the two sides of an equation may be
interchanged without altering the signs.
Thus, if 6 = x 2, then x 2 = 6
Also the same term may be cancelled from both sides from an equation.
Lets see this trough an example
2x3+3x2+10x+13 = 3x3+3x2+7x-8
Transposing we get
2x3+3x2+10x-3x3 -3x2 -7x = -13-8

-x3+3x = -21
Therefore x3-3x = 21
Oct 2006 19 1.2

EQUATIONS INVOLVING NUMERICAL DENOMINATORS EQUATIONS INVOLVING DECIMALS
When an equation consists of numerical denominators, we can get rid of The decimals in equations can be converted into vulgar fraction.
the denominators by multiplying both sides of the equation by Lowest
In the example given below
Common Denominator (LCD).
0.25 x 0.025 2 x 0.45
In the example given below =
0.125 1.25
(x 6) (x 4) x 2
+ =8 We can convert the decimals in LHS of the equation by multiplying both
5 3 7
numerator and denominator by 1000.This is because 0.125 and 0.025
Multiplying both side by 105, the ( LCM of 5,3,7). We get have the highest number of decimals on the LHS and to covert them in
to an integers, we need to multiply them by 1000.
21(x-6) + 35 (x-4) = 840-15(x-2)
0.25 x 0.025 1000 250 x 25
Hence LHS =
0.125 1000 125
21x-126+35x-140= 840-15x+30
2 x 0.45 100 200 x 45
Doing the same to the RHS =
1.25 100 125
56x-266= 870-15x
250 x 25 200 x 45
Transposing, we get 56x+15x=870+266 Then =
125 125
71x = 1136
x = 16
Transposing, we get
250x-200x = -45+25
50 x= -20
x = -0.4
Oct 2006 20 1.2

2-4=2x2x to -4 factors.
INDICES AND POWERS
Similarly 32/6,60, a1/2 have no intelligent meaning at present.
Defining am as the product of m factors, each equal to a, where m is a In order to find meanings for quantities involving fractional and negative
positive integer, we have already proved under algebraic multiplication indices we assume that the fundamental index law namely am x an= am+n
and division, the followings. am is read as mth power of a. The repeated is true for all values of m and n positive, negative, zero and fractional.
factor a is called base and m is called power or index or exponent. FRACTIONAL INDEX
am x an =am+n and There are two ways of finding the meaning of ap/q, when p and q are any
a m a n = a m n two positive integers.
where m and n are positive integers and m>n. FIRST MEANING
To prove this am x an =am+n we assume that m=5 and n=3. Since am x an=am+n for all values of m and n; putting p/q for each of
them,
am x an = a5 x a3 =axaxaxaxaxaxaxa = a8
a5 x a3 = a8 (=a5+3) We have ap/q x ap/q = ap/q +p/q = a2p/q
am x an =am+n Similarly, ap/qxap/qxap/q=ap/q+p/q+p/q=a3p/q and so on
p
This is called The Fundamental Index Law. p/q p/q p/q
xq
Hence a xa xa x..to q factors is equals to a q
=ap
Also it can be proved that This way it is said that the meaning of ap/q is the qth root of ap where p
and q are positive integers and a is positive.
Since a x a x a x a x am times = am
1 1 2
(am) x (am) x (am) x (am).n times = (am)n Hence a 2 = a , a 3 = 3 a , a 3 = 3 a 2 and so on.
Defining am as the product of m factors each equal to a, where m is a p
q
positive integer, we have already proved the following Laws of Indices. Generally a q
= ap
Law I. am x an = am+n (The Fundamental Index Law)
Law II. (am)n = amn
Law Ill. (ab)m = ambm
FRACTIONAL AND NEGATIVE INDICES
A little reflection will show that the definition of am becomes meaningless
when m is fractional or negative. For instance it is meaningless to say
Oct 2006 21 1.2

SECOND MEANING
We have by the index law NEGATIVE INDEX
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
Since am x an = am+n is true for all values of m and n
a a a a .to p factors = a
q q q q q q q q
.to p terms If we replace m with 2 and n with 5 on the above equation, we get
aa 1 1
= 3 = a 3
p
1 p a2 a5 = =
i.e. a q = aq aaaaa aaa a

