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Edexcel Biology A2 Notes PDF
Edexcel Biology A2 Notes PDF
When we need energy, the third bond is broken by a hydrolysis reaction using
ATPase enzyme.
All parts of the plant do not need to carry out photosynthesis and therefore do not have
chloroplasts. The most abundant type of chlorophyll is chlorophyll a which is found in
most places. The benefit of having different types is that it is most efficient as each of
the pigments absorbs and captures light from particular areas, more energy from the
light can be used and photosynthesis is maximised. Plant leaves appear green as all
colours apart from green are absorbed so green is reflected back as chlorophyll a is most
abundant.
Photosystem I Lamellae
Photosystem II Granum
Light dependent reactions Thylakoid Membrane
Light independent reactions Stroma
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
The smallest unit of light energy is a photon. When a photon of light hits a
chlorophyll molecule, the energy is transferred to the electrons of that
molecule. Photoexcitation occurs & if an electron is raised to a sufficiently
high energy level it will leave the chlorophyll molecule completely. The excited
electron can be picked up by an electron acceptor (carrier molecule). This in
turn results in the synthesis of ATP by one of two processes Cyclic & Non-
Cyclic photophosphorylation.
CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
BIOMES
The major biomes have developed over millions of years due to:
SUCCESSION -
Communities of animals and plants colonise an area, and over time are
replaced by other, usually more varied communities
Primary Succession
- Rock is uninhabited, due to poor conditions for growth such as no soil or
moisture
- Pioneer species such as algae or lichens penetrate the bare rock
- The pioneer species break the bare rock, this is mixed with the remains
of dead pioneer species organisms HUMUS, which creates the
foundations of soil
- Once soil is established, plants which require soil such as grasses and
ferns colonise the area
- Upon the death of primary colonisers, more humus is added to the soil,
so the nutrient content develops. Roots hold the soil together and retain
more water
- Secondary colonisers more adapted to the new environment will then
colonise the land
- Larger trees block the growth of smaller plants, due to competition for
sunlight & species diversity drops.
- Climax community is self-sustaining & reached where the biodiversity
is constant. Not many further changes occur.
Secondary Succession
Occurs as rivers shift their courses after fires & floods and disturbances
cause by humans. Due to primary succession, the soil is already formed
and contains the seeds, tools and soil organisms, which means the
number of plants and animals present right from the beginning of the
succession, are much higher.
EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACTORS
ABIOTIC FACTOR EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF IN EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF TOO
MODERATION MUCH/LITTLE
Light Plants depend on light for Some plants are able to reproduce
photosynthesis and must be and thrive in low light levels, having
able to cope in areas with extra chlorophyll or other
low levels of light. chlorophyll pigments which are
sensitive to lower light levels.
Animals behaviour may be affected
by seasonal light changes, as well as
reproductive patterns.
Temperature There is a range of Above or below that range,
temperatures which allow reproduction does not occur, even if
growth and reproduction for the organism survives. It is the
particular organisms. The extreme of temperature which
temperature in an area also determines where an organism can
affects the rate of enzyme live, not the average.
controlled reactions in plants
Wind Wind increases water and Few species can survive in areas
heat loss from the body ad with strong prevailing winds while
adds to the environmental occasional gales and hurricanes can
stress an organism has to devastate populations.
cope with.
Water Water is vital for living So where the supply is limited it will
organisms cause severe problems. Organisms
may die if the stress becomes too
severe if like camels and cacti, the
have adaptations to enable them to
survive.
Oxygen Conc. Oxygen can be in short The spaces between soil particles
supply in both water and contain air so there is plenty of
soil. When water is cold oxygen for the respiration of plant
sufficient oxygen dissolves in roots. In waterlogged soil, the air
it to support life and vice spaces are filled with water so plant
versa. Soil is usually well roots may be deprived of oxygen
aerated. and may die.
Edaphic Plant populations that are Soil that contains high proportion of
linked by massive root and sand are light, easily worked and
Factors (soil rhizome networks, such as warmed. However, also easily
structure & marram grass can survive in drained so water passes through
mineral loose, shifting structures them rapidly, carry with it minerals
such as sand. They bind the needed for plants. The opposite
content) sand together which makes it occurs for soils made of
more suited for colonisation predominantly tiny clay particles.
by other species.
EFFECT OF BIOTIC FACTORS
- Intraspecific Competition
competition for a limited
resource between
members of the same
population or species.
As a result of intraspecific
competition, some
individuals may not
survive, or may not
reproduce and so
population growth slows.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) The rest of energy which is stored in body
tissues
Prezygotic Postzygotic
Reproductive Barriers Reproductive Barriers
- Habitat Isolation
Populations occupy - Low Hybrid Adult
different habitats in - Temporal Isolation Viability Offspring
the same area, and Species exist in the of two different
therefore do not same area but are species are not
breed reproductively active healthy enough to
at different times of survive
the year
2 routes of infection
- Lysogenic Pathway Many viruses are non-virulent
when they first get into the host cell. They insert their
DNA into the host DNA so it is replicated every time the
host cell divides. This inserted DNA is called a provirus.
During this period of lysogeny, when the virus is part of
the reproducing host cells, the virus is said to be
dormant.
Flagella are rigid protein strands that arise from basal bodies in the
plasma membrane in some bacteria. They bring about movement by
rotating from their base, driven by the basal body.
