Design

Handbook
Engineering
Guide
To SpringDesign
1987 Edition

AssogffilfiS
l0Mainstreet,
Brisro,,.*::$il3: &ffi&ffiffi$ ffi
 ,
Table of Contents
t section Page
t I Eor to Use the Handbook
I Selccdng Spring Configurations
,

) 3
hrsh. Pull. Twist or Energy Stofage Applications: CommonAvailable Configurations.
Spring Materials il
il
Common Specifications,Elastic Modulus, Magnetic Characteristics,Heat Treatment, Stress Relaxation,
D Corrosion, Coatingsand Finishes.SpringWire: Tensile Properties,Cost and Availability.
Sprine Strip: Strength,Formability and Edge Condition.

D 4

il
Reidual Stress, Fatigue and Reliability
Load-CarryingAbility, FatigueTerminology, Modified GoodmanDiagram, Weibull Analysis, Load Loss.
, -i Eelical Compression Springs

D
GeneralDefinitions, Squareness,Parallelism, Hysteresis,Design Equationsfor Spring Rate and Stress,Bucklinl
Choice of Operating Stress for Static and Cyclic Applications, Dynamic Loading Impict and Resonance,
RectangularWire, StrandedWire, Variable Diameter, Variable Pitch and Nested Springs,CommercialToleranc,
il
I 5 Hot-Wound Springs
DesignConsiderations,End Configurations, Materials, Choice of Operating Stress,Tolerances. il
b
I 7 Eelirnl Extension Springs
Initial Tension, Types of Ends and Dimensions, Design Equations,Choice of OperatingStressfor Static
and Cyclic Applications, Commercial Tolerances. n
D
t Garter Springs
Joint Design, Design Equationsand Tolerances. il
a
a
9 Helical Torsion Springs
Mean Diameter, Length, Design Equations for Rate and Stress,End Configurations,Natural Frequency,Choice
of Operating Stress for Static and Cyclic Applications, Double Torsion and Rectangular Wire Springs, ioleranc, n
a
l0

ll
f,staining Rings
External and Internal Types, Ends, Design Equations, Choice of StressLevel, Tolerances.
Belleville Spring Washers
M
a Load-Deflection Characteristics,Mounting, Design Equations.Choiceof StressLevel for Static and
Cyclic Applications, Stackingand Tolerances. H
a 12 Flat Springs . .
Design Considerationsand Equations for Cantilever and Simple Beams, Choice of StressLevel and
H
a Tolerances.

a
13 Specid Spring Washers
Design Considerationsand Equations for Curved, Wave and Finger Washers, Choice of StressLevel and
Tolerances.
M
a l{ Power Springs
GeneralDesign Considerationsand Equations, OperatingStressfor Power and hestressed Power M
a Springs.

I
lS Constant Force Springs
Extension Type_,Design Equations, Mounting and Tolerances,Motor Type Design Equations for "A"
ffi
and "B" Type Motors, OperatingStress and Tolerances.
t f6 Spird Springs
Design Equations for Hair Springsand Brush Springs.
ffi
I 17 Volute Springs ffi
a Design Equations and Choice of Operating Stress Level.

a It Wire Forms
GeneralInformation and How to Specify.
ffi
a 19 IndexandReferencelnformation .......1
Glossary of Spring Terminology, Bibliography, Trademarks, Conversion Factors, Abbreviations and Symbols,
HardnessScaleConversions,Index and Lists of Thblesand Illustrations.
ffi
I
a
I Assg&tfi8&#*ffiffi$H
a SelectingSpring Configurations
Tabb 2-1. Spring Configurations. Tv?u cor'if"IstJ&ATIoli ACTt0:ri
=)
T\'PT. COTNCUNATION A.rTION Beam (Section 12)
- hrsh or pull-wide range
Helical Compression (Section5) Cantilever, of loads, low deflection
RectangularSection range.
=) Round and t
Recrangular Push-wide load and de-
\t-ire flection range-constant
- rate' cantilever,
TrapezoidalSection
Constant Pitch
-
V Pl

a :
_

=* :
-
,-
.>
A

Push-wide load and de-

flection range. Conical
SimpleBeam
ffi
a Conrcal ::
I =
::=/
spring can be made with
minimum solid height and
with constantor increasing Helical Torsion (Section9)
:/
e i
Barrel
^
rate. Barrel, hourglass,and
variable-pitchspringsused
to minimize resonant surg- " ffi frS
RoundorRectang",.- rwist<onstantrate'
- ing and vibration. wire (2'il[
i

a
e
a
Hourglass

Variable-PitchI
#
#
r.-.1-
r.-fi
--.r--
Spiral (Section16)

Hairspring

@
,^

Twist.

-
Spring Washer (Sectionll and13)
a Push-high loads, low de-
Brush
w
rwistorhrsh'

Belleville /--\ flections-choice of rates

-
\:r'
:ili',y:,::;'@
(constant, increasing, or
decreasing).
a Vx
Twist---exerts torque over
many turns.

a
\lare
ql Push-light loads, low
deflection-uses limited
radial space.
Suppliedin retainer.

a
=a
5lotted
/raR

rye
Ptrsh-higher defl ection s
than bellevilles. ad)
\/
Removedfrom retainer.

=f Finger ft\1 hrsh-for axial loading of

Prestressed
V bearings.
Power (Section
14) Twist--+xerts torque over
=f many turns.
Curved /R Push-used to absorb axial
rl \ \ - / l
-: . end play. Suppliedin retainer.

a Volute (Section 17) Removedfrom retainer.

a Push-may have an inher-

a ently high friction damp-
ing.
Constant (Section15)
Force Twist+xerts close-to-
constant torque over many
a Spring
Motor
turns.

a Level Torq

t
a
a AssogFifig/&sAnss
ffi
h
Spring Materials
s
Chemical and Physical Characteristics used. The energy storage capacity of a spring is propor-
While certain materials have come to be regarded as tional to the square of the maximum operating stress
G
ry.i.ng materials, they are not specially design-d alloys. level divided by the modulus. An ideal spring material
Spring materials are high strength alloys wtrictr ofien has high strength, a high elasticlimit and a low modulus. C!
exhibit the greatest strength in the alloy system. For Becausesprings are resilient structures designedto un-
example: in steels, medium and high-carbon steels are dergo large deflections, spring materials must have an G
regarded as spring materials. Beryllium copper is fre- extensive elastic range. Other factors such as fatigue
quently specified when a copper base alloy is required.
For titanium, cold-worked and aged Ti-l3v-llCr-3At is
strength, cost, availability, formability, corrosion resis- G
tance, magnetic permeability and electrical conductivity
Tahle 3-1 Typical Properties of Common Spring Materials. G
Y,o*qt* il{odnkm of &lcr .lesl $ias lioruelly r'rp|nl. ,:,.,ilil1fua G
Modulrrs S {l} Rlddly G {l} Corr&rc- .tvrlhblc {2} S{r&eG ,fi ..fcrycr.
Com*on lihme MPr | {ed} . Mtf {t}
r t ' l] id
lWPr | {Dd}
rdl id
*iY,lty ttl
*1ffir5{tbl,tu'; % f*c$
Min. i Mrr.
mm {hr.} i mm {h.}
Qt&y, , ot
t l
i,,'i , ({}
3F
G
Carbon Steel Wires:
Music (5) 207 (30) 79.3 ( l l .s) 7.86 (0.2E4) 0.10(0.004)6.35(0.250) a r20 250
G
Hard Drawn (5) 207 (30) 79.3 ( l l .s) 7.85 (0.2E4) 0.13(0.00s)16 (0.625) c 150 250
Oil Tempered
Valve Spring
207
207
(30)
(30)
79.3 ( l 1.5)
(l1.5)
7.E6 (0.2E4) 0.s0(0.020)16 (0.62s) c r50 300 G
79.3 7.86 (0.284) 1.3 (0.0s0) 6.35(0.250) a 150 300
Alloy Steel Wires: G
Chrome Vanadium 207 (30) 79.3 ( l 1 . 5 ) 7.86 (0.284) 7 0.50(0.020)l r (0.435) a r b 220 425
Chrome Silicon 207 (30) 79.3 ( l 1 . 5 ) 7.86 (0.2E4) 5 0.50(0.020) 9.5 (0.375) arb 245 475 G
StainlessSteel Wires:
Austenitic Type 302
hecipitation
193
203
(28)
(2e.s)
69.0
75.E
(10.) 7.92 (0.286)
(l l) 7 . E l (0.2E2)
2
2
0.13(0.00s) 9.5 (0.375) b
0.08(0.002)r2.5 (0.500) b
2@
315
500
600
G
Hardening l7-7 PH
NiCr A2E6 200 (2e) 7r.7 (10.4) E.03 (0.290) 2 o.lm(0.016)5 (0.200) b 510 950 G
Copper Base Alloy Wires:
PhosphorBronze (A) 103 (15) 43.4 (6.3) 8.86 (0.320) l 5 0.10(0.004)12.5 (0.500) b 9s 200 C
Silicon Bronze (A) 103 (15) 38.6 (5.6) E.s3 (0.308) 7 0.10(0.004)12.5 (0.s00) b 95 200
Silicon Bronze (B)
Beryllium Copper
t17
128
(17)
(1 E.5 )
4.1
+8.t
(6.4)
(7.0)
E.75 (0.316) t 2
8.26 (0.298) 2r
0.r0 (0.004)tz.5 (0.500)
0.0E(0.003)12.5 (0.500)
b
b
95
205
2m
400
C
Spring Brass, CAz6/u. lr0 (1 6 ) 42.0 (6.0) 8.53 (0.30E) t7 0.10(0.004)12.5 (0.500) b 95 200
Nickel Base Allovs:
G
Inconelo Alloy 600 2r4 (3l) 75.E (lt) 8.43 (0.304) 1.5 0.10(0.004)l2.s (0.500) b 320 700
Inconel Allov X750 2t4 (3l) 79.3 ( l 1 . 5 ) 8.25 (0.298) I 0.10(0.004)12.5 (0.500) b 595 ll00 C
Ni-Span-C@ lE6 (27) 62.9 (e.7) 8.14 (0.2%) r.5 0.10(0.004)r2.5 (0.500) b 9s 200
(e.6) 8.83 (0.319)
Monilo Allov 400
Monel Alloy K500
179
r79
(26)
(26)
6.2
6.2 (e.6) E.46 (0.306)
3.5
3
0.05(0.002) 9.s (0.375) b
0.05(0.002) 9.5 (0.375) b
230
2ffi
450
500
C
Carbon Steel Strip:
AISI 1050 207 (30) 79.3 ( l l . s ) 7.E6 (0.2E4) 7 0.25(0.010) 3 (0.125) b 95 200
C
l06s 2W (30) 79.3 ( l 1 . 5 ) 7.86 (0.284) 7 0.0B(0.003) 3 (0.125) b 95 2W
1074, 1075 2W (30) 79.3 ( l 1 . 5 ) 7.E6 (0.2E4) 7 0.0E(0.003) 3 (0.125) b r20 250 C
r09s 207 (30) 79.3 (l r.5) 7.E6 (0.2E4) 7 0.08(0.003) 3 (0.125) b r20 250
Bartexo 207 (30) ( l 1 . 5 ) 7.86 (0.284)
79.3 7 0.10(0.004) l (0.040) a 9s 200
C
StainlessSteel Strip:
(28) )
Austenitic Types
301, 302
193 69.0 (10) 7.92 (0.2E6) 0.0E(0.003) 1.5 (0.063) b 315 600 G
Precipitation 203 (29.s) 75.8 (11) 7 . 8 1 (0.282) 7 0.08(0.003) 3 (0.125) b 370 700
Hardening l7-7 PH C
CopperBaseAlloy Strip:
PhosphorBronze(A) 103 (1 5 ) 43 (6.3) E.16 (0.320) l 5 0.08(0.003) 5 (0.18E)b 9s 200 C
BerylliumCopper r28 (1 8 .5 ) 48 (7.0) 8.26 (0.298) 2 l 0.08(0.003) 9.5 (0.375) b 205 400

(l) Elastic moduli, density and electrical conductivity can vary with b. Maximum defect depth: l.$Vo of d or t.
C
cold work, heat treatment and operating stress. These variations are c. Defect depth: less than 3.5Voof d or t.
usually minor but should be considered if one or more of these
properties is critical.
(4) Maximum service temperatures are guidelines and may vary due C
to operating stress and allowable relaxation.
(2) Diametersfor wire; thicknessesfor strip. (5) Music and hard drawn are commercial terms for patented and
(3) Typicd surface quality ratings. (For most materials, special pro- cold-drawn carbon steel spring wire.
-
cesses can be specified to upgrade typical values.)
a. Maximum defect depth: 0 to 0.5Vo of d or t. INCONEL, MONEL and NI-SPAN-C are registeredtrademarksof C
International Nickel Company, Inc. BARTpi is a registered trade-
mark of Theis of America. Inc.
G

