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First Law of Thermodynamics and Processes635540941522169893 PDF
First Law of Thermodynamics and Processes635540941522169893 PDF
Thermodynamics (Ch.1)
Outline:
1. Internal Energy, Work, Heating
2. Energy Conservation the First Law
3. Quasi-static processes
4. Enthalpy
5. Heat Capacity
Internal Energy
The internal energy of a system of particles, U, is the sum of the kinetic
energy in the reference frame in which the center of mass is at rest and the
potential energy arising from the forces of the particles on each other.
system Difference between the total energy and the internal energy?
boundary system
U = kinetic + potential
environment
B The internal energy is a state function it depends only on
P
the values of macroparameters (the state of a system), not
on the method of preparation of this state (the path in the
T V macroparameter space is irrelevant).
A
f
The internal energy of an ideal gas
with f degrees of freedom:
U = Nk BT
2
f 3 (monatomic), 5 (diatomic), 6 (polyatomic)
How does the internal energy of air in this (not-air-tight) room change
with T if the external P = const?
f PV f
U = N in room k BT = N in room = = PV
2 k BT 2
U = Q + W conservation of energy.
An equivalent formulation:
Perpetual motion machines of the first type do not exist.
Quasi-Static Processes
Quasi-static (quasi-equilibrium) processes sufficiently
slow processes, any intermediate state can be considered
as an equilibrium state (the macroparamers are well-
defined for all intermediate states).
V2
W1 2 = P(T , V )dV
V1
W = - PdV - applies to any
shape of system boundary dU = Q PdV
The work is not necessarily associated with the volume changes e.g.,
in the Joules experiments on determining the mechanical equivalent of
heat, the system (water) was heated by stirring.
W and Q are not State Functions
V2 - we can bring the system from state 1 to
W1 2 = P (T , V )dV state 2 along infinite # of paths, and for each
V1
path P(T,V) will be different.
P 2
Since the work done on a system depends not
only on the initial and final states, but also on the
1 V intermediate states, it is not a state function.
T
P2
A B Wnet = WAB + WCD = P2 (V2 V1 ) P1 (V1 V2 )
= (P2 P1 )(V2 V1 ) < 0
P1 D C
- the work is negative for the clockwise cycle; if
the cyclic process were carried out in the reverse
V1 V2 V order (counterclockwise), the net work done on
the gas would be positive.
PV diagram
Comment on State Functions
U, P, T, and V are the state functions, Q and W are not. Specifying an initial and final
states of a system does not fix the values of Q and W, we need to know the whole
process (the intermediate states). Analogy: in classical mechanics, if a force is not
conservative (e.g., friction), the initial and final positions do not determine the work, the
entire path must be specified.
In math terms, Q and W are not exact differentials of some functions
of macroparameters. To emphasize that W and Q are NOT the state U
functions, we will use sometimes the curled symbols (instead of d)
for their increments (Q and W).
V
d U = T d S P dV - an exact differential S
Imagine that an ideal monatomic gas is taken from its initial state A to state
B by an isothermal process, from B to C by an isobaric process, and from
C back to its initial state A by an isochoric process. Fill in the signs of Q,
W, and U for each step.
P,
105 Pa Step Q W U
A
2
AB + -- 0
T=const
BC -- + --
B
1 C
CA + 0 +
1 2 V, m3
f PV = Nk B T
U = Nk BT
2
Quasistatic Processes in an Ideal Gas
isochoric ( V = const )
P
2 W12 = 0
P isothermal ( T = const ) :
PV= NkBT
dU = 0
W V2 V2
dV V
V2 V1 W12 = P (V , T )dV = Nk BT = Nk BT ln 2
V V V1
V1 V1
V Q12 = W12
Wi f = Nk BT ln i
Vf
Wi-f > 0 if Vi >Vf (compression)
Wi-f < 0 if Vi <Vf (expansion)
Adiabatic Process in an Ideal Gas
adiabatic (thermally isolated system) Q12 = 0 dU =W12
The amount of work needed to change the state of a thermally isolated system
depends only on the initial and final states and not on the intermediate states.