Pilli are tiny tubular structures that arise from the cell membrane of
some bacteria. They enable bacteria to attach to surfaces and to other
Cytoplasm - About 75% water bacteria.
in which are dissolved
proteins (mainly enzymes)
Lipoproteins, sugars, amino
acids and fatty acids, inorganic
salts, and the waste products Cell Wall
of metabolism.
Protects against rupture due to
osmosis and keep shape. Rigid wall
containing giant molecules
consisting of amino sugars and
peptidogylcan
Capsule
A slime layer or
capsule is made up of
Ribosomes - Sites of
additional materials
protein synthesis.
that are laid down on
Bacterial ribosomes are
the outer surface of
known as 70S ribosomes
the wall. Capsules are
because they are smaller
firmly attached,
than those in the
whereas slime layers
cytoplasm of plant and
may diffuse into the
animal cells and fungi
surrounding medium.
(called 80S ribosomes)
Classifying Bacteria
- by shape
Cocci (spherical)
Bacilli (rod shaped)
Spirilla (twisted/spiral)
Vibrios (comma shaped)
Reproduction of Bacteria
Transduction
Takes place when a small amount of DNA is transferred from
one bacterium to another by a bacteriophage. Bacteriophage
attaches to the bacterial cell wall. Enzymes are released to
break down the cell wall. New bacteriophage forms and
some bacteria DNA is included by mistake
Exotoxins
- Soluble proteins produced & released into the body by bacteria as they
metabolise and reproduce.
- There are many different types; some damage cell membranes causing
internal bleeding, some act as competitive inhibitors to
neurotransmitters, whilst others directly poison cells.
- Rarely cause fevers but so include some of the most dangerous bacterial
diseases.
- E.g. Clostridium botulinum produces one of the most toxic substances
known, botulinum toxin
BENEFICIAL BACTERIA
- Bacteria also play a vital role in the ecosystems of the natural world. The
majority of bacteria are decomposers. They break down organic
material to produce simple inorganic molecules such as CO2 and water.
- They release inorganic nitrogen which returns to the soil in the nitrogen
cycle, and also sulphur compound which returns to the soil or water.
SKIN
- An impenetrable layer toughened by keratin, a fibrous structural
protein
- Forms a physical barrier between the pathogen laden environment &
the blood rich tissues beneath the skin
- Sebum, an oily substance produced by the skin contains chemicals which
inhibit the growth of microorganisms
- Natural skin flora prevent disease by competing successfully for a
position on the skin & produce substances that inhibit the growth of
other microorganisms
GUT
- Saliva in the mouth has bacterial properties. Some polypeptides
produced in the salivary glands destroy bacteria while others slow down
bacterial growth.
- Acid in the stomach destroys the majority of ingested microorganisms.
- The natural flora in the gut usually competes successfully for both
nutrients and space with any microorganisms which manage to get
through the stomach & produces anti-microbial compounds
- VOMITING is effectively removing many of the microorganisms
physically from the system when the body is infected.
NON SPECIFIC RESPONSES TO INFECTION
Fever occurs when a pathogen infects the body which cause the hypothalamus
to reset to a higher temp. This helps in 2 ways:
- A raised temp. will reduce the ability of many pathogens to reproduce
effectively & so they cause less damage.
- Specific response works better at a higher temp. & therefore will be
more successful at combating the infection.
Phagocytosis involves white blood cells. There are 2 main types of white blood
cells; the granulocytes which have granules that can be stained in their
cytoplasm & agranulocytes which have no granules.
- Phagocyte is a general term for white blood cells
which engulf & digest pathogens and any other
foreign material in the blood & tissues.
- There are two types of phagocytes; neutrophils
NEUTROPHIL
which are granulocytes & make up 70% of the
white cells & macrophages which are
agranulocytes and make up about 4%. They
accumulate at the site of infection to attack
invading pathogens. Phagocytes can sometimes
be seen as pus which may ooze out of the wound
or it may be reabsorbed into the body. MACROPHAGE
The immune system enables the body to recognise anything that is non-self
and to remove it from the body as efficiently as possible. Each organism carries
its own unique antigens or the cell surface membrane. There are 2 main types
of White blood cells involved in the immune systems;
- Lymphocytes are agranulocytes, made in the white bone marrow
- Macrophages are also agranulocytes which move freely through the
tissue after leaving the bloodstream
KINDS OF LYMPHOCYTES
B cells
- are made in the bone marrow Lymphocytes
- found in lymph glands & free
in the body
- have membrane bound T B
globular receptor proteins on Cells Cells
their cell surface membrane
which are identical to the
antibodies they will later
produce Helper Killer
- all antibodies are known as Cells Cells
immunoglobulins (IgM)
T cells
- made in the bone marrow but mature and become active in the thymus
gland
- Surface of each T cell displays thousands of identical T-cell receptors.
There are 2 main types of T-cells; T killer cells produce chemicals that
destroy pathogens & T helper cells involved in the process which
produces antibodies against the antigens on particular pathogen.
- Natural Active Immunity when the body comes into contact with a
foreign antigen and the immune system is activated & antibodies are
formed & the pathogen is destroyed. The body actively makes the
antibodies.
INDUCING IMMUNITY
- Immunisation is the process of protecting people from infection by
giving them passive or active artificial immunity.
- Vaccination is the procedure by which you immunise people to produce
immunity