H Assog5ifiS
(F
&ffienans ,a
, Spring Materials
can also be important and must be consideredin light Magnetic Characteristics
il of cost,benefit. Consequently,careful selectionsmust For most applications, the question of "magnetic or
te made to obtain the best compromise.
a Table3- I lists some commonly used alloys along with
not" is adequatelyansweredwith the use of a permanent
magnet. For some applications,even very low levels of
dau for material selectionpurposes.Data on mechanical magneticbehavior can be detrimental. Then, it is desir-
a propenies are presentedin the Spring Wire and Spring
Strip subsections(Pages18 and 20 respectively).Speci-
able to know the magnetic permeability of candidate
materials and reach agreement between parties on a
a fications have been written by many national and inter-
n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s .T h e s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n sa r e
maximum allowable value. Table 3-3 lists approximate
values for a number of low permeability materials along
a
a
cross-referenced to AssociatedSpring specificationsin
Table 3-2r However, correlation between the specifica-
tions is only approximate.AssociatedSpring specifica-
with other frequently used alloys.
Since permeability can be altered by cold work, some
variation can be expected. In general, low permeability
il
t i o n s w e r e d e v e l o p e de x c l u s i v e l y f o r h i g h q u a l i t y materials are more expensive so designersshould specify
a material for spring applicationsand are generally more
detailedand stringentthan other specifications.
low levels only when absolutely necessary.Often, nitro-
gen strpngthened manganese stainless steels are good
Surface quality has a major influence on fatigue choices because they have good strength at moderate
a strength and is often not clearly delineated on national
specifications.It is important to use only those materials
cost.

a uith the best surface integrity for fatigue applications,

particularly those in the high cycle region.
Heat Treatment of Springs
Heat-treating temperatures for springs can be divided
into two ranges. Low temperature heat treatments in the
a In steel alloys, for which processingcosts are a large
fraction of product cost, surface quality can vary over
175'to 510'C (347'to 950'F) range are appliedto springs
after forming to reduce residual stresses and stabilize
a an appreciable range. Depth of surface imperfections,
such as seams,pits and die marks, can be up to3.5%
parts dimensionally. For carbon steels, stainless steels
and some age-hardenablealloys, low temperature heat
a of diameter for commercial spring wire grades (ASTM
A-227 and A-229). Various intermediate qualities can be
treatments are used to increase or restore the set point.
Electroplated carbon steel parts are heat-treated at low
obtained. Highest levels are representedby music and
a valve spring quality grades which are virtually free of
surface imperfections. Decarburization, which can also
temperatures prior to plating, and baked afterward to re-
duce the susceptibilityto hydrogen embritflement. Most
a adversely affect fatigue performance, follows a similar
pattern. Surface quality of spring materials is a function
low temperature stress relieving and age-hardening of
springs are done in air and a moderate amount of oxide
may be formed on the part. No detrimental effects of this
a of the care exercised in their production and processes
employed. Materials produced with a high level of sur-
oxide have been noted.
High temperature heat treatments are used to strength-
a face integrity are more costly than commercial grades.
Elastic Modulus
en annealed material after spring forming. High-carbon
steels are strengthenedby austenittzing in the temperat-
a The modulus of elasticity in tension and shear is vital
to spring design. Table 3-1 lists recommendedvaluesfor
ure range 760'to 900"C(1480"to 1652"F),quenching to
form martensite and then tempering. Some nickel base
commonly used spring alloys. For most steels and age- alloys are strengthenedby high temperature aglng treat-
It hardenablealloys, the modulus varies as a function of ments. Becausesubstantialoxidation occurs at these el-
chemical composition, cold work and degree of agrng. evated temperatures,it is advisableto prevent excessive
il Usually variations ar0 small and can be compensatedfor oxidation by using an appropriate protective atmosphere.
by adjustment of reference parameters of the spring de- Heat treatments suitable for many commonly used ma-
tl sign, (e.g. number of active coils, and coil diameter). terials are listed in Table 3-4. Selection of a temperature
For most materials,moduli are temperature-dependent within a given range can only be made after considering
!t and vary inversely with temperature by approximately the material, size, strength level, application conditions
ZVcper 55'C (100"F).Sincenonambienttemperaturetest- and desired characteristics.For additional guidance,As-
a ing is costly, design criteria should be specifiedat room
temperature after having made appropriate compensa-
sociated Spring engineersshould be consulted. Unless
otherwise noted, 20 to 30 minutes exposureat tempera-
a tion for the application temperature. Certain nickel-
chromium-iron alloys are designed to have a constant
ture is sufficient to obtain the bulk of the stress-relieving
effect.
a modulus over the temperaturerange from -5o to 65'C
(-50" to 150'F) and are exceptions to the above rule.
Many spring-like parts involve forms which preclude
the use of prehardenedmaterial. In these cases, soft or
a For true isotropic materials, the elastic moduli in tension
(E) and shear (G) are relatedthroughPoisson'sratio by the
expression:
annealedmaterial must be used and heat-treatedto attain
spring propertiesafter forming. Thin high-carbon and
alloy steel parts become distorted when hardened by
a E
P:6-r
quenching. Distortion may be reduced by fixture tem-
pering; however,this process is costly and should be
a sothat, for common spring materials,any one of the param-
avoided if at all possible by using pretempered mat-
erials.
a etersmay be approximatedusingthe other two.

a
t AssgFifig
&ffi*ffiwsffi
--.
Spring Materials
C
Table3-2. RelatedSpringMaterial Specifications.
G
.twoeint*d
$tri'n* Corrrnon Britlih fieffirlr ,lltfsrye
Trldr F{ams saa ASTM AM,S Mfliarl' Ihderd EN 8S
':f,},[H, .tI$ G
Spring Wire
AS-5 MusicWire 1085 1228 5tL2 s4@9 1408or 5216 17223,SheetI G3522,
G
QQv/470
Jl78 (obsolete) 520r 1.1200 SWP-A,B, V
AS-10 Oil Tempered 1066 L229 QQw428 2803,grade3 17223,Sheet2, G3560,
G
CarbonSteel J316 1.1230 swo-A,B
AS.2O Cold Drawn 1066 A227 49B 1408 17222,SheetI G3521, C
CarbonSteel J r1 3 5216NS or HS 1.0500 sw-A,B,c
AS-25 Oil Tempered 1070 42,30 5115 2803, L7223.Sheet2 G3561, G
Carbon Steel* GradesI & 2 swo-v
AS-32 Oil Tempered
Chrome
6150
tr32
A232 &50 w-22826 QQw412 47
50
17225,
50CrV4
G3565,
swocvry
G
Vanadium*
AS-33 Oil Tempered 9254 A40l QQw4l2 48A 17225, G3566,
C
ChromeSilicon* n57 67SiC15 swosc-v
AS-35 Stainless Steel 30301 A 3 1 3 ; 5688 QQw423 58A 2056 1.4300 G43T4, C
30302 Type301, (obsolete) 1.4310 sus302
J230 Type302 t7224
G
AS.36 r7-7PH J2T7 A'313, 5678 t7224, G4314,
I}pe 531 1.4568 sus63IJl
AS44 InconelX-750 5698.5699
C
AS-45 CopperBeryllium cA-t72 Bt97 4725, QQW-530, 2873, 1766,6,
C
Cond.A Cond.A cBl0l 2.t247.55
AS-55 SpringBrass cA-2@ BTY, QQW-321, 2786, 17660, C
n60 n@ czrw 2.0265
AS-60A. PhosphorBronze cA-510B159, 4720 QQw40l 2873, 17662, -
#5rc PBlO2 2.1030.39
AS-60C PhosphorBrorue cA-52r #521 C
AS-70 Chromium Steel s160H A'304 970, Part5
A689 C
Spring Strip
AS-100 1095 A682 5r2l s-7947 44D 1449,Part38, 17232, G3311, C
A684 5t22 Annealed csl00 | .t274 SK4M
Cold-Rolled
AS-l0l r074 A682 5r20 42E. 14/19,Parrt38, t7222, G3311,
C
1075 A684 cs.cs80 l.t2r0 s75CM
AS-102 1050 A682 5085 l$g, Paft3B, G33ll,
C
A684 cs50 s50cM
AS-103 1065 A682 5115 42F 1440,Part38, 17222, G3311, C
A684 cs60.cs70 l.1230 s65CM
AS-105 Bartex 1085 C
AS-135-A Stainless Steel 30301 At77 5517 t7224, G43r3,
AS-135-B 30302 5 5 1 85, 5 1 9 s-5059 QQS-766 58A 14,y'l9,Parrt4,
302-S-25
1.4310
1.4300
sus-301-csP
sus-302-csP
C
AS-136 t7-7 PH 5528 s-25043
5529Spring Cond. A
t7224,
1.4568
G4313,
sus-631-csP C
Temper
AS-144 InconelX-750 5542 N 7786 C
AS-145 Copper cA-r72 8194, 4s30(AT) 2870, r7666,
#r72 4s32(LtzHT) QQC-533 cB101 2.1247.55 C
AS-155 SpringBrass cA-260 836, 4507.vzH QQB-613, 2870, 17660,
f260 Comp.2
TIzH
czt08 2.026s C
AS-1@A Phosphor
Brorze
cA-5r0 8103,
#510
4510
Spring
QQB-750,
Comp.A
2870,
PB1O2
17662,
2.1030.39
C
Temper
AS-160C PhosphorBronze cA-521 8r03, C
#521
*Valve spring quality. c
C
f&ffi*ffffis
MAssogb?ifi8 _ -
a Spring Materials
T& 3-3. Magnetic Characteristicsof Some Materials.
a Tempering is an effective stress-relieving treatment and
results in negligiblelevels of residual stress.Some spring
Prfm**rbility rr W Onrr*tdn materials, such as beryllium copper and l7-7 PH, are
I iffi Room Temperesrre strengthened after forming by age hardening. This pro-
vides a good stressrelief, but may also cause distortion
a -{.!r
Brzsscs.Bronzes
Carbon Srcels
I
Nonmagnetic
> 500
unless special techniquesare used.

a Flglol t
lnconel -{,lloys:
1.00003s
Environmental Considerations
Frequently, operating environment is the single most

a
a
6m
5r_<
x--50
Staintess Steels:
l.0t
1.0006
1.0035
important consideration for proper spring material se-
lection. For successful application, material must be
compatible with the environment and withstand effects
of temperature and corrosion without an excessive loss
il
Tlpe 301, spring temper >30 in spring performance. Corrosion and elevated tempera-
a Tfpe 302, spring temper
631 07-7 PI{)
>12
>40
tures decrease spring reliability. The effect of tempera-
ture on spring materials is predictable and discussed
XV-28: Nitroniso 32* 1.0il
a \*itronic 50*
Titanium Alloys
r.004
Nonmagnetic
below. Compatibility of spring materials and spring coat-
ing systemswith corrosiveenvironments is discussedin
a ' \ itrogen-strengthenedmanganesestainless steels.
general terms. For specific applications, the designer is
urged to rely upon previous experience or consult with
Associated Spring engineers.
a ELGILOY is a registered trademark of Katy Industries, Inc. NITRONIC
is a registeredtrademark of Armco., Inc.
Stress Relaxation
a Tabb 34. Typical Heat Treatments for Springs After
Primary concern for elevatedtemperature applications
of springs is stress rela:ration. Stress relaxation is the
Forming. loss of load or available deflection that occurs when a
a . ,,,,,,,
Hent,lftma-ffii:
tC, , ,:,
spring is held or cycled under load. Temperature also
affects modulus, tensile and fatigue strength. For a given
a 1114
.
,,
; r
l'.
,".,,; t' : l:;i::T spring, variables which affect stress reloration are:
Patentedand Cold-Drawn Steel Wire 190-230 stress, time and temperature, with increases in any pa-
l:zs-rso
a TemperedSteel Wire:
Carbon
Allor-
2G400
3t5-425
lsruzso
I600-800
rameter tending to increase the amount of rela;ration.
Stress and temperature are related exponentially to re-
a AusteniticStainlessSteel Wire