V2
2
PV = Nk BT PdV + VdP = Nk B dT PdV + VdP = PdV PV
f
V P
dV 2 dP 2 Adiabatic dV dP
1 + + =0 , = 1+ + =0
V f P f exponent V1
V P1
P
V P
ln = ln 1 PV = P1V1 = const
V1 P
Adiabatic Process in an Ideal Gas (cont.)
P PV = P1V1 = const
2
An adiabata is steeper than an isotherma:
PV= NkBT2 in an adiabatic process, the work flowing
1 out of the gas comes at the expense of its
PV= NkBT1
thermal energy its temperature will
V2 V1 V decrease.
V2 V2 V2
PV 1
W1 2 = P(V , T )dV = 1 1
dV = PV
V +1
V + 1
1 1
V1 V1 V1
1 1 1
= PV 1 1
1 V2
1 1
V1
1+2/31.67 (monatomic), 1+2/5 =1.4 (diatomic), 1+2/6 1.33 (polyatomic)
(again, neglecting the vibrational degrees of freedom)
f f
Prove W1 2 = ( PV ) = Nk B T = U
2 2
Summary of quasi-static processes of ideal gas
U U f U i
adiabatic U = f Nk T = f PV
( ) 0 U i i = Pf V f
PV
B
(Q=0) 2 2
Problem
Imagine that we rapidly compress a sample of air whose initial pressure is
105 Pa and temperature is 220C (= 295 K) to a volume that is a quarter of
its original volume (e.g., pumping bikes tire). What is its final temperature?
Rapid compression approx. adiabatic, no time for the energy
exchange with the environment due to thermal conductivity
P1V1 = Nk BT1 1
P1V1
P1V1 P1V1 V1 T2
P2V2 = Nk BT2 P2 = = Nk T = T2 =
V2 V2 1
B 2
T1 V2 T1
P1V1 = P2V2
1 1
For adiabatic processes: T1 V1 = T2 V2 = const
also P 1 / T = const
1
V1
T2 = T1 = 295 K 4 0.4 295 K 1.74 514 K
V2
- poor approx. for a bike pump, works better for diesel engines
Non-equilibrium Adiabatic Processes
Free expansion
1. TV 1 = const V increases
T decreases (cooling)
dU = Q - PV = Q -(PV) Q = U + (PV)
H U + PV - the enthalpy
The enthalpy is a state function, because U, P,
and V are state functions. In isobaric processes,
the energy received by a system by heating equals
to the change in enthalpy.
in both cases, Q
isochoric: Q=U does not
depend on the
isobaric: Q=H path from 1 to 2.
C
The specific heat capacity c
m
CV and CP
f f
U = Nk BT
For an ideal gas H = + 1 Nk BT
2 2
f f f
CV = Nk B = nR CP = + 1 nR
2 2 2
# of moles
3 5
For one mole of a CV = R CP = R
monatomic ideal gas: 2 2
Another Problem P
Pi
During the ascent of a meteorological helium-gas filled balloon,
its volume increases from Vi = 1 m3 to Vf = 1.8 m3, and the
pressure inside the balloon decreases from 1 bar (=105 N/m2) to Pf
0.5 bar. Assume that the pressure changes linearly with volume
between Vi and Vf.
(a) If the initial T is 300K, what is the final T?
(b) How much work is done by the gas in the balloon? Vi Vf V
(c) How much heat does the gas absorb, if any?
P(V ) = 0.625 bar/m 3 V + 1.625 bar
Vf Vf
(b) WON = P (V )dV - work done on a system WBY = P (V )dV - work done by a system
Vi
Vi
Vf
WON = WBY WBY = P(V )dV = (0.5 0.8 bar m3 + 0.5 0.4 bar m3 ) = 0.6bar m3 = 6 10 4 J
Vi
(c) U = Q + WON
T
Q = U WON = NkB (T f Ti ) WON = Pi Vi f 1 + WBY = 1.5 105 J ( 0.1) + 6 104 J = 4.5 104 J
3 3
2 2 Ti