Environment & Ecology Shankar IAS Academy Booklet

Facebook Group: Indian Administrative Service ( Raz Kr)
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SHANKAR. lAS ACADEMY

Pl t o.1742, lst lo r, 18th Main Road, rma J':'ag~, Olen'nai- 60 040.
Phone: 044-26216435, 64597JZ1,43533445, Mobile ~44416br ~
www.shankariasaca~emy.coin ..
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SD4!CMS richn
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and endemiSQl as well as of agro-biodiversity, India, with only
m supports~~ astounding 8.1% of the world's piodiver~ity. She also supports
a~Well.as 18%of-tlieworld's cattle popula~on. In fact, an estimated 70o/o of India's
eDlmCJaent locally on natw:al ecosystems for subsistence means of livelihood, including fuel,
J, 'att:'r, ~d_security of~ealth. Conseq~ently, the country's biodiversity faces immense pressure.
1b vironmental problems in India are growing rapidly. The increasing economic development and a
r 1 'ing p I 1 ation are putting a.strain on the envirorunen t, b" o d versity, and the country's na ral
re ourc s. IndustJ:ial pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, poachfug, rapid indust?alization,_~rbanization,
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a1 d uegradati~n are all worsening-problerns. Overexploitation of the country s resourc s, b it and or
h <1~ re~u ted n the environmental degradation .
There is so far a positive of information for the student and general public on Environm ent.
I a1n pleased to therefore ~troduce this book "ENVIRONMENT'', 1-vhich covers on Environmental
E o o gy, Bio-di ersity and Climate Change 'tNTfh reference to In d ia, a pioneering attempt by the
SHR KAR lAS ACALJE~Y, presented in a ~oncise and visually appealing format to raise the level of
lr...n~lwledge and awareness among the people from aH _ v~?lks of life.
This book is exclusively prepared for all aspirants who prepare for Civil Services Ex~mination and
other Competitive exams.
ccwe Need- Ecol~gical Grow.th-Not.Mere Economic-Gr-owth!' .------

uNature Pr~tects If She Is Protect.e dn
ALLTHEBEST
D. SHAI'iKAR
DIRECTOR
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SHANKAR lAS ACADEMY
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us Year UPSC Questi~.n paper. analysis ..............................
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PARTI
ENVIRONMENT
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ECOLOGY
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1. ECOLOGY --."...............3-9
, J!. . PY OF EC ~ LOGY ... .... .-.................... :........... :...................................................................... 3
r ENVIRONMENT & ITS COMPONENTS .................................................................................. 3
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0 .... . ............ . ................ . . . ..... . ............. . 4
- 1. r1 I~"' ' s OJ: \ 1 rros 'Sl"F~ 1

.... '- ._,j - ... 10-20
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.)> ENERGY FLOW ..........................................................................

. -------- .......................... 10
> fl10D CHAIN ......... .:....... :....... ....... .... .............................. ....... ............................. ..... .... ..... ......... 10
.r FOOD vVEB ...... :......................... ... .............................................................._
................. ................. 11
> ECO OGJC J...t-P"YAA~ -1 D .... .. .... .. ........................... ....... ........ ........ ........ ,~ ........ .. ... ..... ... ... .:...... . 12
> POLLUTANTS & TROPHICAL L EVEL ................... .. ................. ............ :............ .................... 14
? BIOTIC JNTERACTION ........ .... ... ... ............... ....................... .. ~ ......................... ............. ............. 15
? BIO-GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE ................... ~ ....................... .... :. ~:.~-- ~~~: .::~- --- ~ ....... ....................... 15
;... ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION .... ....................................... ........................................................ 19
3. l 'ERRES"fRlAL "E COSYS EM ...................................... :.........................-................'............................ 21-30

> TUNDIZA ... ...............................=: ............. .................................................._ .................. . ................. 21
> FOREST ECOSYSTEM ......... .. .. .'.. .... ................................................................... :..~-:~.~ . .-.-: .~ ............. 2f_ ___ --
.,

~. }> INDIAN FOREST -ra.r'PES ....................... :............................................... .-..... ,.......... :.................... 23
)>. DEFORES'fATION ...................... :.,._.......:............................................................... ....................... 24
> GRASSl~ AND E OSYSTEM .. ......................................... .......... ........ - .............. ....... .................... 26
, DESET<T ECOSY TF 1 (TI-JAR ~.. COL )......................... ......... .'...... .. ............................. ; ......... 27
) DESERTIFICATION ................. ~ ........................... ~ ................................ _....... :........... ......... :.... 30
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.......... ..., ........... ., ....... . . ........ . ... ............................................. .......... .... .
N.. . ..... ..... ..................................... ................................................
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..... ..... ........................ .... .~ ......................................................... :,37
"' N ERVATI N PR RAMME ................................................ .40 8..
l 't::t\1 ....... :. .. .. .. ..... .... _.......... .... .' ....... - ........ .................. 11
~ 1 .... ...~ ........ ........ ...... ....................... .................................... ............... 43
F, ............ .................................................:.........:....:.................................................. 45
... ............................ ~.................................................................................... 46
E T ASTAL ENVIRONMENT ..................................................... 48 .
1 P tJTJON .................... ...... ............ .................................:.............. ............ 49-70
liT NT ................................................................................................................................ -49
............ '-'""-' ............... .......... -...................................................................................................... 50

! :>( _ l . 1TJ yN .. ..... ...... ... ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ....... .... ... .. ..... .. ..... ........ ... .......... ...... . - .
FL ASH ............ , .............. .................. ........................ .... ........... .'........................................... 52

..... - r~ ~: o :....... ........ ...................... ...... :: ................. ......... .. ... ....................... ....... .55
> \\ATER POLLUTION .. ...... .. ..... .................. ....... ..... ............................... ,... ......... ........ ... ............... 55
....,IL . LLU .f lO ................................................ ........................................................................ 5b
ISE f>()LLliTION ........... ... .. ... ... .. ........ ,... ...... ... .... ...... ...... ........... ... ... ..... ............. .. .................. .. 60 -
DIO CTI E POLL TIO I ............ .. ........... ... ... .... ...... .... .... ..... .. ... ... .. ...... .... ... ................ .... .. 61
);:- E-\ ASTE ........... .. ...... ... ... ..... .. ........ ...... ...... ..... .... ~- ... ......... ..... ......... ....... ................... ...... ............... 62
9.
~ LID ; STE .... .............. ........ ...... ............ ....'.... ...... ... ... .. ....... ... .. .... .. .... .. ..~ .. .......... ...... .......... ... .. 65
> BlO-REMEDIATlON ...... ... ........ .. ........................ ...................... ....... ....................... ..................... 67
> E VIRO l'v1E TAL Hv1PACT ASSESSMENT ............ :.... :.......... ...... :.. .... ..... ... .. .. .............. ....... 69
PART-II .
BIO IVER ITY
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6. .BIODIVERSJTY .... u ................... - 72-75

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)> B10Dl ERSI'f ............... ............

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10.
LEVEI..S OF BIODIVERSI.TY........................................................................................................ 72
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EASUREMENT
- OF BIODNERSITY
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r BIODIVERSI1"Y SERVICE$ ............................................................... ~ .......................................... 74

,.. ODES OF CONSERVATION .. .. .. .: ..... ....................................................... ~..... - ...................... 75
BOTANICAL GARDEN&. ZOO.................. ................... ...................................... ................ 7
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I HICALCLASSJFICATION ............................................................ . 76
DIVERSITY ..................................... .......... ..... .... .. .........................................................: .. 80

> INDJ N WILDLIFE ................................................ ...... ................. ...... - 82
.... 19'Pl~ DlVERSITY OF lNnlA..- .. ----~-~-:~--~-----85-98

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)> RED BOOK DATA ......... ................................. .. .. : ... .................... ....... ............................. 85
)> IUCN CLASSIFICATION ...... :~ ...................... .. ...... ..... .............._..: ...... , ......... .. ............................. 85
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)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED MAMMALS ...........:.. :.............................................................. 87
}:- ENDANGERED MAMMALS ........................................ :_:......., ..... :.................... ........................... 88
);> VlJI_NERABLE.MAMMAl5 .................................. ..... .. ...:......... ........ .._....................................... 90
)> 1\.fARl, E lvli\t ,1 J,IALS ... ........................................ .... ............... ..... ......... ...................................... 91
EG . A'11l\JG :iv1A.! ilvlA ... .............. ...... .... .... ...... ........ ..... ...... ......... .. ....... .... ..... ....... .. ............. 91
> A1ARSUPIAL .......... .-........................................ ... .... :' .... ... ................................ 92
')::. CRJTir T.Y EJ'TDANGERED BIRDS ..... ........... .. .... ........... .............. ... ... .................................. 92
)> CRJTICALLY ENDANGERED REPTILES .. ...... ... ....... ... ,...::......... ..... ....... ......... ..................... .. 94
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L 'DA1 GEJ?ED F. S : .................................. ."...................
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);> CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPIDERS & CORJ\L ..... ....... .. ........... :........ ......................... ... 9?
> BIRD. 11GRATJO 1 .. . ........ .. ... ..... .... ........... .................. .. .... ..... : .... . ...... . ....... ........ .... ..................... 96
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)> W1LD LIFE DISEASE ...................... ........ ............ ..... ..... ... .... .... ... ...... .. ......... ...... .... .... ........... .. .... ... 97
- --- -- -,. SPECIES EXTL ~ CTlON ... ... ........ .................... : ..... ... .......... ... .. .............. ..... ..::-:..................... ...... 97
:;::. :MA N- ANI viAL CONFLICT ............. .. ..... ............ .................. ........... ............ ....................... :...... 9 8
9. PLANT DIVERSlll' OF INDIA ............................ .............. .............................................. :............ 99-107

> PLANT CLASS!FICATION ................... .............. ......... .... ............ ....... .. .. .... .. .............................. 99
> EFFECT OF ABIOTIC COMPONENTS ON PLANTS ..................... ..... ...... .-............................ 99
r Ll\JSECTIVOROUS PLANT ............... .......... ......... ....... ........... ............ ... .. ..... ... .. ......................... 100
> INVASlVEAUEN SPECJES ,...:...................... ......................... .. ... ~.. .. ... .... ..... ............................ 102
r INVASIVE ALIEN FLORA OF INDIA .... ..... ....... ......... ................. .... . : .. .... ... .. ......... ............. .... 102
r MEDICINAL PLANTS ........ .'..... :.. :..................................
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: ...: ........... .. ... ... .. :.... ... .. - ................... 104
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r TREEGIARAC-r-ERS ................ ~........... .............. .... ....... _.................. ~.; ................ .................... :105
10. MARINE ORGANISM ............................ .............. .............. ........................ .-............... .. ................. 108-110
r ~Kl'ON -~- ~ -- : :: .. .......................................... .......... .......................... 108
)> PHYTO:PLANKTON ....... ................. .. .......... .. ... .......... .:...................... ~.... ... ... ........................... 108
,.. ZCXJ..Pl..ANKTON ............... ............. ................................., ............... ........ .. ............................... 110
;,;; SEA GRASS ...... -:-.................................... .. .............................. :................................................... 110
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UARY & NATIONAL PARKS ........................................................ 112

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V. 11 N RESERVES & COMMUNITY RESERVES ...................................:.. 1i4
PROTEC..JED AREA$
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SA ED GROVES OF INDIA.......................................................................................... 115
EXPORT PROHIBI1'ED ~EMS ........................................................................................ 116 ,r:. '
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. L BAL lT<JI JIATIVE
AN AND
. BIOSPHER ...................................................
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BIOSPHERE RESERVES .................................. .'....... .-...........:............. .... ............................ 117
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NATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESl!RVE PROGRAMME :................................................. 119
WORLD.NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES ....................................................... 121
BIODIVERSn'Y HOTSPOl"S ............................................................................................. 122
WORLD HERITAGE SITES ................... ........................................................................... 124
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12. CONSERVATION EFFO~S ......................................................................................................... 127-139

}> PROJECT TJGER ........................................................... .. .............. :........:.................................... 127
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}:> PROJECT ELEPHANT .............................. .... ....... .. ..... ........................ ,................ ....... ...... ..... ... .. 130
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.~ VULl 'URE ............................................ :., ..................................................................... ................. 132 . .:
? oNE HOR1 ED RHJ TJCBEtms~- ~,-~-~_:~,~~~:~~~~: : ::~ :: : :~ ................................................. :............ 135

~ PROJECT SNOWLEOPARD ... .. ..... ....... ... .... ... ... .. .... .... ... ... ... .... ...... ... ... ............... ........ .......... .... 136
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}> SEA TURTLE PROJECT .......... ................. .... ... ............... ........................ ................... ..... ....... ...... 137
}> CROCODILE CON SERVATION PROJECT ... .. .. .. ..... .... ....... .. ...... .. ... .. ... .. .. ........ ...... .......... .. .... 37
}> PROJECI' HANGUL ... .............. .......................... ..... ...... ...... .. .... ............. ... .................. ._.......... .. .. 138
}> CAP'flVE BREEDING ....................................................... .............. ....................... ........... .... ..... 138
GA NCES DOLPHI 1 ..... ..... .. ... ...... ..... .. ..... ... ..... .......... . ... . ....... .... .... . ........ ...... ........ .. ...... ........ .. .. 138
PART-Ill
CLIMATE CHANGE
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13 CLIMATE CHANG E ....................................................................................................................... l-:11-149
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):> GLOBAL WARMING ........................._. ........... .......................................... ............................... .... 141

~ -6-REEN HOUSE EFFEcr.:.::.::: ..: :.:.:::::.::-..:.... ... :.:......-... ~ .. :...... ::................................................ .. 142 r'S
'7::1
,. GREEN HOUSE.GASES ............................. :.......................................................... :.................... 143
19 :,~
}> CLIMATE FOR
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ON,
G ............................................. ................ :------:.......... 146
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t .: ,
GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL ................. ............ ......................................... :....,... .. -, ..... 147

}> GLOB A EM MISSJON&........................ .... .. ... ... ..... ...... .. ... .. ... ...... ... .. .... ...... ......... .. ................... 8
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IN;~;;;;;~~;:;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::: :::::.: :.:::.:::: ::::: ~~

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5. ZONE l >LE...................................................- .................... ~ .................. .... ............ ..157-161
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IMPACf ( IMATE CHANGE- INDIA .............. ~ ........................ ~.................. ~ ...... ~ ....... .".... 162_167
> AG l' CUL'fURE&F~ .:................... ::............................................. :............... :162
> \VATER STRESS & WATER INSECURfi'V.........................................................
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> SE.t JEVEL RJSE ....................................."........................................ .
0 . . . ... . . . . ..... . . . . . .......... 0 ........ - .. . .. ............
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> EC< YSTEM & BiODIVERSITY ......................................................................................-:: ........ 165

)> CL TECHANGE&HEALTH ..................................................................................... :.... ;.i66
17. MITIGATION STRATEGJ.ES ............................................... :--------....... ~ .....................168-1 72

)> CAl.., BON SEQUESTR..t\l'lON ................................................................................................... l68
> AJ BC..)N ' 11'-lK ..................... ..... ... .... .... .................... ......... .... ................................ ...... ........ ....... 169
)> CARBON CREDIT ............. :............................................. :-- 170
)> C.ARBGN-0 FSEmNG .. ....... ............... ... ...... ............... .. ... .... ... ..................... :... .. .. .... .:..:.... :. 70
)> CARBON TAX ..................... : ............ ..........................- ..... ... .. ..................................................... :.17.1
.:. "r- -- GEO- E:l .G:i1 ' EERI G.................. .. ............................................................................................. l7 .
. 18. INDIA AND CLll\1ATE CHANGE ................................:............................................ ~................ 173-l<Jn. .