PrecipitationHardening StainlessWire
23L510 45G950 laxation. Curves of relaxation versus these parameters
are concave upward as is shown in Figures 3-1 and 3-2.
a rll-7 PH):
Condition C
ConditionA to TH 1050
480/l hour
760/l hour
900/l hour
Other controllable factors affecting relaxation include:
1. Alloy Type - more highly alloyed materials are gen-
a cool to l5oC
followed by
1400/l hour.
cool to 60"F
followed by
erally more resistant at a given temperature or can be
used at higher temperatures.
lr Vonel:
565/ I hour 1050/l hour
2. Residual Stress - residual stresses remaining from

a .{lloy'496
Allo.v K500, Spring Temper
a Inconel:
.{lloy'600
Allol X-750:
a * I Temper
SpringTemper
I Copper Base, Cold Worked (Brass,
a PhosphorBronze, etc.)
Beryllium Copper:
hetempered (Mill Hardened)
a SolutionAnnealed,
Temper Rolled or Drawn
a AnnealedSteels:
Carbon(AISI 1050to 1095)
a .{,llol'(AISI5150H6150,9254)
-Time dependson heating equipment
and sectionsize. Partsare auste-
a rutizedthen quenchedand temperedto the desired hardness.
I but Table 3-l does show approximatemaximum service
30L315 57ffio
525I 4 hours 98014hours
forming operations are detrimental to relaration resis-
tance. Therefore, use of the highest practical stress-
relief temperatures is beneficial. Shot peening is also
40G510 750-950
detrimental to stress relaxation resistance.
3. Heat Setting - various procedures can be employed
7301
16hours l350l16hours to exposespringsto stressand heat for varying times
4 hours n00l4 hours
6501 to prepare for subsequentexposures. Depending on
the method used, the effect is to remove a usually
t75-205 large first-stage relaxation and/or to establish a resid-
20s
3sG400
400
ual stress system which will lessen relaxation influ-
ences. In some cases,the latter approach can be so
3r5t2-3
hours
6W/2:3hours effective that in application, compression springs may
"grow"
or exhibit negative relaxation. Increase in
800$30*
free length does not usually exceed I to ZVo.
1475-t525* 4. Grain Size - coarse grain size promotes relaxation
830{85* 1525-1625*
resistance. This phenomenon is used only in very
high temperature applications.
Becauseso many variablesare involved, it is impossible
to cite comprehensive data in a publication of this type,

a
I o'"TFlfi8AH*ffilE$
H
---
 l

Spring Materials |t
Fig.3-1. RelaxationversusInitial Stressfor Spring Ma- Fig. 3-2. Relaxation versus Temperaturefor Spring Ma-
terials. terials. G
lnitiolstress( 103psi) Exposuretemperqture("F)

l8
7'5 100 125 150
l8
250 300 350 400 C
g
Corbon Chrome f
_f C
g
E steel silicon
C
Corbon
steel
Chrome
silicon
' Ploinsprings -
Shot-peenedcrrr
- -
m ,f
Ploinsprings --
-.-
-
-
$
Shot-peened -
ond Heot sei
- -
a
f
3 G
l4 Shor-peened fl F
g .
.l
--
Shot-peened
ond Heot set
-
g
f
*
,
'
t
/ G
fl
Exposureof 100 hours ot l49oC (300"F)
E t
f I
r2 G
Stressescolculoted ot room femPeroture o I

.gt G
8 r o f
8c r o
c
.9
;rl I .9
G
o
x
o
^ Q
g.u I ilr
o
x

oc
8 G
I
d,
/
lt G
C
G
C
C
C
200 400 600 800 1000 120 r40 160 r80
Initiqlslress(MPo) Exposuretemperoture(t) C
Tahle 3 -5. Guidefor SeIecting Minimum Thicknessesfor
C
temperatures for many commonly used materials. It Zinc and Cadmium Coatings.
should be remembered that, if a material is used at its Zixon tranerd Srnel Cedmirrron LuardStscl
C
maximum temperature, a substantial reduction must be Part PerQ8rA325 t$ Prrrs per QQ'"I4I6 {Z}
made in applied stress from that used at room temper-
ilfisirnur$ S*li,$pqry 'Sl*.i
C
ature. 3 Tr*Sr''L $rn$,,ill&turry! ffi,:iH$4ry
Corrosion
Th*nm .*Ilri*h h:ftrr'..fion Thiekamrfiilf,$ l*;1ltry& C
m*n,till.l Brr :White :n$d,rnar,{lnJ l}pr,' C
The effect of a corrosive environment on spring per-
formance is difficult to predict with certainty. General 0.025
A
B %
r92 0.013
B 96
C
(0.0010) (0.00050)
corrosion, galvanic corrosion, stress corrosion and cor- c r92
rosion fatigue reduce life and load-carrying ability of A
C
springs. The two most common methods employed to 0.013 0.008
B 96 (0.00030) B 96
combat effects of corrosion are to specify materials that
(0.000s0)
c |i
are inert to the environment and to use protective coat- A 36
0.005 0.005
ings. Use of inert materials affords the most reliable
protection against deleterious effects of all types of cor-
(0.00020) B
c
%
36
(0.00020) B 96 C
rosion; however, this is often costly and sometimesim- (l) Requirements for zinc coating (electrodeposited). C
practical. Protective coatings are often the most cost- (2) Requirements for cadmium plating (electrodeposited)'
effective method to prolong spring life in corrosive en- Finish Type:
vironments. In special situations, shot peening can be A. Without supplementary chromate or phosphatetreatment. C
B. With supplementary chromate treatment.
used to prevent stresscorrosion and cathodic protection
systems can be used to prevent general corrosion.
C. With supplementary phosphate treatment.
C
C
C
ffiessog51ffifu*ffiffi$ -1
 Spring Materials
Coatings may be classified as galvanically sacrificial Mechanicalplating provides an effectivemeansof zinc
or simple barrier coatings. Sacrificial coatings for high or cadmium protection with minimum hydrogen embrit-
carbon steel substratesinclude zinc, cadmium (and al- tlement. It is particularly recommended where parts
loys thereof) and, to a lesser degree, aluntinum. Due to have high residual stress, have been hardened above
its toxicity, cadmium coating should only be specified HRC48 and are used with high static loads. The process
when absolutely necessary.Because sacrificial coatings can only be applied to parts that do not tangle and have
are chemically less noble than steel, the substrateis pro- a clean, fully accessible surface. Hydrogen embrittle-
tected in two ways. First, the coating acts as a barrier ment, although unlikely, is still possible if parts are
between substrate and environment. Second, galvanic cleanedby pickling. When appropriate,coatingsof zinc,
action between coating and substrate cathodically pro-
tects the substrate. This characteristic allows sacrificial
coatingsto continue their protective role even after the
tin, cadmium, or an alloy of cadmium can be applied by
mechanical plating processes.
Cadmium, zinc or more commonly alloys of the two
ffi
coating is scratched, nicked or cracked. The amount of can be applied to steel spring wire during its production,
damagea sacrificial coating can sustain and still protect and under some circumstances this alternative is highly
the substrateis a function of the size of the damagedarea desirable. It is best suited to small diameter wire and,
and the effrciency of the electrolyte involved. The salt in general, for the production of springs not requiring
spray life criteria for three thicknesses of sacrificial coat- grinding.
ings are shown in Table 3-5. Use of conversion coat- Springs are almost always in contact with other metal
ings, such as chromates,lengthensthe time of protection parts. In a corrosiveenvironment, it is important that the
by protecting sacrificial coatings. SaIt spray (fog) is an spring material be more noble than components in con-
acceleratedtest and results may, or may not, correlate tact with it. Table 3-6 shows a partial list of alloys in
with corrosive activity in the actual environment. The increasing order of nobility. When any two alloys are
test is useful as a control to ensure the coating was placed in contact in the presence of an electrolyte, the
applied properly. less noble alloy (higher on the list) will be attacked. The
Metallic coatings are normally applied by electroplat- anack will be significantly more vigorous than that of the
ing. Since most high hardnesssteels are inherently very electrolyteactingby itself.
susceptibleto hydrogen embrittlement, plating must be
carried out with great care to minimize embrittlement Table 34. Order of Nobility.
and subsequentdelayed fracture. A baking operation af-
ter plating is also essential.The designershould observe G*lvnnic Serics $itb,,'gl$ te ,gnehgs,,se*ry8t8r.
these points during design and specification:
Magnesium Least noble (+), Anodic
l. Minimize sharp corners and similar stress-concen-
tration points rn design Zinc
Aluminum
2. Keep hardnessas low as possible. Cadmium
3. Keep operating stressdown, in accordancewith low- Steel or Iron
ered hardness value. Cast Iron
StainlessSteel, series
4. Specify plating thickness, depending upon require- 300 (active)
ments. Hastelloy@C
Specify that parts be baked after plating. Nickel (active)
Inconel (active)
6 . Consider use of HEPrM strips to monitor the plating Hastelloy B
operation. Brasses,Bronzes
Residual stress from forming operations must be re- Monel
duced by stress relief at the highest practical temper- Nickel (passive)
ature. Otherwise the combined effect of residualten- Inconel (passive)
sion and hydrogen absorbed during plating can induce StainlessSteel, series
cracking even before plating is completed. 300 (passive)
Titanium Most noble (-), Cathodic
Similar cautions apply if acid cleaning procedures are
contemplated. HASTELLOY is a registeredtrademark of Cabot Corporation.

ffi{*, Yffiffi
fFJ','r. iil;-
 I
Spring Materials C
The list of coatingswhich protect the base material by
acting as a barrier to the environment is extensive and
Type 302, A232 and A230 materials have slightly lower
tensile strength with surface qualities suitable for fatigue
G
increasesas new finishes and techniquesare developed. applications. Hard-drawn (ASTM 227) and oil tempered
Table 3-7 shows protection available from some of the (ASTM 229) are also supplied at lower strength levels G
common barrier finishes. This information is not for se- and are most suitable for static applications.
lection purposes;it simply shows the rangeof protection Most spring wires can be wrapped on their own dia- G
afforded. In fact, the hours of salt spray protection may meter (bent around a pin with a diameter equal to the
only be valid for the specimenand test conditions em- wire diameter). Exceptions include some copper-based G
ployed in this series of tests. The tests were conducted alloys and large diameter and/or high strength alloys.
on springs which had undergone 4 million cycles in a Becausestress relieving increasesyield strengthof cold G
fatigue test prior to salt spray exposure. drawn spring wire, all sharp bends of this grade material
While coatings frequenfly increase in effectiveness as should be made prior to stress relief. G
their thicknessesare incrbased, cautions are in order.
Tendencies to crack increase as coating thickness in- Tahles3J. SaIt Spray Resistance of Common Barrier G
creases,and the coating increasesthe size of the spring. Finishes.
For example, coatings increase the solid height and di-
ametral clearancesrequired for compression springs.
hotective
Materiat
Stsnderd SaIt Spray
Test Resistancc,hours Description
G
Brittle coatings such as epoxy can chip under impact,
leaving unprotectedspots. Tough coatingssuch as vinyl Paints:
Japan 15-20 Dark colored, usually
G
resist chipping, but bruises, tears or abrasions can ex- dipped, cured by baking.
pose the base material and trap corrosive agents. This Lacquer 31100 Usually applied by spray- G
allows corrosionto continue after exposure,and in these ing. Air dried.
circumstancescoated springsoccasionallyexhibit short- Enamel 5G400
2s-300
Hard finish; applied by G
er lives than uncoated springs. Paint spray, brush or dip; cured
Frequently oils, waxes or greasesprovide adequate by air or baking.
protection. Effectivenessof these coatings is often de-
C
pendent on the nature of the surface to be protected. In Oils, waxes l-300 Lubricating, rust-
general,lustrousor smooth parts will not retain oils, and inhibiting, hard drying and
nondrying oils.
C
waxes, paraffrn-basedoils or greasesare recommended. Phosphateswith 2440 Chemical treatment convert-
Steelscan be phosphatecoatedby a conversionprocess. supplemental ing steel surface to iron -
Phosphate coatings have a high retention for oils, oils, waxes, phosphate crystalline
greasesor paints. The combination of a phosphate and etc. surface. Affords a bond -
for oils and paints.
oil coating becomesa colTosion inhibitor more effective Cadmium, zinc 24-100 Electroplated or mechanically
than either of the components. A similar effect is ob- plated. C
tained by retaining or deliberately forming oxides on
metal surfacesto hold corrosion inhibitors or lubricants. This information is basedon laboratory-controlled applicationsand test.
The protective material selected,cleanliness of parts, method of appli- -
Oil tempered spring wire is a notable example of this cation, subsequentoperations and part usage affect performance.The
technique. choice of a spring finish must also consider shipping, assembly,end use
and total cost.
C
Spring Wire
Tensile properties of spring wire vary with size (Figure C
3-3). Common spring wires with the highest strength
are ASTM 228 and ASTM 401 materials. ASTM A313 C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
ffiA"o#fil,&F'*ffiK$ _ -
Spring Materials s
Tabk 34. PreferuedDiameters for Spring Steel Wire. Spring Strip
Most flat springsare made from AISI grades 1050,1065,
C
M*trk Sillri {ftm, EnglicbSirrs {la.) 1074and 1095steel strip. These compositions are listed
ftrril Sr*cnd Third First $cmrd
in ASTM specifications A.682 and A684.
C
Hrrtnct PrEfrnmr Prcfcrcns hrcfcrrnc hefttwmcc
Tensile strength and formability characteristics are
0.10
0 . 1I
0.004
0.005 shown in Figure 3-4. The vertical inclined bands delin- C
0.r 2 0.006 eate three strength levels as functions of stock thickness
0.16
0.r 4 0.008 and hardness. Horizontal curves indicate minimum ben- C
0.009
0 .r 8 0.010 ding radii required for the strength levels they intersect.
0.20 0.01l Interpolations can be made between any two bands or C
0.22 0.012 lines for intermediate levels. Formability criteria are giv-
0.25 0.013
0.2E 0.014 en for relatively smooth bends made at reasonableben- C
0.30 0.015 ding rates. Operations which apply forming forces other
0.35 0.016 than smooth bending, or have impact characteristics,
0.40 0.0r7 may require larger radii to prevent fracture. Four-slide
C
0.45 0.01E
0.50 part manufacture, progressive die work and secondary
0.55 0.020
0.019
forming are examples of operations that often produce C
0.60 0.021 less than ideal bending.
0.65
0.70
0.022
0.024 C
0.80 0.026
0.90 0.028 C
1.0 0.030 Table34. Ranking of Relative Costs of CommonSpring
t.2
I.l 0.031
0.033 Wires. C
0.035 ffi,,#.2.mu
ffii;$
t.6
1.4 0.038
0.040 Wir! Snt t
:::,,.,,::::
!|1}...'It*',... C
1.8 0.u2 1 -Wrm-
,,,,,,il1,,,,,,:
,i,t
2.0
2.1
0.045
0.u7
ll&wc Izrrn
C
') ', 0.04E Patentedand Cold Drawn ASTM A227 1.0 1.0