1 1
a n = n
,and a n = n
p 1 a a
Hence a q is the pth power of a q
Hence a-n is the reciprocal of an and an is the reciprocal of a-n
p/q th th
Thus a may be interpreted either as the q root of the p power of a or It is proven that fractional indices have a meaning. a is one way of
as the pth power of qth root of a. 1 1
Hence when the index is a fraction its numerator indicates the power indicating a 2 and, 4
a can be written as x 4 .
2
and the denominator the root.
Also it is proven that 5
y2 = y5
ZERO INDEX
Since am an = am-n true for all values of m and n, putting m=5 and n=3
we get
aaaaa 2
am an = a5 a3= =a (= a5-2)
aaa
Similarly a n a n = a n n = a 0 = 1
Oct 2006 22 1.2

Lets see some complex examples.
1
a 2 b 3 a 1 b 4 2

a 8 b 7 a 5 b 4
Solve 5
( )
1
= 5 a 28 b 3+ 7 a 1+5 b 4 4 2
( )
1
= 5 a 10 b10 a + 4 b 8 2
1

( )
4 5 1

= a 10 b 5 a + 4 b 8 2

10 +4 8
=a 5
b2 a 2 b 2
= a 0 b 2
1
= b 2 Or
b2
Note that in division, the indices of the divisor change their sign and
multiplied.
Oct 2006 23 1.2

In any decimal number the digits having the smallest weight is known as
BINARY AND OTHER APPLICABLE NUMBERING the least significant digit (LSD) and the one having the greatest weight
SYSTEMS or value is known as the most significant digit (MSD). In the example
3584 the corresponding digits are 4 and 3
The system we have been discussing under the module arithmetic is the
decimal number system. The decimal number system is the most Also note that when we are working with more than one number system,
commonly used system in which the ten digits 0 to 9 are combined in a it is necessary to identify the radix of each number, which includes zeros
certain way so that they indicate a specific quantity. The basic and ones.
distinguishing feature of this system, and in fact of all number systems
used in digital equipment is, its base or radix, since it indicates the
number of characters or digits used to represent quantities in the For example the number 101 could represent a quantity of one hundred
system. Thus, the decimal system has a base or radix of 10 because we and one in decimal, but in binary form, which we are going to study, it
use the ten digits 0 to 9. The number 10 is not a basic digit, since it is would represent a quantity of five. A small subscript number (not to be
the result of the digits 1 and 0 and so is specifically 1 ten and 0 units. confused with the index or exponent referred to earlier) is therefore
written after the principal number to indicate its system radix. Thus, the
decimal system radix being 10 and the binary system radix being 2, the
Each digit position in the decimal number carries a particular weight in notation for the examples chosen would be
determining the magnitude of that number, e.g. weights of units, tens,
hundreds, thousands, etc. The weight is some power of the radix 10 and
is indicated by a number called an index or exponent written as a 101(10) = 1100101(2) and 101(2) = 5(10)
subscript so that it tells us how many times 10 is to be multiplied itself
when using it as a factor. Thus as we have already studied, 103 is read
as ten to the power 3 and is equal to 10 x 10 x 10 or 1000. Consider for Examples of the notation related to the other number system in use will
example, the number 3564; we have 4 units, 8 tens, 5 hundreds and 3 be given later in this chapter.
thousands. The number can therefore written as
(3 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8x101) + (4 x 100)

= (3000) + (500) + (80) + (4)
= 3584
Oct 2006 24 1.2

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
The distinguishing feature of this system, on which all digital processing The method of converting 30(10) is given as an example in the table
is dependant, is that it uses the radix 2. The two binary digits, or bits as below. Reading the last remainder as the MSD and the first remainder
they are always called, are 0 and 1. When they are appropriately as the LSD, we note that the binary equivalent of 30(10) is 11110(2).
arranged they can also represent any decimal number. Each bit position
in a binary number carries a specific weight and the position weights are
some power of the radix 2. The table below is a comparison between Decimal number
the decimal and binary system. Binary index Quotient Remainder or bit
Binary Decimal 2 30 15 0 LSD
20 = 1 0
10 = 1 2 15 7 1
21 = 2 101 = 10 2 7 3 1
22 = 4 102 = 100 2 3 1 1
23 = 8 103 = 1000 MSD
2 1 0 1
24 = 16 104 = 10000
To convert from decimal to binary, a continuous process of dividing the The binary equivalents of the decimal numbers 0 to 15 are given in the
decimal number and quotients by 2 is carried out. The equivalent bits table below.
are then determined on the basis of whether or not there is any
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
remainder from the division.
0 0000 8 1000
1 0001 9 1001
2 0010 10 1010
3 0011 11 1011
4 0100 12 1100
5 0101 13 1101
6 0110 14 1110
7 0111 15 1111
Oct 2006 25 1.2