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-. > INDIA'S POS1TION
. ON-CLIMATE CHANGE
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:.. ... :.. ........:.......... ....... .... .. ....... :. 173
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)> OBSERVED CLIMATE AND WEATHER CHANGES IN INDJA ....:......... ........... .... .... ... ....-174'
)> CORRECT ACTlONSFO ADAPTATl01 A 0 l\tflTlGATIOi 1 ........... . ....... . ....... ....... ..... 17-1
)> NATIONAL ACTION PLAN.ON CLIMATE CHANGE

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? INDIAN NE1WORK ON CLIMATE CHAN6E ASSESSMENT. ............... ......................... : 181

}:;> NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM) .................... :............................ .... ...... ... ....... 182
)> J 1 DIA' S POLICY STRUCTURE RELEVANT TO GHG NIITIGATION ....... .. .. ... ....... ..... ... . 183
)> GI~~EN BUILDING .
: --
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> GRIHA ... ............ :........................... ....... .......... ~ ................................ , ~ ... :................ ............ ........... 185
: > NATION~L INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT.AGRlCULTIJRE ........ ..... ............ :.. 188
> BSE G REENEX ......................................................... ;............. .".................................................... 189
> 24 OTHER CRITICAL ENTITIES .......... . -... :................... :.......................:: .............. .................... 190
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19. CUMATF. C'JIANGE. ORGANJSATJQNS

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~ tJ1'J c::c ........ ~................................. :.-........................... ~ ........................~.-....... .-.. :.......:.-........... .-..:.... 191
)' KYOTO PROTOCOL ....... :......... .... ....... _. ........................ :.:........... :......................... .... ...... :......... 191
> , BALI MEET ...:..... :..................................................... :.............. :... ~ ........._~ :::: -- : ._.......... 193
> COPENHAGEN S,lJMMl1'............. ........................... ::.~....................... ~~- ----- 194
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.... .. .. ........ . ............. .................... ........................................................ 197
NM NT FA ILJ11 ..............................................................:................ 199
T A ICULTIJRE .........................................................................................199
............................................................................................................................................. 200
TI N L GREEN HOUSE GAS INVENTORIES PROGRAMME .................................. 201
G EE1 .ECONQ~ ... ,.......... ~ ........_. ......................: ::::........ ........................ 202
PART-IV
23.
AGRICULTURE l~
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20. GRICULTURE ........................................................ ~..-205-221

}> CROP AND ITS CLASSIFICATJON._ ....................................................................... ............... 206
}> CROPPING SYSTEM AND PATTERN .................................................................................... 210
}> FARMING SYSfEM .................................................................................................................... 212
}> SUSTAINABLE
. . . AGRICULTURE
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}> J TEGRATED
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FAR1v1ING SYSTEM ....................................... ....... ................ .... ... ...... ...... ........ 21 4
)> SOIL SCIENCE ............................................ ~ ............................................................................... 217
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21. ACTS AND POLICIES. .................................................................................................................... 223~229

J> "\\TJLD LIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972 ...... ...:... ..... ............. .. ............................. .... .. ...... ... ~..-2-23-
~ ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION ACT 1986 ........................................................ ... ... ........ 224
> NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988 ............................................................. :............ ................ 225 , .
.. -:>- .BIOLOGJCAL DfVERSITY ACT 2002 .............. .......... ................................ ...... .. ... .. .. ........ ...... . 225
}> SCHEDULE TRIBES AND OTHER FORESf DWELLERS ACT 2006 ................................ . 226 ,-
~ COASTAL
. REGULA'nON ZONE ...........................................................................................
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227
)> WE'fLAND RULES 2010 .................................................. ~ ..................................... ~ ...................... 228
J> NATION GR-gEN l"'RIBUNAL ..... ~ ......................................................................._. .................. 228
J;> THE OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES RULES ........................ :.: ..................... ,.............. 228
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22. INSTITUnON AND MEASURES -.~ .. ............................... -..............;-;.,..~ ... ;;-;...;;-:.;~;:;.~ ....... ~ ..............229-235
"' NATIONAL \VIDE LIFE ACTION PLAN ............................................................................, .. 229
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> NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND.ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD ............................ 229 !
> CAMPA ......................................... ~...............:...................................................................,a.-.:..-..,.-230 : !
> , JOINT. FORESf

. . MANAGEMENT ..................................... -. ~................. ~ ............... .".. ... ............. 230
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S()CIAL FORESfRY ..:.............................................................................. ........................................

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NATIONAL BAMB()() ~I.SSION ...................................... ~ ......................................... :........... 232 ~
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CEPI ............................................................ H ................................................................................ 232
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........................................................................... -............ ..................... ..... .. ,. ............................... 233
LJll............ ............................................................................................ 233
TIONA I. Cl.EAN ENERGY FUND ..... ~ ......................... .......... .. : ....... ~:::::::::::~::::::::~::::::::::: 233
NTI
A ONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC MOB~ ..... ~ .................... ~ .................................. 234
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),> - SCIENCti M.XPRESS- BIODIVERSITY SPECIAL ....... :............... :.....: ...'................. .-.. :-: ....... .... 234
> MANGROVE FOR FUTURE ......................... -........................... ............. .................................. 235
23~NVJRONMENTA.L ORGANISATIONS ...................................~ ...................................... ~ .............. 236-239

> AN1~1AL WELFARE BOARD ............................................................................................. ...... 236
)> CEN'TRAL Z()() A U~rHORITY ............. , ..................................................................... .. ........ :... 237
)> NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY ...................... :............ .. ..... .................... ........... . 237
)> WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU ........................................... ........................ .'.......... 238
~ N TI01 TAL AKE CONSER AT ON PLAN .................. ........... ............................................ 238
. > NA110NAL GANGA RIVER BASINAUTHORffY ............................................................. 239
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'r 24. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ....................... ............................. 240-255
> U. TED N_A'IJQ...:.'-::.-.~9 .!FERE CE 0 l E. .. 'TI Oil. 1E T./~ ..:c DE\.'E OP ~E: T ..... ~40
> CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) ........................................................ 241
> RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS.'.............................. ................. ... ............ ..... ...... 246
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> CITES ............................ ................................ ... ........................ :.......... ...... ..... ................................ 247
>_. THE \IVILDLIFE TRAD E 10NITORJ rc NETIVORK {TRJ FF C, ... ................. ... ...... .. ...... 248
);> CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OJ~ MIGRATORY SPECJES (C 15) ............. 248
> COAUTION AGAINST \1\TJLDLJFE TRAFFICKING (CAWT) ... ........................... .............. 248
INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITT0) ................~~ ............... 249
> UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF) ............................... ;...._............: ........... 249
> IUCN ::.: ........... .............................. .:.. .... .............................. ............. .......... ... ........................ ........ 250
? GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF) ................... ............................ .. ..... ....................... .................. 251
~ - ___SI.OCK.HO.LM CONY~NTION. """ :: ""~"""'"."'"""""""""' ...................................... ... ... 252
? BASELCONVENTION ......... ... ..................~ ..... ............... ....... ... :... ........ ... ........................ ....... . 252
~ )> ROTTERDAM CONVENTION-....... :........................................................~ .................... ::... :.... 253
...
>- UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBATDESERTIF1CA'110N ......................... 253
}.> INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (lWC) ..................................: .................... 254
viENNA CONVENTION AND MONTREA~PROTOCOL
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~ ......... 254 -.
25. ENVIRONMENT ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS ..-............................................................ 256-261
.. .........................................................................................................-:-..... 2.62
GLOSSARY ................................ .. a
270
A 1:UPENDlX ........................... ....................................
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. 2012
viu statements: 1. W!'ic~- of ~he following~be threats to the
it i n rm 11y greater in the lower btodtverstty of a geographi~al area ?.
'
1_. Global warming '
n1p r d to the higher latitudes.
1 ng th mountain gradients, biodiversity 2. Fragmentation of habitat
i. n rmally greater in the lower altitudes as 3. Invasion of alien species
~ mp d to the hig}:\ r altitudes. .. 1.:.- .Promotio~ of vegeranan1sm
\ 1i h ~f the statem nts given above is/are correct? Select the correct answer using the codes given
1 nly below. .
b. 29nly a. 1, 2 and 3 only
c. Both 1 and 2 b. 2 and 3 only I
~
d. Neither 1 nor 2 c. 1 and 4 C?nly
d. 1, 2, and 4
2 ~- ~ee of the follow\ng criteria have contributed 2. ln which one among the following categories
io the recognition of Western Ghats- Sri Lanka of protected areas in India are local people
and indo-Burma regions as hotspots .of bio.- not allo'lved to col ect and use the biomass?
. e sty.
a. Biosphere Reserves
J.. Spet?es richness
b. National Parks
ege a 'on ensit . . - -
c. Wetlands declared' under Ramsareunventrorr
3. Endemism
. d. WHdlife Sanctuaries
Ethno-bolanical importance
- 5. Threat perception
6. .Adaptation of flora __and fauna to warm and
humid conditions
Which three of the above are cor~~.<;t__ ~Ii_tg~ia in this
context?
a. 1, 2 and 6
b. 2,4and6 i
c. 1, 3 and 5 ~
i
d. 3,4and 6
3. Biodiversity forms tl1e basis for l1uman 3. Consider the following protected areas '~
existence in the following ways : 1. Bandipur
.,. ... 2~---"Bhitarkiml<a- ----
- -
r
j--
Cl.Soil formation "\,

b...Ptevention of s~il erosion 3. Manas "
t
l
I
c. Recycling of waste 4~ Sunderbans f

L
~
Which of the above are declared !iger Reserves? I

d. Pollination of crops
. t-
Select the correct answer using the codes given a. 1, 3 and 2 oruy i
l
b. 1~ 3 and 4 only
below: .
a . 1,2 and 3
.
oruy . c. 2, ~ f1!l~ 4 only
l l
t
I
. 2,3 and 4 only d. 1, 2,3 ~d 4 1-
i
~
t
l
l

. . .- -
hi h r inf II that supports luxuriant

t ti growth.
nfluence of different bio geographical
otic and. inv~sive. ~c~de~ have not been

.._....,.duced m this regton.
d. has less human interference.
12. If a tropical rain.forest is removed, it does not

regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical
deciduous forest. This is because
a, a. the soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
b. pro pagules ofthe trees in a rain forest ha e poor
le
viability
at c. the ~ain forest species are slow-growing . .
d. exotic species invade the fertile so}l of rain forest.
a!
ls.
t? -
13. When the b.ark of a tree is remov ed in a
circular fashion all around near its base, it
gen~rally dries up and dies because
a. 'Vater from soil cannot rise to aerial parts.
b. Roots are starved of energy
c. Tree is infedl:d-b oil microbes
d. Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration
m CLIMATE CHANGE
?ly
14. c_ons!der the fo!J:~~~n_g : _ _ -ll-: _Co_nsjder - ~~e _fol1owing statemen~s :
Cholorofluorocarbons, know.n as ozone-
1. Photosynthesis
~w depleting substances, are used
!
2. Respiration
1. in the.production of plastic foams .
3. Decay of organic matter
2. in the production of tubeless tyres
4.. VoJcanic action
, 3. in cleaning certain electronic c0mpo~en ts
WhJch o f the above add carbc;l dioxide t"o the carbon
cycle on Earth 1 4. as pressurizing agents-in aerosol cans
a. 1. and 4 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. l, 2 and 3 only
b. 2 and 3 only
b. 4only
c. 2,3 and 4 only
c. 1, 3 and 4 only
1 2 3 and 4
d. 1, 2,-3 and 4
t "'' t rv r th d it
. .
i I 1n1 s1 n~
th ultraviolet part of th ol n.
U the solar radiations.
wr ] nts?
d. th infrared ~of the solar radiation
. .
-
ion of ozone hole in the Antartic 13. lbe acidification of oceans is incre~sing. Why
ha .. 1: een a cause of concern .. .\'Vhat is this phenomenon a cause of concern?
e the reason for the formation of this 1. The growth and survival of calcareous
ole? phytoplankton will be adversely affected.
cs - C'.' .. ;tJm ntt oposp encturb 1 ence; 2. . The growth and survival of coral reefs w ill be
d =n o .: of chlorofluoro carbons adversely affected.
3. The survival of some. -animals that have
p.,.. ~e"!'l e f -r j e t pola r f n <lnd
hytoplanktonic arvae wjll b~ ad 'ezsely
stratospheric douds; and inflow of chl?ro affected.
4. he cloud seeding and formation of clouds.will
1 1
._ Absence of polar front and stw:1tospheric douds;
_ _ _c_ be adversely affected.
z d iJ .flcv.- of me ane and dlloro fluorocarbons. Which of statements given above is I are correct ?
d. Increased tempera~re at polar region due to a. 1,2 and 3 only b, 2 only
global' ~arm_~g c. 1 and 3 only d . 1,2,3 and 4
17. Regarding '"'carbon credits'', which one of the

following statements is not correct? ,
a. The. carbon credit system was ratified in
conjunction with the-Kyoto Pro~ocol
b. Carbon credits are awarded to countries or .
groups that have reduced greeftheuse gas~s
below their. emission quota .
c. The goal of the ca~bon c:redit system is to limit

the increase of carb(ln einission quota .
arbor crcj tS are 1!a ed at a pri e f~ d from
tim to time by the United Nations Envuorunept
rogramme.
-'~-~---~
.' l

. .. .
c
. What is th differ::n:c:-b~tw:----=====.
ryx and Chiru? n the antelop
a. Oryx is adapted to live in h t d .
.. whe!eas Chiru is adapted to liove~stand areas
semi-desert areas of cold high ~pes and
. mountams.
b. Oryx IS poa0ed for its antlers whereas oiliu .
ildli tuaxy poached for Jts musk. Is
c. Oryx e:xists in western India orJ.y whereas Cruru
:- eXIsts m north-east India only. _ .- - -
d. ~one of the statementsa, b, and c given abov
IS correct. e
5. Among the following SJates,. whjch one has 5. Consi~er the following :
the most suitable climatic conditions for the 1. Black-necked crane
cultivation of a l~ge variety of orchids with 2. Cheetah
minimum cost of production, and can develop
3. Flying squirrel
an export oriented industry in this field.?
4. Snow leopard
,, a. Andhra Pradesh
'\7JUch of the abo e are n aturally found in India?
. rui achal Pradesh a. 1,2 and 3 only
.
i ..
t c._ ~adhya Pr~~esh , b. 1,3 and 4 only
!,"
d. t: a radesh c. 2 and 4 oJ:lly
.:.:.:.:.1,2,.;L<IDd-4....
6. A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat
.- of an Indian ?nima] species. The.anima] has
6. Cpnsider the following ldnds of organisms
1. Ba t
no predato~s in that area but its existence
2. Bee
is threateneq due to the destruction of its
habitat. 1-\Thjch one of the foJJowing could 3. Bhd
be that animal ? Which of the above is/are polli.nuhng agent I agents?
a. lndian wild buffu)o a. 1 and 2 only
b. Indian wild ass b. 2 only
c. Indian wild boar c. 1 and 3 only
.
..
d. Indian Gazelle d.l, 2 and 3
7. The '1 Red Data Books' published by the 7. Which one of the following groups of animals
International Uniov. for Cons.ervation o _elongs to the _cate.gor.y.-of ..end-arigei:ed
Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN) species?
contain lists of a. Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda
a. Endemic plant and animal species present in the and Asiatic WHd Ass
biodiversity hotspots. b. Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and .Great
Threaten d plant and animal species. Indian Bustard ...
c. Protected sites for conservation of nature & c: Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey
natural resources in various countries. and Saras (Crane)
of the statement given above is I are correct? d. Lion-tai~d Macaque, Blue BuJl, Hanuman
3 Langur and Cheetal
..
_TV-I . ENVIRONMENT'~ ~,
:
What would ~appen if phytoplankto of
oceafs completely destroyed for som~ reaso~
1. The ocean as a carb<?n sink would be ad
affected. . verse1y
L.JeoC'OinJ)4~r
.. :
i roorganisms to the surface.
2. The food chains in the ocean would ad
affected.
1
verse y
be
utri ts to th surface.
Hon-dwellingorganisms to the surfare. 3. The density of ocean water would drasticall
f the sta~em~ts given above is/are correct? deqease. Y
1 and ... Select the using codes given bel~w :
2only a. 1 and 2 only - ~
2and3 b. 2 only it
;
d. 3 nly c. 3 only -~
d. 1,2 and 3 i-
,,.(
~r.
f
9. The 20~ Tsunami made people realize that 9. .W ilh reference to the wetlands of India, ~r
mangroves ~an serve as a ~eliable safety consider the following statements; ~
!,
h dge ag~st. coastal calarnit.i es. How do l . &