2.5
2 .4 0.051 Oil Tempered ASTM A229 1.3 1.3 C
0.055
2.6 0.059
2.8 0.063
Music
Carbon Valve Spring
ASTM A,228
ASTM A23O
2.6
3.1
1.4
1.9
C
3.0 0.057
3.2 0.072
3.5 0.076 Chrome Silicon Valve ASTM A4OI 4.0 3.9
C
3.8 0.08r
StainlessSteel (Type 302) ASTM A3l3 (302) 7.6 4. 7
4.2
0.085
0.092 C
4.5 0.098 PhosphorBronze ASTM 8.0 6.7
5.0
4.8
0.r05
0.102 StainlessSteel (Type 631) ASTM A 313(631)
(17-7 PII)
ll 8. 7 E
5.5 0.1r2
6.0
6.5 0.125
0.120
Beryllium Copper ASTM BI97 27 t7 C
7.0 0.130 Inconel Alloy X-750 44 31
7.5 0.135
0.140
C
E.5 0.148
9.0
9.5 0.t62
0.156 C
10.0
Table3-10. Standard Tolerancesfor Spring Wire.
0.170
12.0
r1.0 0.t77
0.192 Dlrrmttr: rnar{ln,}
tl&#m:Ost
,d"Mnrrr:
C
tohrw: ulur,{lil;}
13.0 0.200
14.0
15.0
0.207
0.218
,,il;il,,,{*n.}
C
0.225 0.514.71 (0.020-0.028) 0.olo(o.ooo4) 0.010(0.000+)
16.0 0.250 (0.0006)
0.71-2.00(0.0284.078) t 0.015 0.015(0.0005) C
0.262
0.2E1
0.306 2.00-3.00(0.0784.I tE) + 0.020(0.000E) 0.020(0.0008) C
0.312
0.343 3.00{.00 (0.118J.240) f
0.030(0.0011E) 0.030(0.0012)
0.362 C
0.375 6.0G9.00 (0.24G4.354) r 0.050(0.00197) 0.050(0.002)
0.406
0.437
9.50-r6.00(0.37s4.62s) + 0.070(0.00276) 0.070(0.0028) C
0.459 Most spring wires can be purchased to tighter tolerances. Music wire
0.500 and most nonferrous materials are regularly made to closer tolerances. C
C
C
ffiAssEslf;g&ffi*ffws I

Direction of bending with respect to rolling direction
is an important consideration. Formability of strip is
greater in transverse than in longitudinal directions (Fi-
gure 3-5). If a part is designedwith two identical bends
at 90" to each other, it is common practice to orient the
part so that both bends are made at 45oto rolling direc-
tion. Dmensionless parameter2rlt, often referred to as
bendfactor, is frequently used as a measureof formabil-
it1'. Materials with low values are more formable than
materialswith high values. This measureis only a guide
since it does not allow for tooling considerationsand
complex strains associated with forming operations.
Spring steels are nonnally produced to specifiedhard-
nesslevels which are related to tensile strength (Figure
3{). Composition is not shown in Figure 34 because
the lowest carbon level (AISI 1050)can be used at high
strengthlevels and the highest carbon level (AISI 1095)
canbe temperedto the lowest strengthlevels. In general,
higher carbon levels are used when strength is critical
and lower carbon levels when formabilitv is critical.
Fig. 34. Minimum TransverseBending Radii for Var-
ious Tempers and Thicknessesof Tempered
Spring Steel.
E 1.0
E Fig. 3-6. TensileStrength versus Hardness of Quenched
o
S o.7s
.c
F F
44 46 48 50
RockwelI Hordncss(HRC)
Fig. 3-5. orientation of Bend Axis to Rollins Direction
for Transverseand Longitudinal B-ends.
-) lndicotesDirectionOf Rolling
N 1 : 2 r
Ntn Nrffi
---t,.
Tronsverse Bend Longitudinol Bend
Also known os ocross the groin, Also known os with the groin,
p e r p e n d i c u l o rt o t h e r o l l i n g porollel to rolling direction.
direction. Eosy or good woy.
SpringMaterials
Hardness levels above HRC 50 result in high strength
but are not generally recommended due to notch sensi-
tivity. Surfaceand edge smoothnessbecomecritical and
plated parts become highly susceptible to static fracture
due to trapped hydrogen.
Parts which cannot be made within formability limits
of pretempered strip are made from annealedstrip and
hardened and tempered after forming. To maintain crit-
ical dimensions,it is often necessaryto fixture temper
these parts. Sharp bends are not only diffrcult to fabri-
cate but are also undesirablein service becauseof stress
concentration. The formability limits of annealedspring
ffi
steels are presented in Table 3-1 1.
In flat spring designs where the edge of the strip be-
comes an edge of the part, the type of edgeis important,
particularly for cyclic applications. Common types of
edges available are shown in Figure 3-7. Slit edge (No.
3) and deburred (No. 5) are preferred for blanked parts
and static applications. No. I round edge is recom-
mended for cyclic applicationsto reduce the stresscon-
centration and eliminate the edge flaws due to slitting.
Configurations shown in Figure 3:7 are approximate,
and it is advisableto use both the numerical designation
and a description when specifying edge condition.
Commercial thickness tolerances for spring steel strip
EIrepresentedin Table 3-12. Many flat springsand spring
washer designscan tolerate this variation. Sincethe load
varies as the cube of the thickness, critical designsmay
require closer tolerances.
J
o and TemperedSpring Steel.
l0 k9. DPH or Vickers (VHN)
350 450
52
24o E_
al
3
2zo *,
o g
6
2oo+
.o ,o
g
r8o E
5
160
t40
Hord or bod woy.
120
28 32 36 40 444648 50 52 54
Rockwell Hordness (HRC)
Spring Materials C
Other Spring Materials Fig.3-7. EdgesAvailable on Steel Strip.
A variety of materials other than carbon steel strip is C
used for flat springs(Table 3-13). When high conductiv- No. I Edge
ity is required, copper base alloys are usually specified. SQUARE
C
_l
No.3 Edge
Stainlesssteelsare used in applicationsrequiring heat or Stondord
corrosion resistance.Typical tensile strength levels'for moximum corner
rodius:0.08mm C
these alloys after heat treatment are shown in Table (0.003')
I
3-13. Bend factors and tensile elongationsare for alloys C
in "as received" condition prior to final heat treatment.
Specifyrng Hardness
Hardness tests are used extensively to inspect strip
and flat springsand it is necessaryto specify the correct
l ROUND
Stondord NOR'VIALAS SIIT C
C
scale. Recommended hardness scales for steels are
presented in Table 3-14. To obtain accurate readings
free from the effect of the anvil, it is important to limit
the thickness of the material for each hardness scale as
:l BLUNTROUND
Speciol
'No.5 Edge
C
shown in Figure 3-8 for hard materials and Figure 3-9 OVAL
C
Speciol
for soft materials. )
_l C

_l BROKEN
CORNERS
Speciol
No.3DEBURRED C
C
Table3-11. Formability of Annealed Spring Steels.
*Iffi r0s AI$I T065 *IS,*qid tfrs '::il$#$ C
Ntll , Hrlt . :,: ::,:il,{i
t: .i..'t,,.,. I:
.,.,
...[-{itt,..'
Ttulcknmr{(} Di:recti*n Ann*n|ed *nn Annwkd Annerlsd Aaar*bd A W
C
mrn (in,l nf: Ssn6 {*ta rd tr$st. ($tardflrd {sp l.; {ffiid ,,.{W.,,.. t ,,,i{ffi:
tpr*iffit lmregt ,, lsw{st 'lwnst , bnffit'. ,.l{illffit::,,. ,,.i#ffiffi'. :..,,i,[Ufte$: C
rnnx.) t.!l{x"}i mnx.) filflX,l* ',.m&X;},,' : ,.,'1114.1g;)i,:,,,r,s**:l} ,, ,,,.ifm.i|,*

1 . 9m m I 2 0 2 0 2 0 3 I
C
(0.076)-over ll 4 3 4 4 3 ) 4
0 .9 -1 . 89m m I I 0 I 0 I 0 2 0
C
(0.036{.075") 2 I 2 I 2 I 3 2
ll
C
0.374.89mm I 0 0 0 0 I 0 1 0
(0.0154.035) il I 0 IU2 I IU2 I 2 I t
0.2-O.36
mm 0 0 0 0 1 0 I 0
(0.008{.014j il 0 0 0 0 I 0 I U2 C
Formability is determinedby slowly bendinga sampleover l80ountil its
ends are parallel. The measureddistance between the ends is Nt.
For example,if N1 = 4 and t:2, then Nr/1 = 2
C
*Availableas Barco-Form@ from WallaceBarnesSteelsubsidianvof Table3-12. TyoicalHigh-CarbonStrip ThicknessTolerances.
Theisof America, Inc. '#*tqgry,,Pffi;1iffi. rl;,, C
Thhkns*: mrn{in,} t#idth:
Srrip rnm.{tor.}
t?.7*?6.1
(0.50*?.99)
t
|
76,3*]S4.fl
f3 jfffl*12.00)
C
0. l0-0.25 (0.004-0.010) 0.005(0.00020) 0.906(0.00025) C
I (0.010-0.020)
0.25-0.5 0.006(0.00025) 0.009(0.0m35)
0.5l-0.76(0.020-0.030) 0.009(0.00035) 0.013(0.00050) C
0.7Gt.02(0.030-0.erc) 0.010(0.00040) 0.0r3(0.000s0)
t .02-| .s2(0.040-0.
060) 0.013(0.00050) 0.019(0.00075) C
| .52-2.03(0.060-0.080)
2.03-2.s4(0.0E0-0.l 00)
0.025(0.00100)
0.038(0.001s0)
0.038(0.001s0)
0.051(0.00200)
c
(0.r00-0.125)
2.54-3.r8 0.051(0.00200) 0.063(0.002s0)

Precisionrolled high-carbonsteelstrip is availablecommerciallyat

c
tolerancesconsiderablvlessthan the valuesstatedabove. C
-

C
a Spring Materials

a FA. J-d. Ilinimum Safe Thicknesses

ing Hard Materials.
for Hardness Test- for Hardness Test-
Fig. 3-9. Minimum Safe Thicknesses
ing Soft Materials.
a DPH( I ks)
500 600 800 900
.r_----t0.040
r00 r20
DPH( I kg)
r40

a 2
i

a
; E
n =
2 ; o

,til
P 3
r i
- 0.020 F i
C o
iS ;E
a
at

5
E
'7 ? E
0.0r0 .= o . E
a E . : =

0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 60 65 70 7s 80 85
- Hordness N.umber Hordness
Number

a
a Tabb 3-13. Typical Properties of Spring Temper Alloy Strip.
, :8fsd
,,,,, ,
a Tendlc@rySr in
:, .';F l'{.1
,}
t:l:t ,;,',,,., .,rif.1;tl:':.,,rr,t;,,,;,,;,;:.
:.,fst.m|,.
b
ldfrtrr,*$l ntra {rtr rd} ,,, h,qns., b) :l,:t;i1,,::,
-
Steel, spring temper r70o(246) c50 2 5 20.7(30) 0.30
a Stainless301
Stainless302
1300(r89)
1300(189)
c40
c40
8
5
3
4
19.3(28)
19.3(28)
0.31
0.31
a Monel 400 6e0(100) 895 2 5 17.9(26) 0.32
rz0o(r74) 17.9(26)
a Monel K500
Inconel 600 (151)
1040
c34
c30
40
2
5
2 2r.4(3r)
0.29
0.29

a Inconel X-750
Copper-Beryllium
1050(152)
1300(189)
c35
c40
20
2
3
5
2r.4(3r)
12.8(18.5)
0.29
0.33
a Ni- Span-C