To convert binary to decimals it is only necessary to add the value for
each position of a having a bit equal to 1. This is given in the table
below. Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
0 0000 8 1000
2n 24 23 22 21 20 Base with exponent
1 0001 9 1001
16 8 4 2 1 Decimal value of each 2 0010 10 1010
position 3 0011 11 1011
1 =1 4 0100 12 1100
5 0101 13 1101
1 0 1 =1+4 = 5 6 0110 14 1110
1 1 0 1 1 =1+2+8+16=27(10) 7 0111 15 1111
The largest decimal number value (N) that can be represented for a
given number of bits (n) is, in fact, one less than the total number of
Binary numbers made up of the appropriate group of bits are also states, and expressed by
referred to as binary words, and the group of bits is termed as a byte.
Most digital circuits and equipment use a fixed word size, the size
determining the maximum magnitude and resolution with which N = 2n -1
numbers can be represented. The number of bits in the word
determines the number of discrete states that can exist and the
maximum decimal number that can be represented. The formula used in Thus, for a 4 bit word, the maximum decimal value is
this connection is N =2n where N is the total number of states and n is
the number of bits. If you have a look at the table below you will see that 16 1 = 15.
the binary numbers shows constitute a 4-bit word. Referring the table
above you will see that the binary numbers shown constitute a 4-bit
word,
Thus, from the above formula a total of states; N = 2n = 24 = 16(10). So
16 binary bit patterns or number combinations can in this case be
created as shown.
Oct 2006 26 1.2

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM The conversion from decimal to octal follows the same rules as for
decimal to binary, except that 8 is used instead of 2. The method of
The octal number system is often used in digital electronics, and is for
converting the number 3844(10) to its octal equivalent 7404(8) is shown
convenient for representing binary numbers because it requires far
below.
fewer digits than does the binary system. The radix of the octal number
system is 8 and octal counting proceeds from 0 to 7 just as in the Decimal number Remainder
decimal system. The digits 8 or 9 do not exist in the octal, and to Octal radix Quotient (octal digit)
progress from 7 requires a carry operation and use of a position value. 8 3844 480 4
LSD
8 480 60 0
The table below shows octal numbers and their decimal equivalents. 8 60 7 4
8 7 0 0 MSD
OCTAL DECIMAL An example of converting an octal number to its decimal equivalent is

0 0 given below.
1 1
227(8) = (2x82) + (2x81) + (7x80)
2 2 = (2x64) + (2x8) + (7x1)
3 3 = 151(10)
4 4 A requirement often exists for octal to binary conversion, and this is
5 5 based on a substitution method, which takes advantage of a natural
6 6 relationship between octal and binary numbers. Since the radix 8 equals
7 7 23, the relationship is that one octal digit may be expressed by three bits
10 8 as shown below.
11 9
OCTAL BINARY OCTAL BINARY
0 000 4 100
1 001 5 101
2 010 6 110
3 011 7 111
Oct 2006 27 1.2

Conversion from binary to octal is also done by substitution. The binary
digits are arranged in groups of three, filling out the extreme left or right
group with zeros if necessary, and then directly substituting the octal
equivalent for each group. For example, in converting 11100(2), since
there are only five digits, the first two digits would be filled out with a 0;
thus
11100(2) = 011 100
= 3 4
= 34(8)
Oct 2006 28 1.2

HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM Conversion from decimals to hexadecimals is as follows. In this case we
This system as also used in digital electronics and is one in which the convert 158(10) to hexadecimals.
numbers are to the radix of 16(10). It is unique in that the ten decimals Decimal number
digits 0 to 9 are used, together with letters A to F to represent 10 to 15 radix Quotient Remainder
digits. This is shown in the table below.
2 158 9 8 LSD
Dec Hexadec Binar Dec Hexadec Binar 2 9 0 9 MSD
0 0 0000 8 8 1000
In another example
1 1 0001 9 9 1001
1FF(16) = (1x162)+(Fx161)+(Fx160)
2 2 0010 10 A 1010
= (256) + (240)+(15)
3 3 0011 11 B 1011
= 511(10)
4 4 0100 12 C 1100
5 5 0101 13 D 1101
Conversion from hexadecimal to binary, and vice versa, is the same as
6 6 0110 14 E 1110 the substitution method adopted for octal/binary/octal conversions
7 7 0111 15 F 1111 except that digits are grouped into four bits.
For example
Another feature of the hexadecimal system is that each digit is 1A6(16) = 0001 1010 0110
equivalent to 4 digits. =000110100110(2)
The conversion from decimal to hexadecimal is done by repeated
division by 16(10) as shown below. Conversion from hexadecimal to
decimal is similar to conversion from octal to decimal, the positional Similarly;
values being from right to left. 011011110101=0110 1111 0101
For example 23(16) is equivalent to 35(10). = 6F5(16)
23(16)= (2x161) + (3x160)
= (32) + (3)
= 35(10)
Oct 2006 29 1.2