'The country's to al geographical area under the ;
a gr ves fu ction ns a s .. fety e ge? ~
. . . categ,oryof "\1\'et ~~. ~.record~d rnore Gujcuat t
a. The ma.ngroves swaps separate the human as compared to other States. ~
settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which 2. .In India, the total geographical area of coastal ~
t- l f ~ e :u: '-er Ev ~ r ,'er re o t w tlan s s arge r than hat ehl land "'.e trnd.-<>or-t-~
b. The mangroves rovide both food and medicines W[rich of the statements gjven abov ~ is/are co ect? .. I
w.hlch people ar~ in need of after any natural

disaster.
The mangroves trees are taU with dense canopies c:
a. . 1 only
b. 2only
-
and ser.e as an excellent shelter during a cyclone Both 1 and 2
or tsunami . d. Neither 1 nor 2
d. fhe mangr.:Hes trees do T I Ot get uprooted by
storms and tides because of their extensive roots_
10. There is a concern over the increase in 10. Vnltures which used to be very common in
harmful algal blooms in the sea waters of Indian countryside s(>me years age are rarely
India. \That could be the causative factors seen no\ 'aday s. This is attributed to ;
;
for this phenomenon 7 a. the destruction of their nesting sites by .new t
i
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries. inva~ve species. 1
2. Run-off. from the I~d during the monsoon. b. a drug used..by cattle own~rs for treating their ,~.
3. Upwelling in the seas. diseased cattle.
Select V"ae correct answer from the' codes given c. scarcity of food available to them f
below :
a.
b.
1 only
1 and 2 only
d. a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among
ili~ l , ,
2 3 y 1
,2 3

-.

.. .
T &: POLICIES
t I dia, the 14. The Natipnal Green ... .b
T.
ds: n unalA
enacted in consona . ct, 2010 w as
nee Wllh h" h
rt ( ontrol) Act, 1947. following provisions of th c~ ':. 1~ .. ~f th e
India? e onshtUtion of
Min~al Development (Regulation)
Right to healthy environm t
1. .
u t m~ et, 196.2 part ~f part of Rightto life :~de;~~;Ias a
2.
Indi 1 For st Act, 1927 Pro":Js_ion of grants .for raising the 1 l f
"<=!' ~ abo:ve Acts have relevance to I bear~g on a~mllll9trntiGn in the Schedtd d A
e or o - -
reas efve
I tversrty conservation in the country ? . _welfare of Scheduled Tnbes underA:rtide 275(1)
1 and 3 only Which of the statements giv~n above iS/are correct?
b. 2,3 and ~ only a. 1 only. .
c. 1,2,3 and 4 b. 2 only
d. None of the above Acts c. Both 1 and 2
d . Neither 1 nor 2
15. How does National Biodiversity Auth ority
(NBA) help in .pro t ec t i ng th e Indian
agriculture?
1. "NBA checks the b]opiracy and protects the
indigenous and tra~tional genetic r~sources.
2. NBA d iriTtJy monitms aJitfsapenise-rr-lte
- scientific research on genetic modification of
crop plants.
3. Application for intellectual P rope rty Rights
related to genetic I biological resources cannot
be ma de without the approval of NBA.
Which of the statements given abov e is/are correct?
a .. 1 only
b. 2 and 3 onlv J
c. 1 and 3 only
d. .1 . . 2 and 3
CURRENT AFFAIRS
19. Recently, "'oilzapper was in the news. What 16. Governm-en-t -of -India encourages the
is it 1. . - cultivation of :sea buckthorn< What is the
a." It i s an eco-friendly technology for . the importance of this plant?
rem ediation of oil sludge and. oil spilJs. a. It helps in controlling soiJ erosion and in
tis e a test echnoJogy develope d for un der. preven!ffig desertification.
sea oil explorati~. b. It is a rich source of biodie5e1.
c_ 1 is a gen e ticalJy engineered high biofuel c. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted to
yielding ma~e variety. live in cold areas of high altitudes.
s he ]a te~t tec'hno]ogy to control the d. Its timber is of greatcommerci al value.
acc::Ja4erna11y caused fl aines from o il \.ve1l._s_.__ _.li.-~- ---------~- ~------1
.
-
7. A Particular In d1a
. . Stat e In ha the following
y ch aractenstics :
nother, with its source
............_ . t a place only a short 1. It is located on the same Latitude w hich passe
through northern Rajasthan.
o the co st of Bay of Bengal 2
flo ing into the sea. This is an lt has ovey BO% of its area under fores t cover.
im rtant site of wildlife and bio-diversity 3 <iver 12% of forest cover constitutes Protected
nd protected area. Which one of the Area Network in this State.
f llowing (oiil'd he this ? W)Uch one anwng the. follq,\,,:ing Stn_ cs h;Js a he
above characte ristics?
. .Bhitarkanika
a. Arunachal Pradesh
Chandipur-on-sea
b. Assam
c. Gopalpur-on-sea
d. Simlipal c. J1imachal Piac;l~.h
d. Uttarakhand .
2011 - Answers 20i2 - Answers
ll(b),. 12(a), 13(a), 14(c), 15(d), 16(b), 17(d), 18(c), ll(d), 12(d), 13 (a), iii(~), 15{c), 16(a), 17(a)
19ta), 20ta)
tQ.no. 7 is disputed)
-
UPSC MAINS EXA~iiNATION
PA ERl.
2011 2012
Evolution of Green Benches (12 marks) Causes and the Extent of 'Desertifi cati on' in Indi a
and Remedial Measures (25 marks)
Impact of C.C. on Indian at r resources (12 marks) Endosulphan ~25 marKS)
Phase IV of tiger monitoring programme (5 n1arks) Tiger tourism (25 n1arks)
PAPER%
2011 2012 .
'E-waste (5 mar.lqij Permaculture (12 marks}
Diminishing popuJation of VuJture (5 marks) CBD (5 marks)
.
. En~onment Sustainability (S marks)
Billion Acts of Green (2 marks)
..

- -
.
:-ECOLOGY -o.

-. . ,..
..

-

-- ..

iffr .n 1 tw .- vir H
1 uniti .
rth- .. at
i ~ nd nt n n igh ttring
~,......"'n"'.,.,.l ledsoo ti s. Th )yare
n ' ithiR a maj r community
n~ completely independent osystern.
' and nutrient dyn mi s are
t of lichen on
a cow dung pad. Components of Ecosy$lem
tructureof a community TI1e omponentsof thee osy s t m is categorised
nto abiotic of non-Hv.in and o c of livin g
mmunity the , wnb r 9f specie~ and size components. Both the components of ecosystem and
ft. :Tf fU al\n Y <H _ -. at y. , ('( l!n "l 1 't r n a_: n rir 1 m e1 l re sam .
C'r .everal s ecies.
1. mpo nt
~ t:
t.n\i 1 e1 < c rs Ern i1 th
characteristic of the co1nmunity as' ell as the pattern Abjotic c m p onents are the inor ganic and non-
f hiT!' i.1 . living parts of the world. The abiotic part consists of
soil, wa r, ai1, and lig~t e~ergy etc. ll also in olves
The characterisb pattern of the community is a ]ar~e number of chemical hke xvoen, rutrooen
: .: . ... ~ .._;: c-C:L.C
". ; hi l is ' t .:. n 1 c cJ !.
c.. I
tc. an p 1ysi al processes inc u ing volcanoes,
played ) various population, their range, the earthquakes, floods, eforest fi.res, climates, ~nd
f rea t e~ j a it, the di 'ersity o f s ~;..: ie w al r o nditi ns.
in 1e mmum the spectrum of i1 ter A i tic factors a re th e m o st j mpo rt ant
bern een them. determinants of where and how well an organism
co- ~s e ex . L n vrC' ent. Alt ou g h th e e ac o ~
intera t ith ach oth r, OJ e si n gl I tor an limi t
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and
the range of an organism.
fun ional unit of biosphere consi ting of con1muruty
a) Energy
of living beings and the physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging materials bet-ween them . Energy from the sun is essential for maint~ance
of life. In the ase of plants, the SW1 ire tly supplie
ro stem s a complex set of r ] a t ion~ 1ip
the nece sary energy. ince animals cannot use solar
among the living resources, habitats, and residents of
nergy directly they obtain it indirectly by eating
an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, plants r animals or both. Energy determines the
miGro-organisms, water, soil, and people. djstril: uti on of organism~ in_ th_e en ironment.
EcOsystems vary greatly in size and elements b) Rainfall
. .
but eadt is a functioning unit _of nature. Everything
Water is essential for all liVing beings. Majority
hat Jives in an ecosystem is dependent on the
of bioch 'nu al reactions tak p1a .i n an aqu 0
r ecies and f' mt:n . that are also pa~t ,f t a m dillin. ~ h lps l r gul, e bu Iy len r. i It.. .
ecological community. If one part of an ecosyst m Further, water bodies f rm th habit,pt f r many
1 damaged or disappears, it has an impact on aquatk plants and animals.
e rything else. c) Temperature
"yst m is healthy(~ .. sustainable) Temp r ture-isacritical fact r f th vinmn nt
f> J m nt. livP in ~aJ nc~ ar d a e \. ;d b . .l t J i ufl 1 ' ;. , ! ,1
, t Jves. Ecosys~m can C"Jrga i.' m: n tol , t o 1ly l1 <
tr oraslarg asentir fo st. temp,~ratllrt' ctn i humidity.
-- .. .. .

-

) 'on um r I t rotr ph uJ hct i oh

I
(other nou.rishin g) I
wid v ri ty-
~
onsumers are incapable of producing th ir wn
food (photosynthess).
They depend on organic food derived from
II
small animals
ts f pl r - __ .m1ts, animals or both. I
pw t and nutrients. Organisms ~ Consumers can be divided into two broad
qu ~c. Terr trial animals live groups namely micro and macro consume rs.
qu tic lants, animal and microbes live in (i) Macro consumers
teras ell as in th s a. Some microbes live
~ They feed on plants or animals or both and are
in h water nts under the s~a.
categorised on the .b asis of th~ir food sources.
at rials: ~ Herbivores are primary consumers which feed
(i) rganic compound such as proteins, mainly on plants e.g. cow., rabbit.
r h} drat ~, lipids, h umic subsfances );> Secondary consumers feed on pdrnary
are formed fiom inorganic compound on consumers e.g. wolves.
decomposition. );> Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers
J J organi compound such as carpon, are ca1Jed tertiary consumers e.g. lions which
carbon dioxide, water, suJphur, nitrates, can eat wolves.
phosphates, and-ions of v_arious;neta]s are );> 011ll1iY9.~~? .i:l:r~ .~~g~isms which consume both
essential fot: organisms to survive. p~an san-d animals e.g. man.
~1 e a d a tihtde Ci) icro consumers - S aprotrophs (deco p sers

1
or osmotrophs) '
Latitude has a strong influence on an area's
emperatur~ resulting i~ change of climates such
as polar., tropical, and temperate _ 'These climates
);> They are bacteri.u anctfungi-whit:h obtain energy
and nutrients by decomposing dead organic
substances (detritus) of plant and animal origin.
I
l-
determine different natural biomes.
);> The products of d e composition such as inorganic 1
From seale;;eJto highe t peaks, wild life is nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are
l
influenced by altitude. As the altitude increases, reused by producers and thus recycled .
he air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild life
accordingly.
.. .-~ ... Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as
nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders
.
'
I
2. Biotic Components and h elp in the decomposition of organic matter
. and are called detrivores.
Biotic -components include living organisms
C~~ssification ,of Eco-system:
comprising plants" animals and microbes and are
classified according to their fun~tiqnal attributes into ___ . ____Natural. Ecosystem
producers and consumers. - ----- -- - - - -- - -
I
a rimary producers - Autot.tophs (self-
n g)

Terrestrial
~-
.Aquftic
,
rimary producers are basically green plants
r-..+.;r.. bacteria and algae).
~ Fresh Vv t r
Forests
the ise carbohydrate from simple Grasslands . Saline \-Vat rs
Dr.tDI* rawmaterials like carbon dioxide and Deserts .Marine VV ters
of
pr en e sunlight by the process
PllmiD&lmtlnesis for therns Jves" and supply The detailed stud y .of e sy. h'm will b d !t .;_.
r on-produ rs. th ~ubs u >nt ch. pt rs.

HAPTE - 1
ECOLOGY
gy is a sci ntific study of the reciprocal r.2. ~i':fVIRONMENT

lationship_bet:Ween organisms (includiDg
microb s, plants, animals, mali) with _Evexyt~gthatsurroundsoraffectsanorganism
vironm nt. It dea)s with .the. ways in whi~ _4ur~ng tts hfe ti:me is collectively known as. its
anis:ms are moulded by their environment, how . env)ro~e~t whi~ .comprises both living (biotic)
they make use of environmental resources including. .and n.onhvmg (abwtic) components.
energy flow and m neraJ cycling. All organisms(from vii-us to man) are obligatorily
The term ecology was coined only as ]a teas 1868. dep~ndent on the en ironment for food, energy
wa ter, oxygen_. shelter and for other nee s '
lt has been derived from two Greek words namel~
m anin me or pla e to live in and ' logos'. The e iro men is d efin ed as ' t e su["l o a
meaning study. Litera~'y it is the study of the home of li ing, non- i\:ing comp onents; influence an '
of nature. . . ev~nts,. su~<?unding an organism .
1.2. . C n ee . f e ~ro e
Ecology is defined '' as a scientific study of the
relationshi of the Jiving organisms "\"lith each other The re1ationship and interaction behv een
and with their environment." organism _and envi~onrnent are highly complex.
. . N? _organism. c~ hve alone without iJ!teracting
1.1 .HISTOR~- OF ECOLOGY '-n lh o tJ- e~ o rganlSrns. So each organism has other
The roots of ecology lie in Natural History, 9rganisms as a part of its environment. Each and
everyJ;hing vvith which we interact or which V.Teneed
which is as o]d as human civilization itself. Since
ez : history, man has indulged in ecoJogy in a
for ur s u stenance forn s o ur e vironmenl. ..
practical sort of way, knowingly and unknowingly. The environment is not stat ic. Both biotic and
In primitive societies .every individual was required abio:ic factors are in a flux and keeps changing
to have an intimate knowledge of .his environment contlnuouslv. .r
. -.
for their survival; i.e., about the forces of nature and ComP.onents of Environ~ent
of plants and animal~ around him.
.Abiotic Biotic
Our ancient Indian texts have referen ces to
'Energy Green.plantS
ecologica) principles. The classical texts of the
Radiation Non-green plants
_Y~ic. period such as _the Vedas, t}}e Samhi tas, the Temperature & heat flow D~composers
Brahmanas and the Aranyakas-Upanish~ds contain \"later Parasites
many re~ces to ecological concep~s . .. Atrnosp~erjc gases and wind Symbionts.
1be Indian treatise on medicine,. the .Caraka- Fire Animals
Samhita and the surgical text Susruta-Samhi't~, . Gravity
Man
s~w that people during this period had a good Topography
\U.\derstanding of plant and animal ecology. Soil . :
Geologic substratum .
These texts contaii) dassification of animals on '
the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature

of soil, climate and vegetation; and-description of
pW\ts typical to various JocaJities. Carai<a- Samhita
fnrmn n that air, land, W;)tP.r and 5<'flSOn
\CWiDEns b]e for 11fe and thnt po1Juted air and
injurjous for health.
- - -.
..