BrassCA 260
1400(203)

620 (e0)
c42
B90
6
3
2
J
r8.6(27)
ll (16) 0.33
a PhosphorBronze 6e0(100) 890 J 2.5 10.3(1s) 0.20
I1J PH RH95O 1450(210) c4 6 flat 20.3(2e.s) 0.34
a l7J PH Condition C 1650(239) c46 1 2.5 20.3(29.s) 0.34

a (l ) Before heat treatment.

a Tsblc3-14. Recommended Hardness Scales for Hard

and Soft Spring Alloys.
"tnncrlcd Stcd
!D Thickness:mm {in.} and Finnfcrmnr Albys

a 0.89(0.035)
andover
0.64J.86(0.025-0.034)
C
A
B
457

a 0.35{.61(0.01
0.204.36
5-0.024)
(0.0084.014)
Under0.20(0.008)
30N
r5N
DPH
307
r5 T
DPH
a
a
a
a
a
a Assogfrlfi8
&tr*ffiwsffi
 C

Helical G
C

Compression
Springs C
C
G
G
C
C
C
I
C
'., C
C
..: C
,,115

q ,t,, c
,:;,.;;',
',
-

::: 5
*
li:',',C
1
*<, c
!n,-1
C
# -
} C

ff
I

-
I- C
l c
I- C
3 c
C
C
C

k* Asso8Ftfigi%Fr*'Fs
C
= Helical CompressionSprings
-r Introduction Diameter increases when a spring is compressed.
-t Helical compressionspringsare used to resist applied Although the increase in diameter is usually small,
- compressionforces or to store energyin the push mode. it must be considered when minimum clearances are
-, They have the most common spring configuration and are established. The increase in diameter is a function of
found in many applications such as auiomotive, aero- initial spring pitch and can be estimated from the
-
-l space and consumer goods. While the most prevalent following equation where p : pitch.
form o-fcompression spring is a straight cylindri-d spring
-, made from round wire, many other forms are produced.
4t O.D.4*1;6 =
P2-d:
+ d (s-t)
Conical, barrel, hourglass or cylindrical forms Ere avail- *2
tl
-, able, with or without variable spacing between coils.
-, If the spring ends are allowed to unwind, the O.D. at
Suchconfigurationsare usedto reducesolid height, buck-
-, ling and surging, or to produce nonlinear load deflection solid may be greater than calculated by this equation.
- characteristics. Energy storage capacity is greater for Long springs buckle (see Figure 54, page 35) and may
round wire compression springs than for rectangular wire require lateral support and larger diametral clearances.
-,
-, compression springs and can be increased by nesting. Spring Index
-.
at
Rectangular wire is sometimesemployed to reduce solid
heightor increasethe spaceeffrciencyof the design.Most
die springs are made from rectangular wire for this rea-
Spring index is the ratio of mean diameter to wire
diameter or radial dimension of the cross section (Figure
5-15, page 40). The preferred index range is 4 to lZ.
fi
- son.The SPEC line of springscontainshundredsof com- Springs with high indexes tangle and may require indi-
pressionspring designsusing wire sizesfrom 0.15 to 5.26 vidual packagrng, especially if the ends are noi squared.
mm (0.006" 1o 0.207') diameter music or stainlesssteel Springs with indexes lower than 4 are diffrcult to form.
- wire. Specifying SPEC springssavesdesigntime, reduces
Free Length
cost for low volume applications and offers improved
- Free length is overall spring length in the free or un-
delivery.
loaded position (Figure5-1). If loads are not critical, free
Helical Compression Spring Terminologr length should be specified. When definite loads are re-
- Special terminology has evolved in the spring industry quired, free length should be a referencedimension that
a to describefeaturesof helicalcompressionsprings.These
terms are defined and the relationship between terms is
can be varied to meet load requirements. Pitch is the
distance between centersof adjacent coils and is related
reviewedin Figure 5-1. Communicationbetweendesign-
a er and springmaker is improved if these common terms
are used.
to free length and number of coils.
Type of Ends
Types of ends available are: plain ends, plain ends -
- Spring Diameter ground, squaredendsand squaredends-ground (Figure
Outside diameter, inside diameter and mean diameter 5-2).To improve squarenessand reduce buckling during
- are all used to describe helical compressionspring di- operation, a bearing surface of at least 270" is required.
mensions. Mean diameter is equal to the sum of O.p. Sguared and ground springs are normally supplied with
a and I.D. divided by two, and is employed in spring de-
sign calculations for stress and deflection. The O.D. is
a bearing surface of 270 to 330". Additional grinding re-
sults in thin sections."squared ends only" are preferred
specified for springs that operate in a cavity, while the
l| I.D. is specified for springsthat operateover a rod, seat
on springs with small wire diameters (less than 0.5 mm
or 0.020), a large index (gtreaterthan 12) or low spring
a or shaft. Minimum diametral clearance between the
spring and cavity or rod is:
rates. Squared ends cost less to manufacture than
squared and ground ends.
a 0.05D - when D. is greater than 13 mm (0.512')
0.10D- when D. is less than 13 mm (0.512,)

a D. is the diameter of the rod or cavity.

Fig. 5-1. Dimensional Terminology for Helical Com-

a
I
a -T
a +r Il f",. Porolleli s m ( e p )

d L r

a I
a
an.h1
,

A
l
|
I
a
I
I nssgpffi,&gmp$ffi
 Helical CompressionSprings
Number of Coils
Total number of coils should be specified as a refer-
ence number. For springs with squaredends, the total
number of coils minus two is the number of active coils.
There is some activity in end coils, but during deflection
someactive material comesin contact with the end coils
and becomes inactive. Experience indicates that this
equation is a good approximation. The number of active
coils in springs with plain ends is greater than those with
squaredends and dependsupon the seatingmethod em-
ployed. Some useful guidelinesfor estimatingthe num-
ber of active coils are presented in Table 5-1.
Solid Height
Solid height is the length of a spring with all coils
closed. For ground springs, solid height is the number
of coils multiplied by wire diameter. For unground
springs, solid height is the number of coils plus one,
Fig. 5-2. Typesof Endsfor Helical CompressionSprings.
I
multiplied by wire diameter (Table 5-1). If critical, solid
height should be specified as a maximum dimension.
C
After allowances are made for plating or other coatings,
it is good practice to add one-half of the wire diameter
e
to determine maximum solid height. With larger wire
sizes and fewer coils, this allowancecan be decreased. e
Solid height is often measuredby applying a force equal
to 110 to l5Vo of the calculatedload at solid. If solid e
heigtrt is not critical, this dimensionshould be omitted.
Direction of Coiling e
A helical compression spring can be either left or right-
hand coiled. If the index finger of the right hand can be e
bent to simulate direction of coil; so that the fingernail
and coil tip are approximately at the same angular pos-
ition, the spring is right-hand wound (Figure 5-3). If the
e
index finger of the left hand simulatesthe coil direction,
the spring is left-hand wound. If direction of coiling is
a
not specified, springs may be coiled in either direction.
Nested springs with small diametral clearancesshould be
a
coiled in opposite directions.
I

ffi@ffiffi@
Squarenessand Parallelism
Squarenessof helical compressionspringscan be mea-
sured by standing a sample spring on end on a horizontal
a
PloinEnds
Coiled Right-hond
Squoredond Ground Ends
Coiled left-hond
flat plate and bringing the spring against a straightedge
at right angles to the plate. The spring is rotated to pro- a
duce a maximum out-of-square dimension e, (Figure
5-l). Normally squared and ground springs are square a
within 3owhen measuredin the free position. Squareness
should be checked at both ends. Specifying squareness a
or parallelism in the free position does not assuresquare-
Squoredor ClosedEnds
Not Ground, Coiled Righrhond
PloinEndsGround
Coiled Lefi-hond
ness or parallelism under load.
Parallelism (Figure 5-1) refers to the relationship of
e
the ground ends, and is determined by placing a spring
on a flat plate and measuring the maximum difference
e
Table 5-1. Guidelinesfor Dimensional Characteristicsof
Compression Springs.
in free length around the spring circumference ep.
Hysteresis
a
Ttxtqd':SS$
Hysteresis is the loss of mechanicalenergy under cy- I
Ollftior :,Oif,;1 clic loading and unloading of a spring. It results from
' ,, . , f i , . ,
c
,Di ,,,fhfu,,:,
{tr{t:,,$K[{l {G $gurd Ouly
r.sc*d
',',,,,G ,"
frictional losses in the spring support system due to a
tendency of the ends to rotate as the spring is com-
a
Solid Height (Nr + l)d (Nt + l)d pressed. Hysteresis for compressionsprings is low and
(Lr)
Ntd Ntd*
I
Fig.5-3. Direction of Coiling Helical Compression
Pitch Lr-d Lr Lr-3d Lr-2d
Springs. I

o
(p) N. Nt Na Na

Active Coils Lr-d L r r Lr-3d Lr-2d I

(NJ p p p p
I
Total Coils Na Na+l N"*2 N"+2
(Nt) (:-f
I
Free Length pNt+d pNa+3d pN6+2d -- -*--)
PNt fL---

(Lr) - ( ---- I
-- -l-
*For small index springslower solid heights are possible.
Coiled
Right-hond
Coiled
Left-hond I
I
I
(

(
ts- WA"SS;$ &ffi&ffiffi$ _ J
F
P the contribution due to internal friction in the spring
material itself is generally negligible.
Stress
HelicalCompression
Springs

Wire in a helical compressionspring is stressedin

ts Spring Rate
Spring rate for helical compression springsis defined
torsion.Torsionalstressis expressedas:

F as the changein load per unit deflection and is expressed t:H*- (s4)
as shown:
F ,r P
: - : -
G d
gD3N.
4
(s1)
Bending stressesEuepresent but can be ignored except
when the pitch angle is greater than 15oand deflection
f
t This equation is valid when the pitch angle is less than
of each coil greater thanD/4 (Reference3, page 102).
Under elastic conditions, torsional stress is not uniform

a l5o or deflection per turn is less thanD/4. For large

deflections per turn, a deflection correction factor (Re-
around the wire cross section due to coil curvature and
a direct shear load. Murimum stress occurs at the inner
surfaces of the spring and is computed using a stress
a ference 3, page 102) should be employed.
The load deflection curve for helical compression
correction factor. The most widely used stress correc-
tion factor Kwr is attributed to Wahl. It is shown below
a springsis essentially a straight line up to the elastic limit,
provided that the amount of active material is constant.
and in Figure 5-5.
4C - I
a The initial spring rate and the rate as the spring ap-
proachessolid often deviate from the averagecalculated
rate. When it is necessaryto specify a rate, it should be
r(wr:4c-4 -
0.615
c
(s-s)

a specified between two test heights which lie within 15

ro 85Voof the full deflection range (Figure 54).
In some circumstancesafter yielding occurs, resultant
stressesare distributed more uniformly around the cross
a When compressionsprings are used in parallel, the
composite rate is the sum of the rates for individual
section. Then, a stress correction factor Ks,2 which ac-
counts only for the direct shear component is used.
a springs. For compressionsprings in series, the rate is
calculatedfrom: Kwz:1+
0.5
(s4)
a k-
l l l l
(s-3)
C
In other circumstances,such as static loading at elevated
a
- J - - I -

kr kz kr"'kn temperatures, stress distribution tends to become uni-

a This relationship is often used to calculate the rate for
springs with variable diameters. The technique involves
a dividing the spring into many small increments and cal-
culating the rate for each increment. The rate for the
whole spring is computed from the rate of the increments
I according to the equation above.
a Fig. 54. Typical Load Deflection Curve for Helical
Compression Springs.
a 2.2
form around the cross section and can best be estimated
by using no correction factor. Use of different stress
correction factors can lead to confirsion. In published
data, it is essentialto know which stress correction fac-
tors were used. (The stress correction factor used by a
designer must be the same as that used to develop the
data.) Methods to calculate stress for different applica-
tions and the use of stress correction factors will be
Fig. 5-5. Wahl SrressCorrection Factorsfor Round Wtre
Helical Compressionand Extension Springs.
I I -

a ., 4C-1
Awr=4c-4-
0.615
c

a 2.0
For 2e/o set point
or fotigue

a J r.8
o
Kw2=l*t
n q

For springs with

I Y
;
't.6
set removed

a o o
I
I

a t r.4
3
{*,*'