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Two or more equations, which are all satisfied by the same values of the
Consider the equation x + y = 9, where x and y are two unknown unknown quantities involved in them, are called simultaneous equations.
quantities. We can give an unlimited number of pairs of values which will They are said to be simple or first degree if each of the unknown
satisfy the equation as the following table shows. quantities occurs only in the first power, and the product of the unknown
quantities does not occur.
X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 etc. We can find the values of unknown quantities of simultaneous equations
by using different method. Lets study these methods through few
y 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 etc examples.
Solve
Again, if we take another equation x y = 3, we can find an unlimited 2x+3y=8 (1)
number of pairs of values which will satisfy this equation as following x + 2y = 5 (2)
table shows. From (1), we have 2x = 8 3y or
8 3y
x =
X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 etc. 2
8 3y
When we substitute x = in the 2nd equation
y -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 2
etc
8 3y
+2y =5
2
From these tables we find that, although an unlimited pairs of values Multiplying the equation by 2
satisfy the equations x + y = 9 and x y = 3 when considered
separately, yet there is one value of x, i.e.; 6 and one value of y i.e.; 3, 8-2y+4y = 10
for which they are simultaneously true. 2y = 2
y=1
There may be more than two unknown quantities, which will be satisfied 8 3
by the same values of these unknown quantities. These equations may x= = 2.5
2
be satisfied by unlimited sets of values of the unknown quantities, but
Therefore x = 2.5 and y = 1
there is only one set, which will satisfy them all.
Oct 2006 30 1.2

The values of the unknown quantity for which the equation is satisfied
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS are called its roots, and the process of finding them is called solving the
equation.
Quadratic equations or equations of the second degree are defined as
equations, which contain the square of the unknown quantity, but no e.g. x=1 and x=4 satisfy the equation x2-5x+4=0
higher power. They are also called simply a quadratic.
Hence 1 and 4 are the roots of this equation.
Quadratic equations are of two kinds.
Pure Quadratics
and
Adfected Quadratics.
A quadratic equation that contains only the second power of the

unknown quantity (and not the first power) is called a pure quadratic
equation.
e.g. 3x2 = 147.
A quadratic equation, which contains the second as well as the first

power of the unknown quantity, is called an adfected quadratic
equation,.
e.g., i) x2-14x+45=0
x
ii) x+ =3
2
iii) x x =2
2x + 3 5x + 3
iv) =
x +4 3x + 5
Note that the equations ii), iii) and iv) on simplification becomes
x2-3x+2=0; x2-5x+4=0 and x2-4x+3=0 respectively.
Oct 2006 31 1.2

Sometimes the use of some artifices make the process of solving the
SOLUTION OF PURE AND ADFECTED QUADRATICS.
equations much simpler as is clear from the following example. The
form of the question will generally suggest the method of simplification.
A pure quadratic equation can always be reduced to the simple form x + 2 x +1 1
x2=k, and then the values of x can be determined by taking the square Solve + =
x 2 x 1 2
root of both sides. The roots evidently will be + k and - k , written If we multiply the entire equation by the LCM of the denominators;
shortly as k , and read as plus and minus k under- root. 2( x 2 )( x 1 )( x + 2 ) 2( x 2 )( x 1 )( x + 1 ) 2( x 2 )( x 1 )
+ =
(x 2) ( x 1) 2
On the other hand the adfected quadratic equations can be reduced to
the form ax2 + bx + c =0 (this is called the most general form of a
2(x-1)(x+2)+2(x-2)(x+1)=(x-2)(x-1)
2(x2+x-2)+2(x2-x-2)=(x2-3x+2)
quadratic equation) by transposing all the terms to one side, and then 2x2+2x-4+2x2-2x-4=x2-3x+2
collecting separately the co-efficients of x2, the coefficients of x, and the 3x2 +3x-10=0
term independent of x is called the absolute term. To find the roots for
the adfected quadratic equations we may use two methods. They are 10
x2 +x=
the method of factors and the method by completing squares. 3
We know from this equation we cannot find the factors easily. In this
First we will see the method by factors. The rule for this method is to case what we do here is, add a value equal to the square of half of
transpose all the terms to the left-hand side so that the right-hand side the co efficient of x to both the sides of the equation
becomes zero, and then to break up the left hand side into linear 1 10 1
x2+x+ = +
factors. The roots of the equation will then be obtained by equating 4 3 4
each factor to zero because the product is clearly equal to zero when 2
1 43 1 43
any one factor vanishes. x + = and therefore x + =
2 12 2 12
For example solve 9x2+15x-14=0 1 43
Factorizing the given equation, we have x=
2 12
(3x-2)(3x+7)=0
either (3x-2) =0 or 3x+7=0
2 7 It should be understood in some cases, forgoing methods couldnt be
x= or x= used to solve some types of quadratic equations.. The methods use to
3 3
2 7 solve that kind of equations are beyond the scope of this text.
Hence x= or
3 3
Oct 2006 32 1.2