-
..
ir nt t f
pul ti js .group of ory,an i. .rn~ lly of
lh same sp des, crupying hn urm
" a sp cific thne. '
:a
I
Population growth r a t is th percenta c i

variation between the number of in dividuals I
population at two different times. Therefore the
- I bi tic nvir nm nt consists of microscopic population growth rate can be p ositive or negative.
. The m_nin f~ctor: thut m ake pQptl lation grow are
I
all d pl fl~8ft es weli as aquatic
nt and anim ls and decomposers. b.iJttl and 1IDm1gration. The main fa ctors that make
I
po~ulation decrease are death and emigration.
nt mal environment of fish \
The main limiting factors for the growth of a
~
It is enclosed by the uter body surface.
The internal envir nment is relatively stable as
compared to the external environment.
population a~e abiotic and biotic componentS.
Populatio~ de!lsity is the re lation between the
number of ind_ividua]s of a popul ation and the area
I f
I
~ However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury, they occupy.
:1 e s or e. ces ive s tress upse ts the internal
\ ro e t. 1.3.3. Community
~ For e.xample, fa marine fish is transferred to a If we lo_o k around ourself, we will notice that
population o f p lants and animais seldom ocarr by
frE~ 1 'ater environn1ent, it il not be able to
themselves. The reason ior this js quite obvious.
Jn order t~ survive, individuals of any one species
1. 0 LS SAT IO S depen~ on indi iduars of fferent species i h
which they active]y intera ct in s e veral ways.
For eg: Animals require plants for food and trees
The JTiain levels of organisation of ecology are six
for shelter. PJ_an ts require an.imais for poUination,
and areas fo lov s .
seed dispersa l, and soil microorganism to fa cilitate
nut rient supply.
Communities in most instances are named after
the dominant plant fonn (species).
For example : A gr as s land comm unity is
dominated by grasses, though_i t m a y contain herbs,
shrubs, and trees, alongwith associated animals of
different _s pecies.
A commu nity is not fixed or rigid; communities
may be large or _small.
?.1. Jndj "d

Organism is an individual living }?eing that haS Types of Community
ability toact r function independently. It maybe
On the basis oi size and d gree of relative
~ animal, ba t =-rium, fungi, etc. It is a body made
independence communities n'lny be divided into
r gans, organelles, or other parts that ~.~ork two types:
e variou! prr Cf'. ~s of1if~.
-
m 'lh orgCliW;ms whic ur .

, bundantly in thi ~ 7.0n "r> ,. , n_man! 1 ,.. r 1 : >. t
na1ceo ystl!meClg 'n
1n t 11 t rres't. a c. . c .. p . r;
effe
i n ff , fu I and fibr applicable to birds. 1 sp eta 11 Y
f h It rand building materials ;..
ti n fair and wat r
.
h l'Or example
d h hi thef density of birds 19 g rea t er m .
t e mtxe a tat o the ecotone between th. e f ores t
i.fi tion and d composition of wastes and the deserl
ta ili:lati and moderation of the Earth's climate
> d ration f floods, droughts, temperature Niche
tr m sand the forces of wind. A ~~c~e is the uniq2te fu nciional role or place of
:> - Gl'ttt!f tion and rene~al of soil fertility, including:v::---,aro-.~~p~e_aes ~ an ecosystem. It is a description of all ..
nutri nt cycling. the biOlogtcaJ, phys1cal and chemical factors that a
~ Pollination of plants, including many crops species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
Control of pests.and dise~ses A niche is unique for a species, which means no
:> Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs two species have exact identical niches. Niche pla ys
to crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, an important role in conservation of organisms.
and other products 1f we have to conserve species in its na tive
)> Cultural and aesthetic benefits habitat we shquld have knowledge abou t the niche
Ecotone requiremen~ of the species and should ensure that
Ecoton is a zone of junction bet-ween h vo or all requirements f ~ts rJd-e are fu lfilled .
more di erse ecosvstems. For e.g . the mangrove Types of Niche
forests represent' an ecotone between marine J. Habitat niche- where it ]jves
an terres ria e os),stem. Other examples are - 2. Food niche-what is eats or de:omposes & what
gra's sland, estuary and river bank species j cc . e es . 7
3. Reproductive niche- how and when it reproduces.

4. Physical & chemkai n che - temperature, land
shape, land slOJ-te, humidity 8y other requ irement.
1.3.5. B~ome
The terrestrial oart of the iosoh ere is div isible
into enormous regions called biomes, which ar e
characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life and
general so.i] type.
re No two biomes are alike. The climate determines
the boundaries of a biome and abundance of plants
and animals found in each. one of them . The most
important climatic factors are temperature and
~.1
ter precipitation.
~~:- - - - -- -- Ecotone- --- --
J<."
Characteristics of Ecotone
COLD
..
> It may be very narrow-or'<luite wide.
);> It has the conditions intennediate to the adJacent
ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension .
> It is linear as jt shows progre.ssive increase in
species composition of one in coming community
and-a simultaneous decrease in species of the.
other ouf going adjoining community.
A well developed ecotones contain some
organisms which.are entiz!!ly different from that
of the adjoining comrn~nities. WARM
,. So l:t IH<: tl c numLer of sp il:s nd tl NW~~-----------------------

BJQJVIE Distribution b s 1 on
population d nsity of some of the _species. is
much greater in thiszonethan either commuruty,
Thi -1 all d edg effect.
~------ ----.
and Precipitation
---- _______mp ratur
.....
-----------------------------------------~--~--------------------------~----~-- .. -
-
una
Devoid of trees except stnnted shrubs in the
ic ~outhem rart of tundra biome, ground flora
mcludes lichen, mosses and sedges. ,,
: .
The typical a~als are reindeer, arctic fox,
polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare .,
pta~igan. Reptiles and amphibians are almos~

absent. ..
Toi Northern Ell!'ope, AS!.~Bn&~-+>The dommatigg vegetation is conifero~s ,......
North America. Moderate evergreenmosUy spruce, with some pine afid

.\
temperatur~ than tundra. firs.
~
Also known as boreal forest. The f~una co~sists of small seed eating birds,
hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little mink, elks,
puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.
\ .-
:
'
Temperate Extends over Central and J1te flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple I
Southern Europe~ Eastern
Deciduous
No rth America, 'Vestern
and cherry.
Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and l ~
Forest
China, Japan, New Zealand invertebrates. I
I
I
(
etc. Moderate average I

temperature and abundant
'
I
rainfall. These are generally
t h e ~ o s t p r o d u c.t.Lv e
I
~ gr i cu l tura l are as of h e
- ----- :..:..:....:..:.::.:.:;;.: ..::...:.._ ... '
...earth
4 Tropical rain Tropical areas in the Tropical rainforest covers about 7o/o of the '
t
forest equatorial regio:ns, which earth's surface & 40% of the world's plant and t
I
is abound vvith Jde. animal species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed ~
l
l.
Temperature and_ rainfall ev~rgreen tree species are in abundance. Most
t
high. . - - ~ . animals and epiphytic plants are concentrated t
in the canopy _or tree top zones . ~
~
5 Savannah Tropical region: Savannah Grasses with scattered tree~ and fire resisting lf
is most extensive in Africa. - thomy shrubs.
The fauna include a great diversity of grazers
and browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes,
zebras, elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores
include liof\ cheetah, hyena; and mongoose,
and many roden.W t.- -- . ----- -- -----"-
6 Grassland _ North America, Ukraine, Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna
etc. Dominated by grasses. include large herbivores li~e bison, antelope,
Temperate conditions with cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich
rath r low rainfall. and diverse array of ground nesting bird.
,
7 Continental interiors with The flora is drought resistance vegetation

very low and sporadic such as cactus, euphorbias, sag brush. Faun :
rainfall with low humidity. Reptil s, M mm
ls and birds.
The days ar very h t but
mghts a cold.
c
. .3.6. Biosp1tere::-----_:::-~~~~!.
m ; howcvcr. Biosphere is a part of th th _
. B' . e ear wher lif .
li zon s, with regions ~XlSt. , l?sphere represents a highl r . e e can
d anim Hfe. The major Jnteracting zone comprisi~g f Y mtegrated and
n the v rious aquatic zones are hydrosphere (water) and litho~ hatmo(lsphere (air),
, I v ls of dissolved nutrients, ~rater . p ere and).
It IS a narrow layer around th f
th f sunlight penetratipn. th lf . . e sur ace of the
ear I . th ~~ VlS~alise the earth _to be the size of an
qua tic Characteristics app e e Iosphere would be as thick as its skin.
ccosyst m Life in the biosphere is ~btifiafl!ll betWeen 200
1. Fresh Water Fresh water ecosystem metres {660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and
Ecosystem are dassified as ]otic about 6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above _sea level.
(moving. water) or len tic
(still or stagnant water).
Lotic w.ater system
includes freshwater
s fie am s, springs;
rivulets, creeks, brooks,
and rivers. Lentic water
bodies include pools,
ponds, some swamps,
bogs and lakes. They vary
considerably in physical,
----<--+~hemicai an d bi ological- --_
char~cteris tics.
2. 1arine Nearly three:_ quarter

Ecosvstein of earth's surface is Biosphere
-'
covered by ocean ----- - ---

with an average d epth Biosphere" is absent at extremes of the orth
of 3,750 m and with and South poles, the highest mountains and the
salinity_35 ppt, (parts pe r deepest oceans, since existing hostile conditions
thousand), about 90 per there do not support life. Occasionally spores of
cent of which is sodium fungi and bacteria d~ occur at great height beyond
chloride. 8,000 metres, but they are not metabolically acti e,
and hence represent onl 'dormant life .
3. Estuaries Coastal bays, river
mouths and tidal T-he energy required for the _life within the
. :m~r~}:les for~ _th~
bi_o sphere co:ines from the sun. The nutrients
estuarie-s. ln estuaries, -----necessary for iTv'lng-organismscoine from air, water
. and soil. The same chemicals are recycled over and
fresh .. .
. water from rivers . over again for life to continue. .
meet ocean water and
the two are mixed by Living organisms are not uniformly distributed
, action of tides. Estuaries throughout the biosphere. Only a few organism live
are highly productive in the polar -r-egions~ while the tr pi~~l rain f r s
as compared ;o the have an exceedingly rich diversity of plants nd
d'ac~t river or sea. :mima1s.

FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1.:
., ,
i .n of an system is a broad, vast As a resun there~~ usnmty four or fi"\\"e h hie - .
llnd mpl t dynamic system. It can be levels. ~d seldo~ more than six as beyondupthat
tudi d under the following three heads. very ~ttle energy IS left to support any org~m.
flovv Trophic l~vels_are numbered accord~g to'the steps .
an organism IS away from the source of food or
. utrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) energy, that is the producer.
Ec logical succession or ecosystem development The trophic level interaction involves three l..
.
concepts namely :-
2.1 ENERGY FLOW 1. Food Olain
En~rgy is the basic fprce responsible for .all 2. Food Web
ic a j i ti es. Tl flow of ener gy fr on1 3. Ecological Pyramids
co -u e rR L ,J e e e rg_' flow
c 1 al. 2.2. OOD CHAl
The study of Trophic level interaction in an Organisms in the ecosystem are related tq.each
- ~ E te:r
0}pes an i ea 0 1. l E ener gy fl ov~ o er Ll-tro g. !'ee j g nTe anism o tr E s,
t.hro.ugh the ecosystem. i.e. one organism becomes food for the other. A .
~- e ce of org<'rr sm~ at fee en one ano er, form
2.1.1. ropnic level inte~ction
T 0ph"~e-Hnteracfon de Js ith how the - a food chain. A food chain starts with prod ucers and
ends With top carnivores. _
r e . e rs of v ecosystem are corJlected based on The sequence of eaten and being eaten, p roduces
nutritional needs. transfer of food energy and it is knuvvn as food chain.
The plant conver ts so]ar energy into protoplasm by
p otosynthesis . -- - - -
1 Autotrophs Small herbivores consume the vegetable
11 Heterotrophs Herbivore matter and convert them into animal matter. These
(primary consumers) . herbivores are eaten by large carnivores:
m He~rotrophs Carnivores
(secondary con u m e rs)
Carnivore
IV Heterotrophs
(tertiary consumers)
Heterotrophs -. . '
Energy flows through the trophic levels: fr.om

producers to subsequent trophic levels .. This"energy
always flows from lower (producer) to higher
erbiv01e, carnivore etc.) trophic level. lt never
flows in the reverse direction that is from carnivores
o rbivores to producers.
re is a loss of oome energy in the form o{
a at each trophic lev 1 o that energy
t I. firr t r J j } : np . ~H 1

----------

. -.