a
a I

a 6
C=D/d

a
a Assosl$lfi8&ffi*ffiffiffiw
Helical CompressionSprings
C
discussedin the following paragraphson choice of oper- Critical buckling conditions are shown in Figure 5-7 C
ating stresses. for axially loaded springs with squared and ground ends.
Curve A is for springs with one end on a flat plate and
loads
the other end free to tip (Figure 5-8). It indicates that C
When deflection is known, loads are determined by
multiplying deflection by the spring rate (Equation 5-Z).
When the stress is known or assumed,loads are deter-
buckling will occur when the spring design is above and
to the right of the curve. A tendency for buckling is c
mined from Equation 5-4. The procedure used to deter- considerablyless for springs compressedbetweenparal-
mine loads of variable rate springs is complex. In this lel plates as shown in curve B. For applicationsrequiring C
case, the load deflection curve is approximated by a springs with a high aspect ratio and large deflections,
series of short chords. The spring rate is calculated for several springs can be used in series in a tube or over C
each chord and multiplied by deflection to obtain the a rod, with guides between the springs to prevent bind-
load. The load is then added to that calculated for the ing. C
next chord. The processis repeateduntil load has been Choice of Operating Stress - Static Conditions
calculated for the desired value of deflection (Figure For static applications, the yield strength or stress re- C
s4). laxation resistance of the material limits the load-
Loads should be specifiedat a test height. Becausethe carrying ability of a spring. The spring is required to C
load deflection curve is often not linear at very low loads operate for a limited number of cycles, and the velocity
or at loads near solid, loads should be specified at test of the end coils is low to preclude high stressesdue to
heights between 15 and 85% of the full deflection range surgtng or impact conditions. Maximum allowable tor- C
(Figure 54). sional stressfor helical compression springs usedin stat-
Loads are classified as static, cyclic or dynamic. In ic applications is presented in Table 5-2 as a percentage C
static loading applications, the spring is expected to of the tensile strength for common spring materials. For
operate between specified loads only a few times. Fre- springs that do not contain beneficial residual stresses C
quently, springs in static applications remain loaded for induced by set removal, maximum allowable torsional
long periods of time. In typical cyclic applications, stress values are from 35 to SVo of the tensile strength. C
springs are required to cycle between specified loads To calculate the stressbefore set removal, it is necessary
from 10,000to more than a billion cycles. During dynam-
ic loading, the rate of load application is high and causes
to use the Ks,1 correction factor. If the calculated stress
at solid is greater than the indicated percentageof tensile
s
a surge wave in the spring which will induce stressesthat strength, the spring will take a permanent set when de-
exceed the value calculated from Equation 5-4. flected to solid. Amount of set is a function of the
5
amount that calculated stress at solid exceeds the indi-
Buckling of Compression Springs
Compression springs that have lengths greater than cated percent of tensile strength. C
four times the spring diameter can buckle. If properly
guided, either in a tube or over a rod, buckling can be Fig. 5-7. Critical Buckling Condition Curves. C
minimized. However, friction between the spring and
tube or rod will affect the loads, especially when the 5
aspect ratio (I4lD) is high.
C
Fig. 54. Load Deflection Curve for a Variable Rate
Spring. C
CD C
0,
o
C
.9
u
q,
o
C
o
ii
o
d,
C
C
C
f1 t2 f3
Defleaion --1.
f4
C
ps = krfr + kz(fr - fr)...ks(fs- fr)
C
C
5
C
/
? Helical CompressionSprings

E
'J
To increase the load-carrying ability of springs in stat-
ic applications,it is common practice to make the spring
h longer than its required free length and to compressthe
- spring to solid. This causesthe spring to set to the de-
siredfinal length and inducesfavorable residualstresses.
- This processis called removing set or presettingand can
E\
be conducted at either room or elevated temperatures.
-, The loss of deflection from the free position to solid by
cold set removal shouldbe at least lVo.If the set is less,
- it is diffrcult to control the spring's free length. Ratios
- creep resistance. When the spring is compressed at a
of stress greater than 1.3 lead to distortion and do not
appreciably increase the load-carrying ability. This is il-
lustrated schematicallyin Figure 5-9.
Allowable torsion stressesin springswith set removed
(Table 5-2) are significantly hiefier than for springs that
have not had set removed. It is important to note that
because yielding has occurred during presetting, the
stressis relatively unifonn around the cross section and
it is calculatedusing the Kwz stresscorrection factor. Set
removal is an added springmaking operation which in-
creasesthe manufacturing cost but gfeatly increasesthe
energy storage capacity of the spring. Set removal is
common for critical springs made from premium materi-
als. In some instances, springs have the set removed
during an assembly operation.
Fig.54. End Conditions Used to Determine Critical
Buckling.
A B
End Free to Tip End FixedAgoinstTipping
P++
If the calculatedstressusing the Ks,2stress correction
factor exceedsthe percentageof tensile stength indicat-
ed in Table 5-2, the spring cannot be made. In this case,
it is necessary to either lower the stress by altering
spring design or selecting a higher strength material.
In some applications, maximum operating stress is
limited by material stress relaxation resistance and
amount of load loss that the design can tolerate. When
load is constant, these designs are limited by material
fixed test height, stress relaxation resistance of the ma-
terial is limiting. Designs limited by stress relaxation re-
sistanceaxemore common than designslimited by creep
resistance.It is suggestedthat creep-limited designsbe
reviewed by Associated Spring engineers.
Stress relaxation is defined as percent loadlossac-
cording to the following relationship:
il
= x too
vokelaxation (sJ)
T
P" is load at test height before testing.
Pr is load at test height after testing.
Typical stress relaxation data (Figure 5-10) indicate that
at high stresses, some spring materials such as music
wire exhibit appreciable stress relaxation after only 100
hours at temperatures as low as 100"C(zn"q. These
data are only representative of the conditions indicated.
Stress relaxation is affected by material, spring pro-
cessingvariables, time, temperatureand stress. Associ-
ated Spring engineers should be contacted for critical
applications involving stress rela,ration resistance.
When set is removed at an elevated temperature, the

ffi
m
ffi
process is called heat setting. It significantly improves
the stress relaxation resistance of springs (Figure 3-2,
page 16) at moderate temperatures and is frequently a
@ more cost-effective method for achieving low levels of
ry --'/A
stress relaxation than specifying a more costly spring

R rA_--

H
- V A

\\ \\\\\\ \\\
Fixed End
material.

Fig. 5-9. Spring l-oad-Carrying Ability versusAmount of

Table 5-2. Maximum Allowable Torsional Stressesfor E

HeIicaI CompressionSprings in Static Appli- o
cations. Bendingor buckling stressesnot included. E s
o .D
d c
o
Maximun EaoI Tcmile o
3n tn
Mitsrirk ::..,B rc.r5tl r $ct 0.6 StressesAre
o o
,{Ktvi} Erurgrcd fi[#r] tt Colculoted
g

Patented and cold 60-70 o

o 0.4 At Solid.
o
drawn carbon steel
.t1
Hardenedand tempered 65-75
carbon and low allov ol 0.2
d,
steel
Austenitic stainless 55-65
steels 1. 0 r.l r.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
\onferrous allovs 55-65 Stress Before Set Removol c
"t:ffi:i,

Assog&ifi8
f&ffi#ffiffis
ffi
Helical CompressionSprings C
Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic Applications Stressesare calculated using Equation 5-4 and are:
C
In cyclic applications, the load-carrying ability of a
spring is limited by material fatigue strength. Velocity of
end coils is low compared to the natural frequency. To
s=#r*, Sr : 232 MPa C
Sz : 810MPa
selectthe optimum stresslevel, it is necessaryto balance
spring cost versus reliability. Reducingoperating stress- S, : 955 MPa C
es increasesspring reliability as well as cost. A complete
Tensile strength of the wire is 2180MPa (Figure 3-3, page
knowledge of operating environment, expected life,
19). The stress at solid is 44Voof the tensile strength.
C
stressrange, frequency of operation, speedof operation
Referring to Table 5-2, the maximum stress allowable
and permissible levels of stress relaxation are required
before sit removal for ASTM A228 is 45% of tensile C
in order to make the best choice between cost and reli-
ability. strength. Therefore, the spring can be made and does not
Becausemaximum stress is at the wire surface, any
require set removal. C
To estimate the fatigue life, it is necessary to:
surface defects such as pits or seams severely reduce
fatigue life. Shot peening improves fatigue life and min- C
l. Plot an S-N curve on a modified Goodman diagram
imizes the harmful effect of surface defects, but it does (Figure 5-11) using the data from Table 5-3 for not-
not totally remove them. shol-peened springs and a tensile strength of 2180
C
Maximum allowable design stressesfor fatigue appli- MPa.
cations should be calculated using the Kwr correction C
factor and are shown for common spring materials in 2. Plot point A on the 45" line at 67Voof the tensile
Table 5-3. These values are for a stress ratio of 0 in an strength. C
ambient environment with no surging. Note that shot
peeningincreasesthe fatigue strength by as mudr asZVo 3. Plot the stressrange coordinates, point B. C
at lives of 10 million cycles.
Values in Table 5-3 are guidelines for designers and 4. Estimate the life by drawing a line through AB. At the
shouldonly be used in the absenceof specific data. Most intersection of this line with the vertical axis, point C, C
' draw a horizontal line to intersect a S-N curve. The
springsdesignedto recommendedstress levels will ex-
ceedthe indicated lives; however, in the absenceof de- point of, interse'Jon, D, is the estimated life of C
tailed information on material, manufacturing method 2,500,000cycles.
and operating conditions, it is not possible to quantify C
the reliability level. -When Loading - Impact
Dynamic
a spring is loaded or unloaded, a surge wave is
Fatigue Life Estimation Example established which transmits torsional stress from the C
Fatigue life at other stress ratios can be determined point of loading along the spring length to the point of
from Table 5-3 according to the procedures outlined in iestraint. The surg wave travels at a velocity approxi-- s
Section 4. A short example illustrates the procedure: mately I / l0 of a normal torsional stress wave. Velocity of
Estimate the fatigue life of a not-shot-peened helical the torsional stresswave (V1) is given by: C
compression spring loaded sinusoidally at a rate of one i: I=
cycle per second.The spring is flooded with oil and oper- Vr = 10.1./9
- - Y
p
m/sec (or) Vr : ./9
Y p
in./sec 64) C
ates at a maximum temperature of 40'C (104"F). The ma-
terial is ASTM A228 wire and ends are squared and Velocity of the surge wave V. varies with material and C
ground. The design is given here:
spring design, but is usually in the range of 50 to 500
d = 1.00mm (0.039')
C = 8
m/sec. The surge wave limits the rate at which a spring
can absorb or release energy by limiting impact velocity
s
I+ = 20.5 mm (ref) (0.807')
Lr : 17.5mm (0.689?
V. Impact velocity is the spring velocity parallel to the s
Lz: l0 mm (0.394') Tabte 5-3. Maximum Allowable Tbrsional Stesses for
L,:8mm(0.315') Round Wire Helical CompressionSprings in C
Cyclic Applications.
Nt:8
Pcrccat af Ttuih S&eagth
c
Spring rate is determined from equation:
o=3'2Nimm
*$rll{ A?p8',*s C
t= GEtr
, d . f*tiglrr
Llfr {*yrhr}
$teinllrs $e?clrtrd
l{mfrrrous
A$TM AEN d Al3Z

tlot Shot 'fu.', llld;$hot-, shd. C

Loads are calculated from the deflections and found to F*ilrrd f*md f,,e,nd PoGnGd
be: I$5 36 4? at 49
P , : ( 2 0 . 5- 1 7 . 5 )x 3 . 2 : 9 . 6 N
P 2: ( 2 0 . 5- 1 0 . 0 )x 3 . 2 : 3 3 . 6N
P , = ( 2 0 . 5- 8 ) x 3 . 2 : 4 0 N
t06
r$?
J ''J

3{1
39
3S
*0
t?,
This information is basedon the following conditions:no surging,room
4?
4S

temperatureand noncorrosiveenvironment-

ratioin fatigue= Pi,lil+
Stress =g
s maxlmum

wnsso5ff1ffi
,'ffi,m*ffirys I
7 Helical Compression Springs

- Fig. 5-10. Spring RelaxationDataforVarious Materials. Springswerepresetat roomtemperature

andtestedlM hourso
indicatedtemperatures.
Theinitial stressis Kwtcorrected.
= MusicWire,ASTM4228, 1.57 mm (0.062") StoinlessSreel302 Wire, ASTMA313, 1.57 mm (.062")

rl40 140
-
r30 r30
- r20
? 8oo
? 3
o- CL

! 7oo = o

e ar,

=
s
l-roo3
o
v,
o
tn
o
a.n
600
a l-80 s
o

s00
-
400
-

a 5 r 0 1 5
Reloxolion, Lmd Loss (o/o)
2 0
Reloxolion, Lood Loss (o/o)