LOGARITHM
And using the definition of a logarithm, we can state
We can use tables of logarithms - log tables - to carry out the 3 = 100.4771
multiplication and division of numbers and to evaluate powers, roots and
reciprocals. Before the widespread availability of reasonably priced The use of logs simplifies calculations: it essentially converts
electronic calculators, log tables were the main-stay for calculation work. Multiplication into an addition process
They still provide a very valuable aid to working out calculations. Four-
Division into a subtraction process
figure log tables provide results of four-significant figure (or nearly so)
accuracy. Powers into a multiplication process
Roots into a division process
The most common form of logarithms and the ones used in most
calculation work are logarithms to base 10. The logarithm of a number N
to base 10 is defined as the power to which the base 10 must be raised Since we can directly apply the rules of indices:
to equal the number, i.e. if N is expressed in the form:
N = 10x 10x x 10y = 10x+y to multiply, add logs
Then the exponent x is the logarithm of N. 10x 10y = 10x-y to divide, subtract logs.
[10x] n = 10xxn multiply log by power
The logarithm of a number is denoted as
n
10 x = 10xn divide log by n to find root.
Log 10N = x
We use log tables to find the logs x and y of numbers. We use antilog
tables to reverse the process, which is to find the number corresponding
Base Number to the log result. The basic steps involved in using logs to aid
calculations are given below.
The actual value of the logarithm, that is x, is found from log tables. The
10 is usually omitted when writing logs .For example, the logarithm of 3 Find For x ADD logs Convert log
For SUBTRACT logs
to base 10 is written as logs of
For powers MULTIPLY LOG
result to
Number numbers ANSWER
using logs by powers RESULTS using ANTI-
LOG For n DIVIDE log by n LOGTABLES
Log 3 = 0.4771
Oct 2006 33 1.2

DETERMINING THE LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER Note that the logarithms of 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 are negative integers.
Rather than write -1,-2,-3 we use the bar convention:
It is an easy matter to deduce the logarithms of numbers which are
whole number powers of 10, simply by straightforward application of the
log definition.
bar 1 written as 1 means -1
x
If N= 10 then log N = x bar 2 written as 2 means -2
bar 3 written as 3 means -3
number log
Table 7.1 below gives a list of the logs of multiples and submultiples of
For example 10.
Number N Expressed as Log N
power of 10
1000 = 103 so log 1000 = 3 10000 104 4
100 = 102 so log 100 = 2 1000 103 3
10 = 101 so log 10 = 1
100 102 2
1 = 100 so log 1 = 0
10 101 1
1 100 0
We can carry on the same technique for negative whole number powers 0.1 10-1 1
of 10: 0.01 10-2 2
0.001 10-3 3
0.0001 10-4 4
1
0.1 = = 10-1 so log 0.1 = -1 In general, when 10n n
10 n is any integer
1 10-n n
0.01 = = 10-2 so log 0.01 = -2
100
1
0.001 = = 10-3 so log 0.001 = -3
1000
Oct 2006 34 1.2