-------~UN . TIONS OF
-- ANEosys M
- two food ch ins are linked - -.-.-. ....:_:..::.:.:.:._:...
$Our~ for d tritu food .h . . .-The lnltial n rgy
rt d ins hav , C <Hn lS th \ ,
and dead organic matter fro th ~~ te mntc j<l
. m e grazmg food chain
2.3. FOOl:> WEB . .
rs whi :h start th food chain, utilising A food chain represe~ts or\J . . . . . .
as their food, constitute the grazing or energy flow through Yone part of the food
an ecosystem and im li
:1 d1ain b gin. from green plants at . ~imple, isola't ed relationship, which s~)do ~- ~sa
rimary consumer is herbivore. m the ecosystems. . m occurs
An e~osyst~m ~ay consist Of sevefal interr~lated

food

chams. More typ. icallv
J'
the same f ood resource
.
lS part of ~ore than one Chain, especially when that
resource ~sat the lower trophic levels.
uA food web illustrates, all possjble transfers of
energy and nutrients among the organisms in an
ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces :only one
pathway of the food". ,._
Grazing Food Chain
For example, In terestriat-ecosystem, grass is

If any of the intermediate food chain is removed,
ea en up by caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and
the succeeding Hnks of the ch?in will be affected
Jizard is eaten _by snake. . largely. The .. food web provides more than one_
~l ..-:.qu~tic tcosystezn pry to Janktons {p rimary alternative for food to most of the organisms in an
p. oducers) is eaten by zoo plank tons which is ~a ten ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of
by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans. survivaJ. ----------- --.. --- - -.--
-.
ii. Detritus food chain
. -
'The food chain starts from dead organic matter
For example, grasses _m ay serve food for rabbit or
grasshopper or goat o:r;- cow. Similarly a herbivore may
ci decaying animals and plant bodies to the mlcrcr be food SQurce for many different carnivorous species_.
g and U n to detritus feeding organism ~ed Also food availability and pre'ferences of food
r an to ot er prPch-Itor~ . of the organisms may shift seasonally e :g: p ~ "'a'f .
watermelon in summ~r an_q peaches in the 'Wint r.
Thus there are interconne~ed networks off eding
relaUonships that take the fo~ of food webs.
If any of th in rmedi~te food chainis r t;n ved,
the ~u cc ling Iinke; of th :hain.~ 1be afkded lar ly.
, ot r f' nf f Tl('f y
'l ht f()()d w l> proviJ s mur, U\ 1 e d l:1
ihl f od chaiii
food to rn s~ of tl1 >rg ni ms in n n td
matt i or d tritu .
L
th r for in 11 :1h ar :h. f u

xt high r tr phic l _v
n m r- h ~bivor ( ampl grasshopper).
1 glc I > Til individ.u 1 numb r f grn!:shoppcr i~ less
r f n s th b of the than thnt of grass. The n x "ncrgy 1 v 1 is
miv r f nn th tip. Oth r primary carnivore (example - rat).. (
1 in b twc n. > The number of rats are less than grasshopper

.. . (
nsi ts of a number of horizontal because, they feed on gras~hopper. The nex;
Hie tr phic levels which are_ higher trophic level is secondary carnivore
.. I
uenti Ily from primary producer level (example -snakes). They feed on rats.
rbi runivoreon'\ 'cltds; -:fhe lt:llglh
9
[" I of . )> The next higher trophic level is the top c<lrnivore.
ret>re:;ents the t tal number of individuals (Ex.Hawk). ..
vel in an ~ osystem.
)> .. With ea.ch higher trophic level, the number of
nun;ber, bion~ass and energy of organisms indiviaual decreases.
duall decrease with each step from ~e producer ::"" . I
1 1 to the c nsumer level an~ the- diag~ammatic (b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted . .1
representation assumes a pyramid:shape.. )> In this pyramid, the number of individuals is ., : .. . <
T e LO] gic;:~l pyr n i s are of three categories. increas ed from lower level to higher trophlc
1. P)-ram d of numbers, level.
Pyramid f biomass. and ,-.... 1
' ~
.. c
)> 3. Pyramid of energy or productivity. .. ..
e' .
\'
Hyper-p;or~
)Tami of .. urn ers.
11tis deals with the relationship b~tween the
:::.- . .. \---..-~--~-~~~~~-
~t -~
"'-.::.
,:._ :.
I
'
.1'... :. ~ _ ; t- rim<:.I) t' 1::: t: cers d - S '.JJJ us of

d ifferent levels. It is a graphic represen~~tion of the
, ... . j, : . ~ t.r i1 ue:.ls cf i(ertr s_p:cie::;,
be onging to each trophic level in an ecosystem. . (
Dep end ing upon th e s ize and bjom ass, the
p_ a id of numbers may not always be upright,
and may even be completely inverted .
t ~ l
z.. y:-amid o f l1 1m ers- -prigh
;> In this pyramid, the number of individuals is , .:
~
decreased hom lower level to higher trophic level.
This type of pyramid can pe seen in grassland
Il
ecosystem.
.L
> A count in a forest would have a small numberof-- ---

large producers, for e.g. few number of big trees.
)> This is because the tree (Primary producer) being
few in number and would repr~sent the base
of the pyramid and the dependent herbivores .. I
._ l
(Example- Birds) in the next higher trophic level
and jt is followed by parasitesin thenexttmphlc
leveL Hyper parasites being at hlgher trophic
level represen~ higher fu number.
)> And the resulting pyramid is in inverted f>hape.
A pyramid of nu~bers does not take into.
~ccount the fact that the si:t.t:: of rgani ms being
(' tf>d in c>ach trophic lP 't~ l C;> '" n'

-. ..
.-

- -
In cont~ast, in many aqua'tk -:-eco.,._

~stern~ the
o f b 10m ass may assume
. an ver te d .f,orm.
m J
r t rcome the shortcomings of

f nwnber , the pyramid of biomass is used.
rr ch individuals in each trophic level are
i instead of b ing counted. 1bis give$ us a
n"U"'~n'ld f biomass, i.e., the total dry weight of an
- a
anisms at each trophic level at particular time~
Pyramid of biomass is usually .determined by
col1ecting all organisms occupying each trophic level
separately and measuring their ,dry weight. This.
overcomes the size difference problem because all '
...-. .,..
.kin s of org"anisn1s ~t a trophic level are weighed.
~
Biomass is measure~ in glm2.

(a) Upward pyramid
For most ecosystems. on land, L'"le pyramid of
1ma. , has a ;:n e ba. e oJ prjmary producer with
a ~maller trophic level perched bn top. This is because the producers are t iny
phytoplanktons that grow ~d . z:eproduc~ rapidly.
ere, he p ramid of bomass has a srna ase,
with th~ consumer biomass at _any instant actually
ex ~ced ing ti1e p roducet biv.:J:ass anct--the-pyrarni<Y- :..._:_ .. :...
assumes in~erted shape.
2.4.3. Pyramid of Energy
To compare the functional roles 6 the trophic
Pmnory C cmtvorf! an
levels in an ecosystem, energy pyramid is most
su j t~ble. An en e rgy pyram d, reflecls t e la\. s of
thermodynamics, with conversion of solar energy
to_chem.ic:al energy and heat energy at each trophic
level and with loss of energy being depicted at each
transfer to another trophic level. Henc~ the pyramid
Producers is always upward, with a Jar-ge energy .hase at the
bottom.
Upright Pyramid of Biomass Let us explain this with an example. Supposean
ecosystem receives 1000 calories-of-light enetgy-rn-a-- - - -
The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the given day_Most of the energy is not absorbed; some
maximum .. The biomass of next trophic level i.e is reflected back to space; of the energy absorbed
primary .consumers is less than. the producers. Th~ only a small portion is utilised by green plants, out
biomass of next high_er trophic level i.e secondary of whkh the plant use~ up some for respiration and
consumers i~ less than the primary consumers. The f the 1000 calories, the~efore only 100 cjl}ories are
top, high uuphjc le. el has vtry less amount ofbiomass. stored as energy rich materials:

. .
.. --
Biomagnific
- Biomagnification r f rs to th t d
. rnJlutantstocon (>nfrilt a tJpym n frn(y Of
. ov rn n
trophic 1 vel to th n x .
);:- Thus in biomagnification
. ther 1s an mer
. .
as ln
co[ ~dcentr~tion of a pollutant from one link in a
oo cham to anoth r.
Pyramid of energy
suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant

'\.V
containing 100 cal of food energy. The deer uses some of
u rits "rn etabo ~ . and stQr s only 10 cal as food
.. on at eats the deer gets an even smaller
amount of energy. Thus--usable energy decreases
1 sunJight t produ er t -n eroi ore to cam.i ore.
Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright.
Energy pyramid concept helps tc) explain the
phen menon of bio og)cal magnification-the tenancy
or OY. c ~ ~tances o crease i co ce ation
progressively at higher levels of the food chain.
2.5 POLLUTA TS Al D TR PH C
-
LEVEL Biomagnification
Po1lutants espedaJ!y n eg a a Je o es mo e
thro gh t e Yarious trophic e vels in an ecosystem. In rder for biomngn ifica =o o o ui, he
Nondegradabale pollutants mean materials, pollutant t:JlUSt be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats,
hich cannot be metzbolized by the living organi ms. biologically active.
Example: chlorinated hydro~arbons. If a pollutant is short-lived, ]t will be broken
We ~re concerned about these phenomena down ~clore_ it can become dangerous. If it is not
because, ogether hey enable even small moJ:>ile, it will st~y in one p lace and is unlikely to be
concentrations of chemicals in the environment taken up by orga.Jiism~. If the pollutant is soluble in
to find their way into org_arusins in high enough water, it will be excreted by the organi m . Pollutants
dosages to -cause problems. that dissolve m fats, however, may be retained for
a long time.
1ovement of these pollutants involves two main
processes: It is traditional to measure the amount of
. pollutants. in fatty tissues of organisms such as
..
Bioaccumulation
fish. In mammals, we ofte test the n r tl
B iornagnification.
y fern es, ince t e n1i ~ s o of fa t i1 i nre
2 .1. Bioaccn.mulation often more .susc ptible to damage fr rri t ins
lt el rs to how pollutants cntet a food chain. (poisons). If~ p Uutant is not activ bi 1 ally, it
may biomagnify, but we really don't vorry ut it
n ioaccumulation there is an increase in
inu , since it probabl w n't cnn , y r bl m
tt oiapoJJutant fr m th nvirorun nt
~xarn 1 ; DT.
r ani min ' f od f'hain .
- -
NCTIONS
Y T M
t ra tions, the CQsts and ben fit s expen. n c d
b y efl cl1 Ra~er are. ex_a ctly th e same s tha t
they su~ to zero. It is not. deai how often this
happensmnature. Neutralism is alsosom ti.
. .b d h e m s
d esc:1 : as~~ e relati<:>nship between two .
speoes inhabl~g the same space and using the
- same resources, but that have no effet.--t on each
Biotic Interaction
s..No..
. Type Spices 1 Species 2
othe;- _In !his _case, one could argue tha t they
aren t mteracting at alL
J..._ Mutualism .. (+) (+)
. Commensalism .(+) . . (0) .. 2.
.
7. BIOGEo
. ,.
cH EMICAL
.
cYCLE .
Competition (-) (-) The living world depends upon the energy .
3.
f.low and the hutdents circulation that occurs
. Predation. (+) (-}
through ecosyst~m. Both influence the abundance
5. Paras.l~ism (+) (-) of organisms, the metabolic ra ~e at w hich they liv e,
6. A.mensalisni (-) (0) and th,~ e<:>mplexity of the ecosystem.
7. Neutralism (0) (0) Energy flows through ecosystems enabling the
(-) Hanned organisms to perform various kind s of w ork and
( +) Benefited . .
this energy is ~ timately lost as heat fore e r in tenns
(0). T,;: . .er B- 1ef.t d c: .c. n e .
of the usefulness-of the system . On the other h an d,
2.6.1. Types of b~o~c intera~on nutrients of food matter never get used up. They can .
r .l.a a 'sm: o ,speci~s be efi . ..,e re -yc e rtgai, arid - g2in indefinitely.
T: Y3 . Je: in -poll" a ti o m u t ua sm s, e F o r e.g. when we breath e w e ~ay be inhalin.g~--
pollinator gets -food (pollen, nectar), and the sever al .million atoms of elem ents tha t may h av e
plant has its poJ}en transferred to other flowers been inhaled by our ancestors or o th er organisms.
or cre ss-fertilization (~eprod uction). C a rbon , hydrogen, o x ygen , nit r ogen an d
r Commensalism: one species benefits, the other p h osphorus as elements and compounds make u p
1s unaffected .
97% _9f the m ass of our bod ies an d ar.e more th an
9 ~ o of the ma~s of all li ing organisms. ln addition
Example: cow d ung provides food and shelter.
to these about 15 to 25 other elements are n eeded in
to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect on
some form for the survival an d go_Qg_heaJth .of plants
the-cow . s. . .. and animals. .
> Competition: both species are harmed by the
These elements or ririneral nutrients are always
interaction.
in circulation moving from non-living t<? Hving
Exarr. ple: if h\'O .pedes eat the same food, and and then back to the non-living con1ponenfs of the
there isn't enough for both, both may have access ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. TIUs
to Jess food than they would if alone. They both circular fashion is known as biogeochemiCal cycling
suffer a shortage of food (bioj o,; living; geo for atmosphere).
> Predation and parasitism: one species benefits,
2.7.1. Nutrient Cycling
the other is harmed. . .
Example : predation- one fish kills and eats The. nutrient cycle is a concept that describes
arasitism: tick gains benefit py suck]n . blood ; how nutrient;S move from the physical environm ent
t is harmed' by losing blood.
to th e li in g rganisffi:S,. and subs u 1 tly recy 1
back to the phY.,sical environment.
AIIRCJIIAI m :One species is harmed, the other
aHected. This movement of nutrients fr o m th
enviro:unent into plants and anima ls and again
shades a small plant, back to th environment is ess ntial fo r life and it is
of the smalJ plant. The th vit ' l fun ti n of thf> ec l ~v of anv reo ion. In
1 rg : t1 (. p rtiru' .r nvironment, t n1aint lJl .it ~~ u
fit or h a rm a su . ta ed m ann r, theIm tri n t I n u ;t
r
1 t rsp ala d a d st bl .
'l
...
2.7.2.
L t u fir t study som f th rn . t iU\port n
g s us cyd s; na~ely - wat ' orb nan nitr g~n.
(a) Water Cycle (Hydrologi )
Water as ~ important ecological ..
factor detennmes the struchue a d .
fu . n
nchon of the ecosystem. Cycling of
all other nutrients is also dependent . ..
upon water as it provides their ' .

transportation during the vad~us \
steps. It acts as a solvent medium for lI
their ~take. of nutrients b_y or_g_anisms.
\ .:
The hydr<?logiccycleis the continuousciiculation ,. .. , J
of water in the Earth-atmosphere s),stem. which is \

driven by solar energy. Water on our plan~t is stored
t
~ .: ..:
son. in major reservoirs like atmosphere, ocearu, lakes,

I
I
I
1\umu.! and miMrols
..
. :.
rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. ~~
Water moves from one reservoir lo another I .,J":
I
by the pr ocesses of evap o ration , transpirati on ,
OECOMt~
conden.s a ti on, p ecipit a f o n , .ep os i i0n , n o , . I } ..8
f ungl nnd _be; ttt'lll infi ltra ion, and gro nd1 -ater fl ow. ;
Nutrient cycling_ I .' .
..
T'_rpes of utr ent Cycfe
'
}> Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle I
.
t
is rt!ferre d to as Perfect or Imperfect cy cle. i

!
A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients

are replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most
gasec s cy cles ar e generally consi dere d as
perfect cycles.
In contrast sedilnentary cycles are considered l
I
relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost
from the cycle and get locked into sediments and
l
t
so become unavaila.ble for immedi_a te cycling. t
Based on the nature of the reservoir, there
are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and
Water Cycle
I
l
sedimentary cycle . . . -- ..L__ _~------~---:----'
~-
eou Cvc1e - where the reservoir is the (b) Th~ Car~on Cycle
phere' or the hydrosphere, and .
Carbon is a minor constituent of the
,._............ entary Cycle- where the reservoir is the atmosphere as compared to oxyge~ ~d
.
ru . nitrogen. However, without ca:rb. n ~mode
l.i.fi u}dnotexist, ca 1t1s 'l.al r
the production of carb hyd:at s thr gh_
phot synthesis by pl_an . lt 1 th 1 m t
that... dK,>rsallcrgam.r sul.:-t.m
- d oil t NA (d oxyri
u d

bn ~oveslo
p of photosynthesis, and then

llft)re;:sof respiration and_decomposition
.nr.~-v-_ matter it returns back to atmosphere. It
art term cycl .
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in

three different ways:
(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-greenalgae)
(ii) B rr.a. - c-in g L. d"uE- t1iz.l T':c-E.sses 'fe:~:Iizer
factories) and
Carbon Cycle (~ii} To a limited extent by
atmospheric phenom en n
such as thunder and lighting
Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It
accumu ates as u..'l- ecomposed orga.J c matter i e The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man
peaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates thro gl- in t:st:rial rocess as far e. ce ed ed
in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. As
a long time to be released. ..-. a result Nitrogen has become a po11utant
which can disrupt the balance of nitrogen.
In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried
ltmay lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and
for millions of years till geological movement may
Harmful Algal Blooms.
1ift these tocks abo e ~ea ]e';el. These rocks ma} be
exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide, Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing
carbonatesandbicarbonatesintostreams.and rivers.~ atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions. These
_ Fossil ~such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are _ include free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g. aerobic
organic compounds that were buried before they could Azotobacter and ana~r-eb-ic- Clo.sttidium) and
be deoomposed and were subsequently transformed by -~ymbiotic rutrifying bacteria living in association
tiJ.ne and geofogical processes into fossil fUels. Whe-n with legumi"nous plants and symbiotic bacteria
they are burned the catbon stored in them is released living in non leguminous root nodu le p1a ts
ack into tr..!! a ospl cr~ as carbon:dioxide. ( .g. .izobiui s ">'e I as 1~ e gr e algae
Anabaena, Spirulina):
e ilrogen Cycle
Ammonium ions can be directly tak n up
itrogen is an essential constituent of protein as a source of nitrogen by orne plan'ts, or are
a basic building block of all living tis~ue. It oxidized to nitrites . or nitratPs by two groups of
CGDIIIIII.tuft!!& y 16% by weight of all the proteins. specialised bacteria: Nitro om na ba t ria pr m te
st~lt.: ~ l-'1} uf l ilHJ~t.'J ...
traJ fom''' iuH Jt i.l.ll~H J.
1 m nt 1 fonn c~ 1 not th nfurther trnn form dint
t of the Jiving organisrns . Nit rob ct r. -

. -.