-
Wire,ASTMA401, 1.57 ro 3.76 mm (0.062,'toO.l4S").
Chrome-Silicon ChromiumVonodiumWire, ASTMA232, 1.57 io 3.76 mm (0.062"to 0. 140")
r000
140 l-140
-
I

r30
t *9 i

i-r20

llo i. ll0 .
al 0
4
= =
roo3 i-rooI
t rtl o
rt
g*" 1,.j
9 0 ;
a 8 0 =
E =

a 70

60
tt
a s 10
Reloxotion,LoodLoss("/o)

a CorbonVolve SpringWire, ASTM A230, l. 57 to 3.76 mm (0.062"ro 0.148,,) InconelAlloy X 750 Wire, 1.93mm (0.075')

a i

t
l

,
I

rD
r20
a ilo?
i ^
t oi-----<,-
t, e/
'100
=

a tt
v,

a 70

a 60

50

a r5 5 r 0 r 5 2 0
Reloxolion, Lood Loss (o/o)
2 5

a
a
 C
Helical ComPressionSPrings
high velocities are frequently subject to resonance
phe- C
spring axis and is a function of stress and material con-
-'Wh;; (page 39).
nomena
stants shown as: itreiatio'of the weight to be accelerated to the C
IT weijtrt of the spring is lesslhan 1, surge-wave theory
(or)V = tV#
v = 10.tt{ft m/sec in./sec(s4) ;";;;"iy frea-icls-design performance
(Figure 5-12). C
Ai frigtt iveight ratios and lower velocities, an energy
is ujed to predict velocity of a weight projected
This is a surprising result becauseimpact velocity and t"d;
of the spring when -
th;- rprng "ia o, deflection
stress are independentof the spring configuration. For il;-
velocity and deflection are re-
u ."rr.
steels, impact velocitY reduces to: i.pu.t"o
lated as:
uv C
V:*m/sec (or) v:*in./sec 6-tot ( s- 11) C
For horizontal loading:

If a spring is compressedto a given stress level and

C
releasediistantanebusly, the maximum spRqg velocity r: 3l.ovfY.- (or) r: v,ffii"'
il;6;;rseo as tti stressdivided by 35.5. Similarly, if C
u tpting is loaded at a known velocity, instantaneous
stresscin be calculated.At very high loading velocities, For vertical loading:
(s-12)
C
instantaneous stress will exceed the stress calculated
from the conventional static formula (Equation 5-4) and - / w+ w mm (or) f : v{*[ - m + w m' . C
*ifi fitnit design performance. Thesg equatigns for im- r: 31.6v#i u 1-
pu.t u.focity are bttt' concerned with the_primary surge C
*uu". Frequently, this wave will reflect from the other w/g is the mass that is being accelerated or decelerated
at
end of the-spring, in.t."ring stress. Springs loaded "nO-V is the axial velocity of the spring' 5
Fig. 5-11. Modified Goodman Diagram for Estimating
Fatigue Ltfe' C
Minimum Stress(103Psi)
C
c
c

:=
4
o
A o
=
o

o
tn ttl

E
x
E E
t
.E
x
c
c
o o
= 2

c
C
C
(

(
StressCycles
(

I

These equations assumethat the spring is massless
and should only be used when the spring mass is less
then 114 of the mass to be acceierated.
When the ratio of spring load to weight is less than
4. the energy required to acceleratethe spring itself be-
comes appreciable. By assuming that all mass of the
springis concentratedat the moving end, Equations5-10
and l-l I can be corrected by substituting (W + W,/3)
for W where W, is the spring weight.
Qnamic Loading - Resonance
Resonanceoccurs in a spring when the frequency of
the cyclic loading is near natural spring frequency or a
multiple of it. Resonancecan increase individual coil
deflectionand stresslevels well above amountspredict-
ed by static or equilibrium analysis. Resonancecan also
causespring bounce, which results in loads considerably
lower than calculated at the minimum spring deflection.
To avoid resonance,natural spring frequency should be
at least i3 times the operating frequency.
The natural frequency of a compressionspring ls ln-
versely proportional to the time required for a surge
wave to traverse the spring. For a compression spring
without damping and with both ends fixed:
" : %#,ry' n: $fi!}
rorsteel
n = gD2N" ,./qg: for steelrr:
\ p ffiF
n is in hertz.
If a spring cannot be designedso the natural frequency
is more than 13 times operating frequency, or if the
springis to serve as a vibration damping device, it must
utilize one of several methods of energy absorption.
Generally,these are friction devices in which the spring
rubs against another element such as an internal damp-
er coil, arbor, housing or another portion of the spring.
Variablepitch springs and springs in combination aie
also occasionally used to avoid or minimize resonant
frequencyeffects.
Fig. 5-12. Velocity of an Object Propelled by a Com-
pression Spring.
1.4
I For moss rotios of :
I t
\\
| | Under - use cose (3)
t l
Helical CompressionSprings
For a vibration isolation system, the essential char-
acteristic is that the natural frequency of the spring-
mass system be as far as possible from the disturbing
frequency. Filtering of disturbing forces may be calcu-
lated as:
% offorce transmitted: +, x 100 6-14)
(na/n)'- I
where no is the frequency of the disturbingforce and n
the natural frequency of the spring-masssystem (Figure
5-13).
If rq/n is lessthan l, the denominatorin Equation 5-14
should be changed to I - (no/n)2. Note that the fre-
quency n in this equation is the frequencyof the spring-
mass system and not the natural spring frequency. In
fact, the most commonly used equation neglecti the
splng weight and is only deflection dependenr.The gen-
eral equation is:
15'8
n: .E metric(or) n: j,p ensrirn6-ts)
7r YP
Special Springs
(s-r3) Previously in this section, design considerationsfor
round wire helical compression springs of uniform diam-
metric eter were discussed.These design techniquesare mod-
ified below and applied to many special spring configura-
tions. Special springs are chosen to fulfill a unique set
l4oood F
English of design criteria. Springs from rectangular wire and
stranded wire as well as variable diameter springs with
conical, hourglassand barrel shapes,zlrdiscussedbe-
low. Helpful guidelines for nested springs are also re-
viewed.
RectangUlar Wire
In applications where space is limited and particularly
where solid height is restricted, springs designedfrom
rectangularor keystonedwire are often selected.Associ-
ated Spring manufactures hundreds of rectangular wire
spring designs.These springs are commonly referred to
as die springs and are available for immediate delivery.
Fig. 5-13. Transmissibilityof Spring Mounting.
Over 4 - use cose (i )
l -4 - use cose (2)
'l
\o
t 9 1
I

4
1.0
\ Concenirole d Moss Theory (2) |
5 r
sts 'Er
ot J-- x l0O = 7o of Force
e
F fl!\'- I tronsmitted
Spring Theory(l ) \ n / | l
\Mortt"ss
* 0.6

0.4
t
Vo = Velocity
l
<
Vm = Moximum Velocity
3.0 3.5
2 3
Moss Roiio PiW,

Asso(;iated,r.* y!'n,T3
Sprinq r'l.##*trile#$
Helical CompressionSprings C
Springs made from rectangular wire, with the width of Stranded Wire Springs
the rectangle perpendicular to the spring axis, store more Long springs with many coils, when subjected to higb G
energy in a smaller space than equivalent round wire rates of load application Etsin automatic weapons, en-
springs. Even though stressdistribution around the rect- counter shock wave motion and can literally be torn G
angular cross section is not as uniform as the round wire apart. Stranded-wire springs are often the most success-
section, the energy storage capacity is higher because ful solution to such problems because of the frictional C
more material can be incorporated into the allocated resistancebetween the strands.
space.Rectangularwire is more costly than round wire, To function properly, the helix of a spring must be G
but less costly than keystoned wire. Keystoned wire is opposite in direction to the helix of the strands, so that
processed specially so that deformation during spring the strandsbind together when the spring is compressed. G
winding or coiling causes the cross section to become The stranded-wire spring may be wound with 2, 3 or
approximately rectangular. Distortion of the cross sec- more strands. Springs with four or more strands are
tion can be estimatedfrom the equationpresentedin Fig- made with a center wire core to assure necessary stabil- G
ure 5-14. However, distortion dependsupon the manu- ity. Ends should be soldered,brazed or welded to pre-
facturing technique employed and this equation is at best vent unraveling. G
an approximation. Axial dimensional change of the wire Recognizingthat a stranded-wire spring can be consid-
must always be consideredwhen calculating solid heights ered as single-wire springs aranged in parallel, spring C
of rectangularsprings. rate is derived on the basis given by:
The rate for a compression spring made from rectan-
KnGda
G
gular wire is expressedas follows: ,
*:
8DN G
k: p/r=ffi*, (s-r7)
where K : correction factor and n = number of strands.
For a three-strand spring, K = 1.05. G
Since the wire is loaded in torsion, the rate is the same
whether the wire is wound on flat or on edge (Figure Fig. 5-15. RectangularWire CompressionSpring Wound G
5-15). Values for the constant K2 are shown in Figure on Flat or Edge.
5-16. Stressis expressedas:
-l till. G
- T r nI l.-
s--*ftr,or#*. (s-r8)
| | rt
I
_lSpringWound
c- = 9
-
?t t l ; < t
Values for Kr are shown in Figure 5-16, while values *
t 1l - D h a cI i . i i l , ' - - -
l l l C
for the stress correction factor for springs wound on the
flat (Kr) and springs wound on edge (K.) are shown in C
Figure 5-17 and 5-18. When rectangular wire is produced
by rolling round wire or if the cross section of the wire I
t tF
deviates significantly from a rectangle, additional correc- t
Dt2-*, S p r i n g W o u n d " = 9
-
-
On Edge b
tion factors are required. Whenever a round wire cannot
be usedbecausethe solid height exceedsspecifications,it l*-u- C
is possibleto try a rectangularwire coiled on edgewhere:
C
,- _ L Fig.5-16. Constantsfor Rectangular Wire in Torsion.
l+b/t
il
C
and d is equal the wire diameter for the equivalent round
wire spring. A typical value for a width to thick- l0 C
nessratio of 2 may be assumedin the initial design calcu-
lations. C
Fig. 5-14. Wire Cross Section Before and After Coiling C
I
Keyslone Rectongulor
b
K2
/r, C
Before
l-l Spring I-]
l l /
Coiling Axis
/ / C
b1
/ /
After
Coiling l-l l-l
l l
C
I
0
C
0.r0 0.20 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
t,=t(C+'5)
c K' ondK, C
C
C
ffiAssogFifig
/#i, R**Fs I
7 Helical CompressionSprings

=, An approximation for torsional stress in each wire of Yariable Diameter Springs

the strand is given by Equation 5-4: Conical, hourglass and barrel-shaped springs (Figure
5-19) are used in applications requiring a low solid
- height, increasedlateral stability or resistance to surgxng.
8PD--
S =;;l(qr1
Conical springs can be designed so that each coil nests
=l wholly or partly into an adjacent coil. Solid height can

=r Maximum allowable stress after set removal should

not exceed 55 to 60% of the material tensile strength.
be as low as one wire diameter. Rate for conical springs
usually increases with deflection (Figure 5-20) because
Wire diameter (d,) for a single strand in a stranded wire the numberof active coils decreasesprogressivelyas the
? spring is less than the wire diameter for a monolithic spring approaches solid. By varying the pitch, conical
springs can be designedto have a uniform rate. Rate for
spring with the same mean diameter and rate.
? lr,lumber of Strands Wire Size
conical springsis calculated,as indicated previously, by
consideringthe spring as many springs in series. Rate for
a 2
3
d, greaterthan 0.79 d
d. greaterthan 0.69 d
each turn or fraction of a turn is calculated using Equa-
tion 5-2. Rate for a complete spring is then determined,
a 4
Stress in the stranded-wire spring is also less than the
d, greaterthan 0.63 d remembering that the spring rate follows the series rela-
tionship given previously in Equation 5-3.
To calculate the highest stress at a given load, the
il
a stress in an equivalent monolithic spring. mean diameter of the largest active coil at load is used.
Solid height of a uniformly tapered, but not telescoping,
Fig, 5-17. Stress Correction Factors for Rectangular
- Wire Compression SpringsWound on FIat. spring with squared and ground ends made from round
wire can be estimated from:
a r.5 Lr:N".,ffi +2d (5-re)
\
=) \ where u : the O.D. large end minus the O.D. small end
a :
t
1.4
divided by 2N".