LOG AND ANTILOG TABLES Log 2.078 = 0.3160 Log corresponding to 20.7
Four figure log tables list the values of log N that is the value of x 17 Mean difference for third decimal place digit8
in N = 10x, for numbers between N = 1.000 and 9.999. The first 0.3177
portion of four-figure log table is shown below.
i.e. log 2.078 = 0.3177 so 2.078 = 100.3177
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0.0000 0.0043 0.0086 0.0128 0.0170 0.0212 0.0253 0.0294 0.0334 0.0374 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
11 0.0414 0.0453 0.0492 0.0531 0.0569 0.0607 0.0645 0.0682 0.0719 0.0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34 So if we wish to evaluate 1.653 x 2.078
12 0.0792 0.0828 0.0864 0.0899 0.0934 0.0969 0.1004 0.1038 0.1072 0.1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
13 0.1139 0.1173 0.1206 0.1239 0.1271 0.1303 0.1335 0.1367 0.1399 0.1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
14 0.1461 0.1492 0.1523 0.1553 0.1584 0.1614 0.1644 0.1673 0.1703 0.1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
15 0.1761 0.1790 0.1818 0.1847 0.1875 0.1903 0.1931 0.1959 0.1987 0.2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25 1.653 x 2.078 = 100.2123+0.3177
16 0.2041 0.2068 0.2095 0.2122 0.2148 0.2175 0.2201 0.2227 0.2253 0.2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
17 0.2304 0.2330 0.2355 0.2380 0.2405 0.2430 0.2455 0.2490 0.2504 0.2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 =100.5360
18 0.2553 0.2577 0.2601 0.2625 0.2648 0.2672 0.2695 0.2718 0.2742 0.2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
19 0.2788 0.2810 0.2833 0.2856 0.2878 0.2900 0.2923 0.2945 0.2967 0.2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
20 0.3010 0.3032 0.3054 0.3075 0.3096 0.3118 0.3139 0.3160 0.3181 0.3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
21 0.3222 0.3243 0.3263 0.3284 0.3304 0.3324 0.3345 0.3365 0.3385 0.3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
If we can now find the value of 100.5360 we can find the product of
22 0.3424 0.3444 0.3464 0.3483 0.3502 0.3522 0.2541 0.3560 0.3579 0.3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17 1.653x2.078. The value of 100.5360 can be found by using antilog
23 0.3617 0.3636 0.3655 0.3674 0.3692 0.3711 0.3729 0.3747 0.3766 0.3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17 tables. The procedure of using the antilog tables and finding the
value of 100.5360 is discussed on the next page.
Figure in front
of decimal point Second decimal place column Mean difference-
and first columns to be
decimal place added for third
figure decimal place
Let us use this table to find the logarithms of, for example 1.653
and 2.078, and at the same time give some insight into the use
of logs in multiplication and division.
Log 1.653 = 0.2175 Log corresponding to 1.63

8 Mean difference for third decimal place digit3
0.2183
i.e log 1.653 = 0.2183 so 1.653 = 100.2183

Similarly
Oct 2006 35 1.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Lets consider next how log tables may be used for division by finding,
.50 3162 3170 3177 3184 3192 3199 3206 3214 3221 3228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 for example, 2.316 1.782. First look up the logs of the two numbers.
.51 3230 3243 3251 3258 3266 3273 3281 3289 3296 3304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.52 3311 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3365 3373 3381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.53 3388 3396 3404 3412 3420 3428 3436 3443 3451 3459 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.54 3467 3475 3483 3491 3409 3508 3516 3524 3532 3540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 Log 2.316 = 0.3636 log 1.782 = 0.2504
.55 3548 3556 3565 3573 3581 3589 3597 3606 3614 3622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 11 + 5 +
.56 3631 3639 3648 3656 3664 3673 3681 3690 3698 3707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.3647 0.2509
.57 3751 3724 3733 3741 3750 3758 3767 3776 3784 3793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.58 3802 3811 3819 3828 3837 3846 3855 3864 3873 3882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
.59 3890 3899 3908 3917 3926 3936 3945 3954 3963 3972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 So 2.316 1.782 = 100.3647 100.2509
10 0.3647
=
The values 10x for x between 0.0000 and 0.9999 are listed in tables 10 0.2509
known as antilogarithm (antilog) tables. The relevant portion of four- = 10 0.3647 0.2509
figure antilog tables for our present problem is given above. = 100.1138
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 67 8 9
The number corresponding to 100.5360 (shown ringed in the antilog
.10 1259 1262 1265 1268 1271 1274 1276 1279 1282 1285 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
tables) is 3436. Note that no decimal point is given. The product is, .11 1288 1291 1294 1297 1300 1303 1306 1309 1312 1315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
1.653 x 2.078 = 3.436 and hence the answer is

antilog 0.1138 = 1297 From .11 row, column 3 of antilog tables
where we have inserted the decimal point to be consistent with 2 Mean difference, column 8
obtaining a sensible answer. 1299
Obviously 100.5360 lies between 100 =1 and 101 = 10 Insert decimal point here since 100.1138 lies between 1 and 10
Rules for looking up antilog and determining the position of the decimal Thus 2.316 1.782 = 1.299
point are discussed later in the subject.
By using log tables we see that multiplication may be accomplished by
adding logs and division may be accomplish by subtracting logs and
looking up the tables of antilog to convert the log result into the number
answer. Note, however that log tables only give log values for numbers
in the range 1.000 to 9.999. Antilog tables give the number results but
we have to decide on the position of the decimal place
Oct 2006 36 1.2