'
i
I.
.J
: :
li~ of soil nitrates, being highly

I
r, lost to the 'ystem by being
I
I
y by stiff~ e run-off or ground i ,.. ..
s n swell as oceans there are special I

~ cteria ( .g. ;pseudomonas), which
. . nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen.
llu n1tr g n escapes into the atmosphere, thus .. ...
mf 1 ting th cycle.
. The ~eriodic thunderstorms convert the gaseous
rutr gen m the atmosphere to ammonia and nitrates
hi . 1. _ntu lly reach the earth's surface through The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth's
rr lf 1 a n a d then into the soil to be utilized by crust. On land phosphorus is usual1y found in the
Iants. form of ~hosphates. By ~e proe~ss-of-~eathering
and eros10n pho~ph a e enter rivers and stre 2 ms
that transport them to the ocean.
In the ocean once-the . os ho s CI CC1Jm1 1a t?-~ 0
con?nental shelves in the form of insoluble deposi ts.
(\ ~~ r m. illi ons of ye<ns, th e c- u ~t a plat es 1i~ e freT.!-. lh e
r-..u
sea floor and expose the phosphates on land . After
m o re time, weathering '\'\~ill release them fr o rock - -
and the cycle's geochemical phase b e~s again. '.
(b} SulphurCyde
The sulphur rese1 :oir is L'l the soil and sed imeJ ts
2.7.3. Sedimentary Cycle where it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and
inorganic deposits (py rite rock and sulphu r rock ) in
Phosphorus; calcium and magnesium circulate th_e formofsulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur.
by means of the sedimentary cycle. Th~ element
It is released by weathering of rocks, erosion a 1
involved in the sedimentary cycle normally does runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is
et c_:de through the atmosphere but foJlows a carried to terrestrial_and aquatic ecosystems in salt
basic patte~f..flow ihrough erosion, sedimentation, solution.
mountain building, volcanic activity and biological
Tilesulp ufcyc1e 1s mostly sedimentary exc~pt
transport through theexcreta marine
of bi!ds~ - two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) and
(a) Phosphorus Cycle sulphur dioxide (S02) add a gaseous component to
.. cycle.
Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic its normal sed!mentary
.
ecosystems and ater quality. Unlike carbon and Sulphur enters. the atmosphere from se eral
g i xocpriman1y from l1 e atmosphere, s ources !ike volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossi l.
- ---phorus occurs in large am0unts as a ~eral in fuels, from surface of ocean and from gases released
hat rocks and enters the cycle from erosion l?Y de.composition.Atmospherichydrogen sulprude
g activities. This is the nutrient considered also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide. A tmo ph ric
Of excessive growth of rooted su1 phur dioxide is carried back lo th r~ rth fter
oscopic plants in lakes. . being dissolved in rainwat r as weak u1phuric cid .

. .
Sulphur Cy~Je
h source, sulph r i1 the form of
1
e u by r a t and inco porated

trOt: .. 3 ri of m e~ a r Cp OCESSeS in O S 1lphu r
b aring ?mino acid which is incorp01;ated in the . ~~
~:
roteins of autotroph tissues. It then-passes through ... Tlme -----~t..-
e-g z.j, . g ood am.
Ecol ogi cal Succession
. bo nd in r j g 0 sm jc:; carrie
back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes
and seas through_- excretion and decomposition of 2.8.1.. Primary Success i on
ea organic material. Jn primary succession on a terrestrial site he
The Bio-geochemical cycles d iscussed h ere new _si te is first colonized by a f~w hardy pio eer
are only a few of the many cycles present in the species that are often m icrobes, lichens and mosses.
eco ys tem . Tnese cycle usually do not per ate T e p ioneers over a f ev,r genera io .s <1 ter:l.e .. ab ita!
mdefe:tdent]y bu t interact with E.'ilCh other a some conditions by their. grow th and development.
point or the other.
These new conditions may be conducive to the
estab1ishrnent of ad ditional organisms that may
subsequently arrive at the site. The pioneers through
their death any .d ecay leave patches of organic matter
in which small animals can Hve.
The organic matter~ produced by these pioneer
species produce organic acids during decomposition
that dissolve and etch lhe substratum releasing
nutrients to the substra_tum. Organic d~bris
2.8. SUCCESSION accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing soil
Succession is a universal process of directional m hich seeds can become lodg d and gxow.
argc in \ C;g<:t aliun, u an ecologi al time ' 1 As the cmnmtmity of or-ganisms continue to
Succession oc~rs when a series of co~ unities develop, it becomes more diverse and compe_tition
replace one another due to large scale des~ction increases, but at the s am e time n ew ni h e
ei r natural or manmade. This process continue~ opportunities de elopE.-.
one community replacing another community,_ tmtil The pioneer sp des di nppear as th habi~
bl , matur community develops.
, t 1 di tim ~: c <P t;t.. ~.- n d i'J 'o~~iu d l ' F ' :c
:, I s '- psugrc~s1v~ ~ t:!1cs of c l.allg~.::s ~ d' lh 1..,.,. mnn t of the
r o g - s c.6, It, a . 111 g t o r p en. "
t l}, !>tJbli!:.hrn nt of a relatively stable
pr ceding c mn unity.
omr u ity.
-
-
bet~m prim ry and secondarf
lljlielldfm, th secondary successi n starts n a
,.,.,IP@.nped i1 alieady formed a t th ...ite.Thus
secondary succession is relatively fo ster as compared
to primary succession which m a y ft ej1 requite
s i n is the sequentiAl hundreds of years.
f i ti ommunities after the
J p rti I d struction of the existing 2.8.2. Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
unity. Am tur or.intermediate community When succession is brought about by living
d troyed by natura) ev*:?nts such as floods, inhabitants of that community itself, the pioa?Ssis c:alled
h~ fires, O!,. storm~r by human intervent!_ons au~c su~cession, while chnnge brought about by
defoxcstation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc outm'ae forces is known as allogenic Succession. _____ _
This abandoned farmland is first invaded by 2.8.3. Autotrophic a~d Heterotrophic
h a rdy species of grasses ~at can survive in bare, sun- ~cr~~oo
baked soil. These grasses may be soon joined _by tall
grasses and herbaceous plants. These dominate the Succession in which, initially the green plants
ecosystem for some years along with mice, rabbits, - are much greater is ~antity is known as autotrpphi~
insects and seed-eating birds. . Succession; and the ones in whi the heterotrophs are
greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.
Eventually, some trees come up in this area,
seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals. Succession would occur faster in area e~sting
in the middle of the large continen t. This is because,
0\'cr the year s, a forest community de_velop s.
here all propagules or seeds of plants b elongjng to
Th g an abandoned farmland over.a period .l?~comes
the different seres would reach much faster, establish
~ n- u.at 'y trees an is transformed mto a fores t
and ultimately result in climax community.
_. ::. :: ..:. ::.::.
-
.

-
-
CHAPTER-3
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
he interrelations between organi_sms is covered wilh fur for insulation. Insects have short
T and environment on the land constitute

~Terrestrial Ecology". Dl}e to variation in
the topographic features of valleys, mountains arid
life cycles which are completed during _favourable
p _e riod of the year.
3.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM

sl pes, ertain differences occur. These differences are . .
reflected in both the material and biotic diversities. The forest ecosystem includes a complex
Altitudinal and Jati tudinal vaFiations cause shh'is and assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities.
differ nces in the climatic patterns. Due to varied Optimum conditions such as temperature and grolll!d .
c1i 2 e, the plant and anmal life existing in different moisture are responsibl e for thE esl List e of
t r cstri 1 xeas ary .vhich result in differentiation forest communities.
of ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere.
The.natur.e.of soil, dimate and local topbgraphy
The mo~t m portan t Hm tingfactors of the terrestriaJ
determine the distribution of trees an their
. ecosystems are moisture and temperature.
abundance in the forest vegetation. Forests mav-be
~ .
.
evergreen or deciduous. They are distinguished on
the 9asis of leaf into broad-leafed or needle leafed ..
The v;ord hmdra means a "barren land" since
U1ey are found where environmental conditions are coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas.
. very severe. There are two types of hllldra- arctic The forest ecosvstems
.r
have been Classified into
<!.fld a~pme. three major categories: coniferous forest, ter.1pera e
> Di5tribution: Arctic tundra extends as a forest and tropical forest. All these f rest biomes are
continuous belt below the polar ice cap and generally arranged on a gradient from north to south
.. _... above the tree line in the northern hemisphere. It latitude or from high to lower altitude.
occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska,
European ~ussia, Siberia and island group of
Arctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is very
small since most of it is covered by ocean.
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above
the tree line:-Since mountains are7ou_n_d af"all -
latitudes therefore-alpine tundra shows day and
night temperature variations. .
) Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation o(arctic
tundra is cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, 3.2.1. Coniferous forest (boreal forest):
.... . ~illows~ birches and lid1ens. Animals of tundra
are reindeer, musk ox, arctic hare~ caribo~s,
~ Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal
.- climates with long winters and short s-ummers
lemmings and squirrel.
aie characterised by boreal coniferous f~rest
Most of themhave1ong life e.g. Salix arctica (i.e)
)> . This is characterised by -evergreen plant species _
arctic willow has a life.sp~ of 150 to 300 years. They
such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc and by
are protectPd from chi11nes~ by the presence of thick
aJli.mal::; ucl1 Js t 1 Jyn: , 'c lf, 1 , !' f ,
qmde and epic:lermal hair. Mammals of the tundra
region have large body size and small tail and ear porcupin~ squirrel, nnd am1 h.ibi;u\5 like Hyla,
~ to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The body
Rana, et(!

"1fD -
- . .

- -

- -
biotic div rsity of t mpcrat rain fore ts

i~ high as comparerl tooth r t 'rnperate fon:.-st.
)i ffiDo.!IH?Q Howev r, the diversity of plants and animals is
.nutri nts. much low as compared to the tropiCal rainforest . .. ~
. ' f.
d r min ral deficient.

nt of large amou~t of . . : (
ugh th il, without a significant
r-upward movement of ~''aro:l!t~ <? t
luble nutri nts lik calcmm, mtrogen
tas~ium which are leached sometimes
h<l>'~d the reach of roots. This process leav~s
n alkaline oriented cations _to encounter the
r anic acids of the accumulating litter. 3.2.5. Tropkal rain forests:
The producti ity. and community stability of a
')> Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.-
real f rest are 1 'ver than those of any other
forest ecosystem. }> Tropical rain forests are among the most diverse
and rich commun i ties on the earth .
. 2..2. Temperate deciduous forest:
)> Both temperature an d humidity remain hlgh
Y. The t~pera le lor~sts are characterised by a and more or less uniform . . . e_,
ra t ll'1 ~ -n ro d-le fe deciduo 1s ~(~;_,
)> The annual rain fall exceeds 200 em and is
trees, which shed their leaves in fall; are bare
generally d istributed throughout the year. . .. .
over winter and grow new .foliage in the spring. f .::: .
.
)> The fl~ 1y ~ed- .., .. ..";_:: ~:.: .. .....
r t: p c'p1 aivll s a riy unilom ll rou ghout. ,_. .
)> The extreme dense vegetation of the tropical ." c
? ~0 1c: 'T e ate . r e~ s ilre p 0d ozo1ic a d
rain fores s remains ertically stratified \Vith tall . c
fairly deep.
3 . ~.3 .
.
Temr era e e rer g r een forest:
.
----- --
trees often covered w ith vin es, creepers, lianas, .t
epiphytic orchids and bromeliads. .t
> Farts of the :W.orld that have Med iterranean ')> The lo west layer is an un d e ~s tory of trees, . ..
J
type of climate are characterised by warm, dry shrubs, herbs, like ferns and palms. . f
~ummer, and coo}. moi t winters. ; -- sor-ot tropical rainforests are red latosols, and t
r- Tnese are commonly inhabitated by low broad they are very thick. ...
.... ... ;
Jeafed evergreen trees. )>_ The high ra te of leaching m akes the~e soils (
)> Fire is an important hazar9ous factor in this virtuaily useless for agnrultural purposes, bu t'
ecosystem and the adaptation of the plants enable w hen left undisturbed,. the rapid cycling of
... ...
'J
them to regenerate quickly after being burnt. nutrients wi thin the litter layer, formed due to
decomposition can compensate for the n atural
poverty oi the soil.
)> Undergrowth is restricted in many areas by-th-e--- -
lack of sunlight at ground level.
3.2.6. Tropical seaso!'al forests:
)> Tropical seasonal forests also _!<nown as monsoon
forest occur in n~gions where total annual rainfaJJ
is very hlgh but segregated into pron01mced wet
. . and dry perf'ods. . .
3.2.4. Temperate rain forests: - ~ This ki.n.d of f01est is found in South East Asia,
The temperate rain forests exhibit a ma~ked central and south America; northern Australia,
easonality with regard to temperature_ar.::l we5tem.Africa artd tropical islands of the eaci.fic
s '-''] . ~ ;n Jndia .
..-.
.. .
- .. .

. --
-
-
> TEJilRESTRIAL E OSYSTEM -:.

3.3.3. Tropicall\loist deciduous forest - -
- i al.r~ for~sts
u tro cl'
lv1oist d.eciduous forests are founr~ th
. t.h . 4
gh
rou out
f fairly high rainfall b~at 1
:.r.'.. ~~ ~ --~xc.e.e~. m ~ western and the lJ.9rt.h-western
iff r nce5 belween winter regxon~. The trees are tall, have broad trunks;
branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to
iph are common h~re. the ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves
__
in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and
nimaJ life of subtropical forest is very similar
evergreenshrubs in the undergrowth. Th~se forests
..., to that of tropical rainforests.
are domina Led by sal sod te,ak, .along wH:h mango,
.3 . .INDIAN FOREST TYPES baxpboo, and rosewood .
Indja has a diverse range of forests from the 3.3:4. Littoral and ~wa:mp
rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures Littc:>ral an~ swamp foreSts.are found aio~g the
f Ladakh in the north, f~om the deserts of Rajasthan Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of
in the west to the ev.ergreen forests in the north-east. the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. They have roots
Climate. soil type, topography, and ele~ti?n_~re th~ ..t~at consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe
main factors that determine the type of forest. Forests in the water.
aried according to their nature and composition, 3.3.5. Tropical Dry_deciduous forest
"le _-pe of climate in which they thrive, and its
Dry deciduous forests are found throughout t1 e
relationship with the surrounding environment.
northern part of the country except in the North-East.
Forest types in-India are classified by-Olampion It is alsofound in M adhya Pradesh, Gu a rat, An"dnra
and .eth into sixteen type~. Pradesh, Kamataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy
.~. ~~ . . . rr. -- 1 u r t
+J:&}plc~ ",'e ~r ---
. . . (XU>.f>Jl-ferests '
0
of the trees does not- oorma11y excee-d 2~ me res.
The common trees are t)le sal, a variety of acacia,
\ et evergreeniorests are folllld along the Western .and bamboo.
Ghats, the Nicobar and Andaman lshmds and all
along the north-eastern region.lt is characterized by 3.3.6. Tropical Thorn forests
I tall,. straight evergreen trees. The more common trees

hat are fou:1d here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm,
. This type is found in ar-eas-:wi-thi:IJ.ack soil: North,
Wes , Central, ;md South lnd ja. The trees do not
jamun, mango, and hollock. The trees in this forest grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus
form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to are typical of this regjon.
-n\e ground, followed by the short structured trees 3.3.7. Tropical Dry evergreen forest
and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various Dry evergreens are found. a}ong Tamil Nadu,
colours and different varieties of orchids grow on Andhra Pradesh and Kama taka -coast. It is mainly
the trunks of the trees. hard-leaved evergr~en trees with fragrant flowers,
3.3.2. Tropical Semi-evergreen forests along with a few deciduous ~rees.
Semi-evergreen forests are
folind in the Westem--~.3.8. sub hoplcitl-Broad: leaved forest-s ..
Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Broad-leav~d forests .are found in the Eastern
Eastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent
the wet evergreen trees and the moist dedd"uous Valley. There is a marked difference in th~ forin of
trees. The for~t is dense and is filled with a large . vegetation in the .two areas. In the Silent VaHey, the
ariety of trees of both types. poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant
grass are predominant". _In the Eastern Himalayas,
the flora has been badly affected by the shifting
cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests ..
consist miliuy of ev~~green trees witha sprinkling
of deciduous here and there. There ur oak, ~ er,
chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There ~re a la.q;e
variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.
~---~----------------------- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

im I Y n ry temp rate rest
. typ j found in Lahul, I<innaur sa.L:_ d
th rp ftheHim . , IAI'.Uil, an
. . alayas. fhere ar pn~c.lonlinantl
chir,
omf rous treeFJ; illong with broad-) aved trees s J:
s t;he oak, mapJe, and ash. At higher elevation fir
- , amla, junlper, ~ odar, and chilgoza are found. , '
ons.
3.3.14. Sub alpine forest
Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to
ev.~!l"t ft.rtSts no y have a prolonged Arunachal Pradesh between .2900 to 3500 metres.
cold winter. It generally In ~ Wef ~~~ Hithataya-s,-the veget~tion CUilSists-
.UII.-!.-...n. s ith shining leaves that have ~al Y o JUmper, rhododendron, willow, and black
Joo . Th forests are round in the currant. In the eastern p<rrts; red -fir, black juniper
bi~ch, ~d .Iar0
are the COI_nmon trees-:-bue to heav;
...,.,V111.,~r Hills and foothillsof the Himalayas up to a ...-
. . rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part !.':
~-
.....u~t of 1000 metres.-

is higher than that in the West.-Rhododendron of .. ,
: .-. -
ontane Wet temperate forests manyspecies covers the hills in these parts.
In _the North, Montane wet temperate forests 3.3.15. Moist Alpine scrub
ound in the region tQ the east of Nepal into Moist alpines are found all alo;ng the Himalayas -;-:- -.
. 1 a a Pra ~ - , recei ing a minimum rainfall an d on the h igher hills near t.l e Myanmar border. It ...
~-: '. .
of 2000 mm. Jn the Nort.h, there are three ]ayers of }las. a low scrupt dense evergreen fores( consjsting -
st : t.I- c: higher ayer as mainly conifero s, lhe
?
m ainly of rhod odendron and bircn.Mosses and ferns
middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak cover the ground in patches. Tills region receives
. d h~ le> e~t a ?er s c0ve ed bv r ododend on heavy snowfall.
and ch~_mpa. 3.3.16. Dry alpine scrub
. .: .e - d 1 i 1 . Q ir 2f 5 C wgiri e: Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres
Hills, he higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in to abotn 4900 metres. I:h..varf plants predominate,
he r _hern region are denser than in the South. mainly the black juniper, the drooping ju n iper,
Rho9odendrons and a variety of ground flora can honeysuckle, and willow.
be found here.
Importance of Forest
3.3.1 . 1-Iimalayan 1oist ernperate ores1 From air we breathe, the food we eat to the paper
This type spreads from the Western Himalayas and wood we use; we depend on forest directly or :: 2
to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in the indirectly. With~ut forests rnc:>st of the are~ woul d . ~
western section are broad-leaved oak, brown have been deserts
oak, alnut, rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern }> Forests keep up the naturaJ balance.
imalayas, the-rainfa.l is much heavier and therefore }> Forests purify the air
the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There- }> Forests provide micro climate
are a large _variery of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and }> Forests indirectly play a role in precipitation_
}> Forests prevent floods
bamboo. Coniferous trees are also found here, some , !;',
r Forests prevent soil erosion ~3
of the varieties being differE;Ilt from the ones ~ound
th.
}> Forests provide inedidrial properties >
}> Forests provide us fuel ~d timber
> Forests provide raw materials for industries
. 3.4. DEFORESTATION
Indiscriminate felfing of trees as a result of
urbanization, industri~tion, mi~g operations,
and use of wood fo, domestic and ~~er purposes,
hav~ caused heavy depletion of forests .

. -. - .

..

-
quirements
The in ~lf.eas~g demand !or fire\..,ood with ever
growing populatiqn inqeases greater pressure
on the forests, which results in increased
intensity o deforestation.
4) Raw Materials
}> Wood is used as a raw materialby various
industries for making paper, plywood, fuiniture,
tp@Lch stids, box~s-, crates, packi.I)g cases, et~~....- - -
lnd~stries also obtain1:their raw IJ?.alerials. from
plants such as drugs, scents a.nd perfumes,
resin, gums; waxes, tuwentine, latex and rubber,
t~s, alkaloids,__bees wax.
)> This exerted tremendous pressure on forest
ecosystem and theirunreshicted exploitation for
Causes of Deforestation various other raw materials is the main cause of
degradation of the forest ecosystem.
3.4.1: Causes
5) Other Causes
J S i P g cu fiv- tion.:
)> Deforestation also results from overgrazing,
> In this practic~ a p~tch of. land is cleared, _ agriculture, mining, urbanization, flood , fire,
, . e SEI LJtio~. i~ ::nped an' L~ e ash L nixed w ith pest, d_iseases, defence and communication
the soil thus-adding nutrients to the soil. actiirites.._.... ...,_._._ .... .. .
--=-=-
1rus patch of lanci is used for raising crops for 3.4.2. How it affects?
- two to three.y~ars, and the yield is modest.
)> Closed forests (based on canopy level ) hav e
Then this area is C'l andoned and is )eft to recover
. . being diminished due to deforestation leading
its fertility, and the same practice IS repeated __ __ __ _t9 increase in degraded forests.
eJsev~ here on a fresh pece of )and . "
r Fores ts recycle moist u re from soil into their
All that is required for this method of cultivation immediate abnosphere by transpiration where
is a set of simple tools, not high level of it again precipitates as rain.
mechanisation.
> Deforestation results in an immediate lowering
2) development project: of ground water level and in long-tenn reduction
The human population have increased .. ..... .of precipitation.
considerably, so with their requirements. >:- Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is
Development projects like the hydroelectric broken and water is lost through rapid run off.
-
projects, large dams and reservoirs, laying down )> Much- of the minlng acfiVlty m
]ndia"is bem_g_ ~ :---- -
of railway lines and ~oads are_not only extremely carried out in forest ~egions. The obvious result
beneficial, but they are also linked with several is deforestation and erosion.
envirorunerital problems. )> UndergrO\mdmining also significantly den:udes
Many of t11ese projects require 1mmen~e forests because timber is used for supporting the
dt:lvrt:5lation. roofs of mine galleries. :.
~ A large number of abandoned mines are l~g in
bad shape and are under extensive gully erosion
leading to degradation of the habitat.
. Deforestation affects th~ biota and neighbo~g
ecosystems, soil (>rosion, land degradation,
alteration of ground wat~r cha.Jlnels_, polluti n
and scarce.
.. -
.,
t NOt A
Vfla,....ation f r lion
in r t limat
, th y f und mainly in th high
r st oflndi 's grasslands are mainly
f t pp d savannas. .
'=-.,...
:"))t''Dt:l~ forznati 11 O~CupyJarge rea~ Of Sandy 4)
oil; in west rn Rajasthan, where tl:te ~~
is mi-arid, average rainfall is less than 200 . . .
year with a dry seas~n oflO to 11 months, an~ . SEBIMA,DlCH1rN. '_ . f.f
~
variation in rainfall. _. bt6kAN;..CENC.t.ASI.
1he soil is always exposed~ so~etimes rocky b.ut PHR~G ..sACCH.tMP.
more often s. dy' ith fi'<ed or mobile dunes . Forage

1
, A~ 1'HEM.A~l.Jrm.
is available only during the brief wet season. The ~o TEII.Ar-ERATE. ALPIN
grass layer is sparse and consists ma~uy of annual
~: ~~EO ZON; OF T 3-3 f.: ~
nss s cie~.
n t . cc.:1tra nnd a~ tern p r.ts of .Rajas han, Grassii ~ ~
where the rainfall is about scm rnrn-per year and the ~~
dry season is of six to eight . mon~hs, dry sav~a 1) .dry ~~b humid zone m1e Sehima-clichanthiunl
&r~:d. & co~ steJ:. ha;e ue.'e qp' . '?"h e Jig.
type)
, .
shade cast by the sparse population of trees like ):> It covers the whole of peninsular India (except
W1t ri rosvfis t.j e ari ) fuvvurs the gro -.L f f'il g,ill).
the grasses. ):> The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, mimosa,
The major difference between steppes and Zi:z.yphus (ber) and sometimes Deshy Euphorbia,
sa 'annas is that all the fo nge in the steppe is along with low trees of Anogeissu labfolia,
provided only during the brief wet season.whereas soymida febri.h.iga and other deciduousspe.cies.
:-the sa an as forage is largely from grac::ses that no ,. Str irna (grass)is more p t:':;: cnt on grtl el an d th
only grow during the wet season but also from the cover may be 27%. Dichanth.ium (grass) flourishes , ...
..
.r
smaJler amount of regrowth in the dry season. on level soils and mr:~y co er 80% 0f the grou d.
3.5.1. Types of Grasslands . 2) semi-arid zone (The Dichanthium-cenchrus-
Based Ot:\ climatic conditions th~re are six types lasi trrus type)
of grasslands found in the different regions of .the r lt co er the nor! ern portion of Guj;na t,
Indian subcontinent. Four major types of grasslands Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), westem-H ttar
are discussed here. Pradesh, Deihl and Punjab.
):> The topography 'is broken up by h.ilJ spurs and .....~:
sand dunes.
):>senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata,
Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and
ziz.yphits NummuJar a wh ch make the sa anna '
'
rartgeland look like .~crub .
t
3) moist subhumid zone(The Phragmities-
..
sacchrum.::imperata type)
~ It cov rs the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern
Jndia .
. .
. -. .. . .
.
-
: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM ~
produces pud~ling of the surface layer. In -t um
Jt reduces the J~fi]tration of water in~n:!he ~il
d and accelerates 1ts run off, producing drought.
> These changes contribute to lhe reductiun of
energy flow, and the disruption of the stratification
t'OiuaanastnCIh,....tk!llareAcada arabica,- and periodicity of the primary producers. It
Qnlpa, Bu a monospenna. Phoenic
results in a breakdown of the biogeochemkal
tris Zizyphus nummularia. Some of cycles of water, carbon and nHrogen.
h cue iepJaced by Borassus sp in the palm ~ Water and :Wind erosioncompletely deteriorates
vann~ especially near Sunderbans. . - ~i}'assland mi-sH~chmate.-
The Themeda- ArundineiJa type . }> Intensive gra2.ing results in increased areas
of ba re soil, which creates a new habitat for
)- This extends to the humid montan~ regions and
burrowing animals sucJ:t. as mice, jack-rabbits,
moist sub-humid axeas of Assam, M~ipur,
gophers, prairie dogs, locusts etc., which rendei
West Benga~ Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal
large areas of forage lands sterile.
Prade'Sh and Jammu and Kashmir.
3.5.4. Role of fire
};> The savanna is derived from the humid forests
on aero 1t f, hifting cultivation and sheep r fire plays an important role in the management
grazing. of grasslands.
3.5.2. .Economic impor ance of grasslands > n er moist conditions fire favours grass over
trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often
}> India teems with arUmals of a11 shapes and sizes
necessary to maintai grasslands agains t l~ e
fr J1 -~a - Ll.ff 1 es ~o s~ eEp's and tJ ere ar
invasion of desert shrubs.
millions of them.
-; -B1Hr.ing irrc:reases the forage-yi e tds, e :g .:-
)> The livestock wealth plays a crucial role jn
a
Indian life_ [t-is major source of ftrel, draught
. Cynodon daotylon.
power, nutrition and raw material for village 3.6. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
indushies.
>- Deserts are formed in regions with less than
~ This huge mas~f-l~tock needs fodder for
25 em of annual rainfall , or sometimes in
s ~stenance ul ere is not e1 ough of it.
hot regions where there is more rainfall, but
}> Only about 13 million hectares in the_country unevenly distributed in the annual cycle.
are dassified as permar1ent grazing lands. On > Lack of ram mthe mid latitude is often due to
top of it, they exist in a highly degraded state. stable high -pressure zones; deserts in temperate
};> Grassland biomes are important to maintain regions often lie in "rain shadows'~ ;-that is, where
I. the population of many domesticated and gh mountpins block off moisture from the seas . .
l wild herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, .CQW, > The climate of these biomes is modified by
pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra, altitude and latitude.At high altitudes__~d _?t .
etc. which provide food, milk, wool, hide or greater distance from the equator the deserts are
u:ansportation to man . .cofd ~dhot near equator and tropics.
> Indian Grasslanps and Fodder Research }> The perennial plant species like creosote bush,
Institute1 jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research cactus, fetrocactus are scattered throughout the
institute, Jodhpur. desert biomes.
3.5.3. Impact of grazing > In shallow depressed areas with s alt geposits
> Due to heavy grazing pressure, the quality of sarcobatus, geesewood, seepwood ~nd s,alt
grasslands deteriorates rapidly, the mulch cover grasses are common.
of the soil reduces, microclimate become:; more
dry and~ radiJy invaded by xerophytic plants.
Due tu absencE: of humu!> co-..-~.:I, wi.J&era] soil
surface is Jie~vily trampled when we!~e.;s
- . -.

.. .