GENERAL RULE TO FIND LOGS:
DETERMINING THE LOG AND ANTILOG OF ANY NUMBER
Table, below which we have already studied, gives the logs of whole Express the number in standard from, e.g.
number powers of 10. With this data and the fact that adding logs
7825000 =7.825x106 and 0.0006231 = 6.231x10-4
carries multiplication we can find the logarithm of any number.
mantissa mantissa
Number N Expressed as Log N
power of 10
10000 104 4 Use log tables to find the log of the mantissa. This log will always
1000 103 3 be a decimal. Add to this the exponent of the base 10 power,
100 102 2 e.g.
10 101 1
1 100 0
0.1 10-1 log 7825000=6.8935 log 0.000 6231= .7946
1
0.01 10-2 2
0.001 10-3 3 The names, characteristic and mantissa are given respectively to the
-4
0.0001 10 4 whole number (integer) and the positive decimal parts of a logarithm
In general, when n is 10n n and the number in front of the power of 10when numbers are expressed
any integer 10-n in standard-type form.
n
e.g.
For example, Log 567.2 = 2.7538 and log 0.1732 = 1 .2385
mantissa mantissa
2067 = 2.067x 103 0.02067 = 2.067x 10-2 charactoristic charactoristic
log 2067 = log 2.067 +log 103 log 0.02067 = log 2.067 +log 10-2
From tables From tables
=0.3154 +3 =0.3154 + 2
=3.3154 = 2 .3154
Oct 2006 37 1.2

GENERAL RULES TO FIND ANTILOG
Use antilog tables to find the antilog of the mantissa (decimal For decimals, the bar characteristic is one more than the number of
part) of the log only. zeros behind the decimal point to the first non-zero digit.
Place the decimal point in the antilog number so there is a single
digit in front of the decimal point. Tables below give some results of finding logs and antilogs.
The characteristic (whole number part of log) tells us the power
of 10 by which the number found in 2) is to be multiplied. Number N Log N Log Antilog (10x)
For example, to find the antilog of 3.4576: 0.003 3 .4771 3 .1628 0.001455
0.050 2 .6990 2 .0030 0.01007
ANTILOG 3.4576 2.868X103
0.627 1 .7973 1 .8964 0.9692
Use antilog tables 6.740 0.8287 0.6709 4.687
for mantissa .4576
88.880 1.9488 1.2372 17.27
792.600 2.8991 2.8418 694.7
1648.000 3.2170 3.6246 4213
In simpler terms we can state:
Log of a number between 1 and 9 is 0.
i.e. the characteristic is one less than the number of digits in front of the
decimal point.
Log of a decimal between 0.1 and 0.9999 is 1.

Log of a decimal between 0.01 and 0.099 99 is 2
Oct 2006 38 1.2

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION EXAMPLES Evaluate 62.79 279.8
Remember that the procedure for multiplication and division using log
tables is 62.79 279.8 = X
Log X = log 62.79 log 279.8
Find the logs of the numbers using log tables, taking care to put
in the appropriate characteristic. =1.7979 2.4469
For multiplication and division, respectively ADD and =1 3510

SUBTRACT logs [log (dividend)-log (divisor)]. 1-2 = -1
Use antilog tables .to convert log result to number answers, X = antilog 1 .3510
taking care to look up only the decimal part (mantissa) of the log =.2244
result. The characteristic of the log result "tells" the position of
the decimal point in the answer. Therefore 62.79 279.8 = 0.2244
Example 0.6821 x5.639 x792.1

Evaluate
56.42 x0.0147
Evaluate 526.4 x 0.000824 using four-figure log tables.
0.6821 x5.639 x792.1
=X
We can write 526.4x0.000824 = X 56.42 x0.0147
Log X = log 0.6821+log 5.639 +log 792.1- (log 56.42+ log 0.0147)
Therefore log x = log 526.4 + log 0.00824
=1 .8339 +0.7512 + 2.8988 (1.7515 + 2 .1673)
= 2.7213 + 4 . 9159
=3.4839 - 1 .9188
= 1 . 6372
1-4+2 = -1
=3.5651
X = antilog 3.5651
So the answer X = antilog 1 . 6372
=3574.0
526 4 x 0 000824 = 0 4337
0.6821 x 5.639 x792.1
=3574 (Approximately).
56.42 x 0.0147
Oct 2006 39 1.2