. .
-
- -

.)>. The winter rains of northern 1ndia ra~ely
penetrate into the region. , "":-. '
)> The cold season starts from about the middle of

. .. No~ember to the middle of. March. ' . '
I
)> This season is characterized by ~xtreme

varia t.ions of temperature and th e te peratur e
is frequently below freezing point at night.
)> Dudng Apdi to June . the heat .are _intense,
3.6.1. Adaptations-
frequent sco rch ing winds preva il W i th grea t
Desert plants are und~r hot and City conditions.
desiccating.
(") These Jants on sene wa r y fo J owi ng )> The rela ti ve humidity of th e atmosphere is
m thods: alw.ays low.
..... . c a:e. s y _h n.lvS.
> Leaves are absent or reduced in size.
J.> The climate is hostile to all vegetahon, only plants
and .<! imals r()~se . s n. ~ ,ec:!3L nr:L"r a t i0. ~
-.,#
Leaves and stem are succulent and water storing. being able to establish themselves.
some plants even the s em conta ins chlorophyll (a Fl ora
fer p otosynthesis. These ada.pl a tions in general are of two types,
Root system is well developed and spread over having two dis.tinct objects in view: to enable the
:~rge ar a. plant to obtainvat r, and to retain it vl.~n obtain d.
The annuals wherever present germina te, bloom )> The bulk of the vegetation consists of a kind of
and reproduce only _during the short rainy season, scrub made up of shrubs and perennial herbs,
and not in summer and winter. This is an ada ptiqn capable of great drought resistance.
~ . ;
to desert condition. a
)> There are "f ew trees and these are stunted and
(ii) The animals are physiologica1Jy and generally thorny or prkkly, thus protecting
behaviorally adapted to desert conditi ons. tl emsel 1es ag insl plan t feed ing anin a1 .
~[
,.. lbey are fast nm.ners. The proper desert. plants may be divided into
> They are nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun's two main groups.
i) depending directly upon on rain and . (_;..:,~
h~al during day time. - ;
> They conserve water by excreting concentrated ii) those depending on the presence of subterranean
urine. water.
> Anjma}s ang birds usually have long legs to keep Tne first group consists of two types:
tile body away from the hot ground. )> depending dire!=lly upon on the rain are of two
Lizards are mostly insectivorous and can live types- the ephernerals' and the ram perennials'.
J
.,._ .. ..
1
without drinking water for several days. )> The ~phemerals C!re delicate annuals, apparent!Jr
Herbivorous animals get sufficient water from ftee from any. xerophilous adaptations, havfug
whkh they eat. slender stems and root-systems and often Jarg
-
- - ..
-

--
::_Tl~ RRE . TI<JAl. : '() y TEM .:,
allcl Pikkim. Th ('. ari<l ar as ur
--
t aff t d y nw
lnd i;m mon: n ?
c, u c th y li inth r:lin-~;h< 1 low
>f th l tim oli1yan m o~rn t ai n sy t ms. .
'hara ct ri sed by x tr m cold w ath r and
d nud d terrain th y a r e n o t suj table for p lant
g r w th . Jso.l ated, s att e r d and ov r grazed
h e rbaceous shrubs ar found . mzing period is Jess
than 3-4 rri. rnths.
T he fl ora and fauna is unique to the are11 . Oak
p i n e, deodar, biich ana rh o Ooaendrori a"re~
importa nt trees and ~u s h es found there. M ajor
ani,m al indude yaks, dwa rf cows, and goats:
3.6.4. Cbar.a cters
> Severe arid conditions - Dry Atmosphere
Temperatu re Jess an 00 C for most o f the
period,' drops to - SOoC d u ring winter.
> insigruficant m onsoonal- Mean annual r ainfall
Jess tJ-,an 400mm
> Heavy snowfall occurs etween Io ember and
march.
. to sOme of India's most magnificent

> o il type- sandy to sandy loam
I : , ~.!> - J S<ild ry :or a arisn\ c ir , ~ ~~ i . I ;lt t J<! 1 : .. ~ : it:,h t a L.a ::1E. - ~---
0
e Great 1nd i~ Bustard . Soil nutrient- Poor organic matter<:antent
n.m ng-th mammal fauna, the b lackbuck, wild Soil has low water r ten bon capncity.
ass, chinkara, ca r~cal, and grou e and de ert fox > Vind erosion is more comnton.
inhabit the open plains, grasslands, and saline
Jil r0 ~ gro\ n g peri o d ; m o~ t }" wri : b fhe
ciep .e~- on~.
: JJnmer.
r The nesting ground of Flamingoes and the only
o 'Tl p_spulation of Asatic wild Ass lies in the > Due to aforesaid e~ t reme cold conditions
remot e pa rt of Great Rann, Gujarat. grow th of veget a tion is slow and- of-stunted
nature.
,. lt is the mi gration flyway u~ed by cranes and
flamingos. Bi o-diversity
_orne endemic flo ra species of Th ar Desert 'old desert is the om of highly adaptive, rare
inc udes Calligonum Polyg onoides, Prosopis endangered fauna, such as Asiatic Ibex Tibetan
cineraria, Tecomella undulate, Cenchrus billorus Arg_ali, Lad_akh Ud y al, Bh aral, Tibetan Antelope
and Sueda fruticosa, etc. ( h nu ), Tibe tan Gazelle, Wi ld Ya k, Snow
Leop~d, Bro~ Bear, Tibetan Wolf, Wild Dog
-and Ttbetan Wtld A ss ('J(jang' a close relative of
~e Indian w_ild ass) , W o olly-hare, Black Necked
rane, etc. .
'old deser~comprises o! alpine mesophytes an d
desert vegetation. _
.D~ t mp rature z one : B tula utilis, Sali ~pp.
Juruperus recurva. .
3.6.3. Cold Desert/Temperate Desert Alphine zone": Junipers, Birch, Rhododendron
. llu. I
1.. . ; d ladi.tk, ld1 . j Jl r:,. . . ,"( ~
I I tUrur nd" it i a lley of Him'<I'Chal Pf'rpehHll snow :1 rw No ,rg t. ti n d.u f1
ra..._...,. and some part$ of northern Uttaranchal pennan ntly frozEn s il.
- . . . .., .
- -.
. -.
-
N Int ';t It- J W. 1
(IWMI ),
t nti.1l
dt f>t'rl Nnli t t i n tnw r, rnr e (NAP),
N<ti narMic: ion f r Cr . ia ( ,JM ,
)> Th Me h a tma an hi National Rur I
Employment ~arant S hem (M NR S),
)> Soil onservation in the a tchm nt of River
Vnlley Pr ject and Flood Prone Riv r,
)> National Watershed D v "e }opment Project for
Rainfed Areas (NWDPKA),
)> Desert Development Progr amme (DDP)
)> Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-
component of Grassland D evelopment including
GrassReseives, Command Ai-ea Dev~ppment and
Water Management (CADWl\1) programme etc.
aus s
' P ulation pressure 3.7.2. Afforestation
1cr a ~e in attle poJ ulation )> The d ese rt region s of Rajastl <l n, Gujarat,
)> J a~d a riculture Haryana, Punjab and Trans-Hirrial ayan regions
\elopment activities are in scarce of vegetation.
f re tation )> Peo le equ re fj r e wood , ti . er and fe>dder
.7.1. Status of Ind.ian desertification for their domestic consumptions nna livestock
~ r e- _ en :0 an ... an D eg a 0 )> Presence of vegetation revents the soiJ erosion
1
tlas of India, 2007, the perc.e ntage of country under and modifies the hostile climate.
_ ry -, 's !s 69.6%. Th ~ te>tal re<l lll"!cleT going the )> !' esf.' ~ f o es t a io is i:1c.: ~l-:.r i 0n c
process of }and degradation in India is 105.48 million to modify the climate, desertification and to meet
~ec ares, w ich cons itutes 32.07 percentage of the demands of people living in that reg on .
Jndia's total land area. Problems for Afforestation
81.45 million hectares area of the country is )> Hostile climate.
nc!u d~: sertification I and d eg r a d a I io n \ i II in )> Shallow, sandy and ston, soil
drylands). The details of drylands und e rgoing
)> poor moisture holding capacity
desertification are given below:
~id 34.89 million hectares )> Poor nutrient s tatus.
Semi-Arid 31 .99 mil1ion hectares )> Wind erosion.
Dry sub-humid 14.57 million hectares )> Grazing pressure.
Control measures Unless swift to conservationm asur s are tak n
India as a signatory to United Nations apd proper employment opportunities are found ..
Convention to Combat f)esertification (UNCCD) for the.Jocal people, the increasing density of the
has c:ubmitted four National Reports to UNCCD human and cattle population in trust:lesert area will
in the years 2000, 2002, 2006 and 2010. The fourth inexorably lead to further desertification.
report was submitted in the year 2010. The National
Action Programme for combating..desertification'
wa prepared in 200l_to take appropriate action in.
addressing the problems of desertific~tion.
Some of the major programmes currently
implemented that address issues related to land
plK-btion and desertification are-
- - -
CHAPTft .. 4
AQ~ATIC ECOSYSTEM
cosyst ms onsistlng<?fwateras the.main
E
emerging above the b9ttom mud such as se;sile
habitat are .kno~ as aquatic ~c?systems. algae and their associated group of animals.
Aquatic ecosystems are class1fied based iii) Plankton:
n their salt content. .
This gr oup include bo th microscopic plants
i) Fresh water ecosystems~ The salt_content of fresh
like. algae (phytoplankton) and animals like
bC' es is very low, a lways less than 5 ppt (parts
cr u staceans and protozo ans (zoop ankton)
per thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs,
foun d in all aquatic ecosystems, excep t certajn
streams, and rivers
swift moving waters.
n Marine ecosv terns- the water bodies containing
T h _loco m otory ower f th 1 nK o s :s
salt concent~ation equal to or above -that of sea
limite d so that their distribution is controlled,
-v.rater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas
Ia .ely. b C1 ents the aq 1a ic eco.. :~ te s
ai 0 en 0 ean
at:J<is water ~cos_ stems- these 7ater bodP~

iv) Nekton:
have salt c-<>ntent in between 5 to 35 ppt-. e .g. T his group contain$ anima s which are
estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and swimmers.
forests. 'The nektons are relati\e y large and powerfu l
as they have to overcome th e w ater currents.
4.1. AQUATIC ORGANISMS
The an imals ange in size fwm e s ': ming
The aquatic o rganism s are classified on ihe basis inse cts (about 2.mm long) to the largest animals,
of their zone of occurrence and their ability to cross the bJue whale.
these zones. . v) Benthos:
The organisms (both flora and fauna) i n the
~ The benthic organisms are those found living in
aquatic ecosystem are unevenly distributed but can
the bottom of the water mass.
be classified on the basis of their life form or ]oration
into five groups ~ Practi ally e ery aquatic e osystem con tains
well developed benthos.
i) Neuston:
4.1.1. Factors limiting the Productivity of
);> These are unattached org~Tl1sms which Jive at Aquatic Habitats
the air-water interface such as floating plants,
etc. Sunlight and oxygen are most important
limiting factors of the aquatic ecosystems wh!as
> Some organisms spend most of their li,es on
moisture and temperature are the main limiting
top of the air-water in_terface .s uch as . : ~ er
factors of terrestrial ecosystem.
striders, while others spend most of theu hme
just beneath the air-water interface and obtain Sunlight: .
most of their food within the wat~r-
~ Stinlight penetration rapidly diminishes as it
E._g., beetles. and back-swimmers. passes down the column of water. Th~ dep~
P~riphyton: to which light Pf'netrates a lnke det rmmes the
extent of plant distribution.
1bese are u.)!an.isms which remain ~ttach~d to
tans . .nd le;ves of rooted plants ot substances );> Based on light penetration and plant distribution
they are dassi~e~ as photic and a_photic iones
--
--
- -
. - -

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SHANKAR. lAS ACADEMY

ccwe Need- Ecol~gical Grow.th-Not.Mere Economic-Gr-owth!' .------

. . .. ~ .......................... :...... ,................. ;.... :. ;,i

- 1. r1 I~"' ' s OJ: \ 1 rros 'Sl"F~ 1

.)> ENERGY FLOW ..........................................................................

3. l 'ERRES"fRlAL "E COSYS EM ...................................... :.........................-................'............................ 21-30

............ '-'""-' ............... .......... -...................................................................................................... 50

FL ASH ............ , .............. .................. ........................ .... ........... .'........................................... 52

6. .BIODIVERSJTY .... u ................... - 72-75

)> B10Dl ERSI'f ............... ............

r BIODIVERSI1"Y SERVICE$ ............................................................... ~ .......................................... 74

DIVERSITY ..................................... .......... ..... .... .. .........................................................: .. 80

.... 19'Pl~ DlVERSITY OF lNnlA..- .. ----~-~-:~--~-----85-98

9. PLANT DIVERSlll' OF INDIA ............................ .............. .............................................. :............ 99-107

. . . . . ......... .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ~ ..... . ....... . .... . . . .. t\. .. . .. . .. . . 112-126

UARY & NATIONAL PARKS ........................................................ 112

12. CONSERVATION EFFO~S ......................................................................................................... 127-139

? oNE HOR1 ED RHJ TJCBEtms~- ~,-~-~_:~,~~~:~~~~: : ::~ :: : :~ ................................................. :............ 135

):> GLOBAL WARMING ........................._. ........... .......................................... ............................... .... 141

GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL ................. ............ ......................................... :....,... .. -, ..... 147

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> EC< YSTEM & BiODIVERSITY ......................................................................................-:: ........ 165

17. MITIGATION STRATEGJ.ES ............................................... :--------....... ~ .....................168-1 72

. 18. INDIA AND CLll\1ATE CHANGE ................................:............................................ ~................ 173-l<Jn. .

)> NATIONAL ACTION PLAN.ON CLIMATE CHANGE

? INDIAN NE1WORK ON CLIMATE CHAN6E ASSESSMENT. ............... ......................... : 181

19. CUMATF. C'JIANGE. ORGANJSATJQNS

20. GRICULTURE ........................................................ ~..-205-221

21. ACTS AND POLICIES. .................................................................................................................... 223~229

> CAMPA ......................................... ~...............:...................................................................,a.-.:..-..,.-230 : !

> , JOINT. FORESf

S()CIAL FORESfRY ..:.............................................................................. ........................................

23~NVJRONMENTA.L ORGANISATIONS ...................................~ ...................................... ~ .............. 236-239

Cl.Soil formation "\,

c. Recycling of waste 4~ Sunderbans f

Which of the above are declared !iger Reserves? I

hi h r inf II that supports luxuriant

otic and. inv~sive. ~c~de~ have not been

12. If a tropical rain.forest is removed, it does not

17. Regarding '"'carbon credits'', which one of the

c. The goal of the ca~bon c:redit system is to limit

h dge ag~st. coastal calarnit.i es. How do l . &

w.hlch people ar~ in need of after any natural

2011 - Answers 20i2 - Answers

) 'on um r I t rotr ph uJ hct i oh

~1 e a d a tihtde Ci) icro consumers - S aprotrophs (deco p sers

gy is a sci ntific study of the reciprocal r.2. ~i':fVIRONMENT

the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature

Population growth r a t is th percenta c i

?.1. Jndj "d

m 'lh orgCliW;ms whic ur .

3. Reproductive niche- how and when it reproduces.

,. So l:t IH<: tl c numLer of sp il:s nd tl NW~~-----------------------

pta~igan. Reptiles and amphibians are almos~

Toi Northern Ell!'ope, AS!.~Bn&~-+>The dommatigg vegetation is conifero~s ,......

North America. Moderate evergreenmosUy spruce, with some pine afid

etc. Moderate average I

7 Continental interiors with The flora is drought resistance vegetation

2. 1arine Nearly three:_ quarter

covered by ocean ----- - ---

Energy flows through the trophic levels: fr.om

An e~osyst~m ~ay consist Of sevefal interr~lated

Grazing Food Chain

Environment & Ecology Shankar IAS Academy Booklet

Environment & Ecology Shankar IAS Academy Booklet

? oNE HOR1 ED RHJ TJCBEtms~- ~,-~-~_:~,~:~~: : ::~ :: : :~ ................................................. :............ 135

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