EVALUATING POWERS, ROOTS AND RECIPROCALS
To find POWERS, i.e. Nn Example
Look up log of number. Evaluate 27.6822
Lets have X = 27.6822
Multiply log by power, i.e. n X log N. Therefore log X = 2 log 27.682
Use antilog tables to convert log result to number result. = 2 x 1.4422
=2.8844
X = antilog 2.8844
To find ROOTS, i.e. n
N 27.6822 =766.3
Look up log of number.

Divide log by n, i.e. (log N) / n. Example
Use antilog tables to convert log result to number result. Evaluate 3

92.62
This can also be written
3
Lets have X = 92.62 as 92.621/3
Note:- if the characteristic is a bar, always adjust this to be 1

Log X = log 92.62
exactly divisible by the root n. 3
1
= X1.9667
Example 3
Divide 1 .4824 by 2 =0.6556
X = antilog 0.6556
1 = 2 +1 so 1 .4824 = 2 +1.4824 3 92.62 =4.525
Remember that we cannot use logs to add or subtract. It is only used for
hence 1 .4824 2 =( 2 +1.8424) 2 complex multiplications, divisions, finding answers for power and roots
= 1 +0.7412 = 1 .7412 etc.
Oct 2006 40 1.2

Student notes
Oct 2006 41 1.2


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Module 1 MATHEMATICS

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.2 ALGEBRA

SUB MODULE 1.2

Table of Contents....................................................Page Table of Contents ................................................... Page

The training notes and diagrams are

Many of the formulas used by mechanics and technicians are algebraic

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS

Positive and negative numbers are called algebraic numbers.

2x +3y +4z 2x +3y +4z

(3a + 7b -6c) -(4a -3b -2c) = 3a + 7b -6c -4a + 3b + 2c

The foregoing expression means that the quantity 4a -3b- 2c is to be

16a-11a+6a-4a = 5a+6a-4a = 11a-4a = 7a

48m 6x2 = 8mx2 = 6m and not 48m 12 = 4 X X

Hence in general we can say that a x b = b x a where a, b are any

Multiplication in algebra can be indicated in four ways.

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS IN ALGEBRA

If the fraction is multiplied by a binomial, the numerator is multiplied by

Similar to the rules of signs in multiplication there are rules of signs in

(+ab) (+b) = +a Arrange the problem as shown

In arithmetic we came across terms like proper fractions, improper

(2x + 3y ) (3x + 5 ) (2x + 3y ) (3x + 5 ) 2x + 3y

Oct 2006 17 1.2

Lets see some examples.

Oct 2006 18 1.2

2x3+3x2+10x-3x3 -3x2 -7x = -13-8

Oct 2006 19 1.2

Oct 2006 20 1.2

Oct 2006 21 1.2

Oct 2006 22 1.2

Oct 2006 23 1.2

(3 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8x101) + (4 x 100)

Oct 2006 24 1.2

Oct 2006 25 1.2

Oct 2006 26 1.2

OCTAL DECIMAL An example of converting an octal number to its decimal equivalent is

Oct 2006 27 1.2

11100(2) = 011 100

Oct 2006 28 1.2

Oct 2006 29 1.2

Oct 2006 30 1.2

A quadratic equation that contains only the second power of the

e.g. 3x2 = 147.

A quadratic equation, which contains the second as well as the first

Oct 2006 31 1.2

Oct 2006 32 1.2

Oct 2006 33 1.2

Oct 2006 34 1.2

Log 1.653 = 0.2175 Log corresponding to 1.63

i.e log 1.653 = 0.2183 so 1.653 = 100.2183

Oct 2006 35 1.2

1.653 x 2.078 = 3.436 and hence the answer is

Oct 2006 36 1.2

Oct 2006 37 1.2

Log of a decimal between 0.1 and 0.9999 is 1.

Oct 2006 38 1.2

For multiplication and division, respectively ADD and =1 3510

Example 0.6821 x5.639 x792.1

Oct 2006 39 1.2

Look up log of number.

Use antilog tables to convert log result to number result. Evaluate 3

Note:- if the characteristic is a bar, always adjust this to be 1

Oct 2006 40 1.2