I Fig.5-19. Typical Conical, Barrel and Hourglass

lD v
; 1.3 -c=,1
SpringsRespectively.

a .9

3 1.2

a
o
I
C=8
C- l0

a C- l2

ID
r.0
't.5
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
I 4.0

I Rotio b/t

a Fig. 5-18. ,StressCorrection Factors for Rectangular

Wire Compression Springs Wound on Edge. Fig. 5-20. Typical Load Deflection Curve for Variable
Diameter Springs (Solid Line).
a 1.5

a \
\
: 1.4
E) g \

a Y

! 1 . 3\
\
\
\
\
I
C=3
a .9
g r.2 \

a
N
o I
I
\ C=4
-14
\
a \
\
\
\
\
C=10-
C=6

-:y
t 1.0
\
'r.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
C=12

a Rotio b/t

a Assogslfig
lhff*ffiffisffi
Helical CompressionSprings C
Designing a variable diameter spring so that adjacent achieve tighter tolerances. If the application requires G
coils rub against one another during deflection increases tighter tolerances,the required tolerancelevels should be
resistanceto resonancephenomenabut may also shorten discussedwith an Associated Spring engineer.
spring life due to wear. For fatigue applications, spring life is often specified. G
Barrel and hourglass springs are calculated as two Unless otherwise stated, life is interpretedas the Srolife.
conical springs in series. This is the life at which 9Vo of the springs are expected -
Variable Pitch to survive with a 50Voconfidence level basedon Weibull
Variable pitch springs (Figure 5-21) are used to analysis. C
achieve a variable rate similar to that shown in Figure Acceptable Quality l-cvel (AQL)
5-20 or in dynamic applications where the cyclic rate of Quaitv levels are often expressed by an AQr, (for C
load application is near the natural spring frequency. As example MIL-STD-l05, Sampling hocedures and Ta-
turns of lesser pitch becomeinactive during deflection, bles for Inspection by Attributes). Only critical attributes G
the natural frequency of a spring changes. Throughout should be subject to an AQL on the drawing. Unneces-
the cycle, the spring has a spectrum of frequency re- sarily tight AQL's will increase manufacturing and in- C
sponseand not a single resonantfrequency. Thus, surg- spection costs. If tolerances must be close for proper
ing and spring resonance Ere minimized. functioning and if, for instance, nonconforming parts can C
Nested Compression Springs be discarded at assembly, a standard AQL will min-
imize the parts cost. Springs assembled automatically
Helical compressionspringsare often used in combi-
often require tight AQL on dimensions, while springs
C
nation becauseof spacelimitations and resonancecon-
used in instruments and critical machines often require
siderations.A nest of compressionsprings can store
more energy but will have lower natural frequencies tieht AQL on loads and life. A close liaison between C
than a single equivalent spring. Nested springs are not Aisociated Spring engineers and the designerduring de-
recommendedwhen the diametral space is so restricted sign and prototype phases is the best way to ensure C
that a single spring would have an index of 5 or less. optimum quality.
The following design practicesapply to nestedsprings: Packaging C
Normally, compression springs and other custom
1. To prevent internesting,the springs should be wound parts are packaged in bulk. Compression springs with C
alternately left and right-hand. high pitch angles and large indexes are subject to tan-
2. Clearancebetween springsmust be at least twice the gling. Tangling not only makes it diffrcult to separate -
diameter tolerance. springs upon arrival but can also cause distortion. Spe-
ciA pictcigrne systemssuch as the Spring FlowrM system
where springs are packaged in rows (Figure 5-22) is one
C
3. The most efficient distribution of load between indi-
vidual springs varies with their indexes and the clear- method to prevent tangling. Another method is to place C
ances between them. For a first approximation in de- springs on adhesive-coatedcomrgated panels. There are
signing a nest with two springs,one-third of the load
should be on the inner spring and two-thirds on the Toble54. Free Length Tolerances of Squared and
c
outer spring. Ground Helical CompressionSprings.
C
4. Solid heights and free heights should be about the I!*ur*lbar of ffinrmt* t:rntu/nm {h.ltn,} of fr&cril
same for all springs. Aeli?e Coi.l'*
par rnrfi{in.}
C
These practices result in springswith approximately the
4 * E ro t2 T{ ,5

same index.
0.02
(0.5) 0.010 0 . 0 1 l 0.012 0.013 0.015 0.0r6 0.016 C
Commercial Tolerances
Standard commercial tolerancesfor free length, diam-
0.04
(l) 0 . 0 1 l 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 C
eter and load are presentedin Tables 54, 5-S and 5{. 0.08
Tolerance on squarenessis 3o. These tolerances repre- (2) 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.019 0.020 0.022 0.023 C
sent a good trade-off between manufacturing costs and 0.2 0.016 0.018 0.021 0.023 0.024 0.026 0.027
performance in most applications. Certain premium (4) C
spring materials and processingmethods can be used to 0.3 0.019 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.030 0.032
Fig. 5-21. Typical Variable Pitch Helical Compression
(E) C
0.5 0.02r 0.024 0.027 0.030 0.032 0.034 0.036
Spring. (12)
C
0.6 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038
(16)
0.8
C
(20) 0.023 0.027 0.031 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.040
for 12-7
For springsless than 12.7mm (0.500) long, use-the-tolerances C
mm (0.500). For closedends ndt glound, multiply abovevaluesby 1.7'
C
5
s
I
l. HelicalCompression
Springs

b !r'n:nl other packagingmethodsused to prevent tangling

and reduce shipment bulk.
D = 38.0- 4.2- 33.8mm
c =? = # : 8 . 0
I'b Em to Specitv
Tbere are many ways to specify compressionsprings.
Becauserhe number of variablesis large, it is useful for
the designerto usethe specificationchecklist on the next
Rate= k =
59- ?-T:22.5
-5060-
N/mm
Gd4
a page to be sure that all critical aspects are specified.
Compression Spring Desrgn Example
N":
8m
(7.93 x 104)(4.2)o
a Given: Squaredand ground compressionspring to work
in a hole DH : 40 mm (1.575')and exert Pr:275 N (61.8
" =-
|rJ"
8G3*8n22i)
= 3.55

lbfl at a height of Lt : 60 mm (2.362') and Pz : 500 N B. Find amount of space left between L2 and L5:
I t lll lbf) at a height of Ia : 50 mm (l .96y). Application: 1. Compareto f2.
sadc at room temperature. Material: oil tempered wire
D ASTI1 N29. Spring must not set when compressedto
2. Find the corrected stress at solid height.
3. Compare to tensile strength of material. See Figure
a solid height.
A. First estimatethe wire diameter by solving equation
3-3, page 19.

a (Equation A, page33) using approximatevalues for

unknown factors and Kq,1= 1.
L , : 5 . 5 5x 4 . 2 : 2 3 . 3
,
I4:
P,
* Lt :
)1\
+ 60 :72'2 mm
a Then, calculateO.D. and D.
Substitute this wire size in the load deflection equation
kt zL:t
fz: 72.2- 50 : 22.2mm
a (Equation 5-2, page 33) and solve for N". Repeat this
process until a satisfactory solution is obtained.
Lz - L, : 50 - 23.3:26.7 mm
f, = 72.2 - 23.3 : 48.9 mm
a l. Rearrangng Equation 5-4 for uncorrected stress:
15%of 48.9 : 7.3 mm
a T PD
A _: vlz.ss
o 4C - l .615
K w r :f f i + 1.18
l. Assum" ,.nril. strength of ASTM Al2}gis 1500MPa a:=
!D and S: = 700 MPa uncorrected: P , : f . x k : 4 8 . 9 x 2 2 . 5 : 1 1 0 0N
'/ffi,
I d - r r - - T . ! r r l l l l
Y 700 cr :_ 2.55P,D__-_ (2.55)(il00)(33.8)(1.18)
b'
-5-K*t
a 3. For clearance,assumeO.D. :0.95 Ds:
O.D. : 0.95x 40 : 38.0 mm
: 1510MPa
4 . Tensile strength of 4.2 mm diameter wire : 1400
a Tablc 5-5. Coil Diameter Tolerances of Helical Com-
pressionand Extension Springs.
MPa. Before set is removed,ma:cimumallowable tor-
sionai stress is 5Vo of TS or 700 MPa (Table 5-2,
I Wirc Tolemmffr: t:mm:,(lui) page 35). S, = 1510is greater than 700 MPa, and the
spring will set.
a IXa.,
E(iD.)
4
$pring lrdn {D/d}
t 6
IB L2 l{ t6
C . Because (L, - L,) : 26.7> 0.15f, :7.3, there is
more spaceavailable. Try a larger preferred wire size
I 0.38 0.05 0.05 0.08 0 . 1 0 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 5 0 . l E
( 0 . 0 1 t (0.002) (0.002)(0.003)(0.004) (0.00s) (0.006) (0.007)
(Table 3{, page 20) of 4.8 mm.
TS = 1400MPa, D : 38.0- 4.8 : 33.2mm, C = 6.9
I 0.58 0.05 0.08 0 .1 0 0 . 1 5 0 . 1 8 0.20 0.25
r0.023) (0.002) (0.003)(0.004)(0.006) (0.007)(0.008)(0.010) N":
(7.93x l0a)(4.8y
: 6.4
0.E9 0.05 0 . 1 0 0 . 1 5 0 . l E 0.23 0.28 0.33
8(33.2)3
Qz.s)
t r0.035)(0.m2) (0.004)(0.006) (0.007) (0.00e) (0 .0 1 l )(0.013) L, : 8.4 x 4.8 : 40.3mm
1.30 0.08 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 8 0.25 0.30 0.38 0.43
t (0.05r) (0.003) (0.005) (0.007) (0.010)(0.012)(0.0r5) (0.017)
1.93 0.10 0.lE 0.25 0.33 0 . 4 1 0.48 0.53
Lz-L.:50-40.3:9.7mm
f, = 72.2- 40.3 - 31.9mm
a (0.076) (0.004) (0.007) (0.010)(0.013)(0.016) (0.019) (0.021)
:.90 0 . 1 5 0.23 0.33 0.46 0.53 0.9 0.74 (Lz - L,) : 9.7 > 0.15f, = 4.8 mm

a r 0 . 1 1 4 (0.006)
1.y
) (0.00e)(0.013)(0.01E) (0.021)(0.025)(0.029)
0.20 0.30 0.43 0.58 0 .7 1 0.84 0.97
( 0 . 1 7 1 )(0.008) (0.012)(0.017)(0.023) (0.028)(0.033)(0.038)
P, : (31.9)(22.5)
= 718N
(+X6.e)_l*#:r.zz
a 6.3,( 0.28 0.38 0.53 0 . 7 1 0.90 1.07 1.24
(0.250) ( 0 . 0 1 l )(0.01s) (0.021) (0.028) (0.035) (0.042) (0.049)
rawt=(4x6.9)-4-et=

a 9.53 0.41 0 . 5 1 0.66 0.94 t.l7 1.37 1.63

( 0 . 3 7 t (0.016) (0.020) (0.026) (0.037) (0.046) (0.054) (0.064) s , - @ : 6 7 t (4.8)'
Mpa
t 11.70 0.53 0.76 r.02 r.57 2.03 2.54 3 . 1 8
r0.500) ( 0. 021)(0.030) (0.040)(0.062)(0.0E0)(0.100) (0.12s) S. : 671MPaot x loo - 48voof rS
ffi
a
a Assos$tf;g& wB
ffi*ffirys
Helical CompressionSprings C
C
COMPR,ESSION CHECKLIST
SPRINGSPECIFICATION Frequency of looding
(Fill in requireddoto only) Required life cYcles'
C
Moteriol: Required reliobility (see Section 4)

Wo*ing Conditions: Speciol Informotion:

C
To work in
To work over
m(in.) diometer hole
m(in. dismeter shoft
Squoreness Porollelism C
Finish
Lood (1b0,* tl (lb0 Moximum operoting fem Peroture
Operoting environment
:c("F)
c
x (tbO Electricol/ mognetic
C
Rote -N/mm (lbf/in.), t -N/mm (lbf/in.) Design Dofo (Reference):
between -rnm(in.) qnd -mm(in.) -
Wire diometer
Moximum solid height mm(in.)
Direction of coil (right-hond, left-hond or opfionol) -
Outside diom
lnside diometer
C
Type of ends
Alfowobfe reloxotion -o/o Hours/doys -
Free length
Totol number of coils
mm(in.)
5
lmpoct looding mm/sec (in./sec)
C
Tablc 54. Load Tolerancesof Helical CompressionSprings.
C
r"*,l""*'*qb."r1yrd..y{,*t
Tl.e.rypry|,]:i , l.Y'H.bl,f:
X.*ugth
Tskrarr*
, fien f,romfre*,,I
.:I ,,to',.[ , mm {in.) C
::mm {in.} 'l;3;7' ?.54 3,*r. 5"S0 ,,f,$$ "V,67, 10.2 1:,7 '19*,1 "28*, t*.1 fO;il,.,'l?6 ,,.1,.i,ltrEl ,,:1 ,:
,'
(s.s3o){0,ltr} {0,1$6} {0"m,}{0,2sJ t0.300)(0.400,1{ 0 } {s-.?50}{r;tr} (r (2'ffi1 {,s,;} {*$1 {6iffi} C
0.13(0.00s) ,:
0.25(0.010)
7.
t2.
6.
8.5
5.
7. 6.5 l.s 5.
C
0.51(0.020) 22. 15.5 t2. 10. 8.s 7. 6.
5
0.76(0.030) T4 t2. 9.5 8 6. 5
1.0 (0.040) ? 17.
22. r8
))
1 5 . 5 12. l0 7.5 6
7
s
5.5 5
r.3 (0.050) 19. 14.5 12 9.

1 . 5 (0.060)
! 22. 17. l4 10. 8 6.
6.5
5.
).)
5
1 . 8 (0.070) 25. 19.5 l6 11. 9
12.5 10 7.5 6.
2 .0 (0.080) 22. l8
E
2.3 (0.0e0) 20. 14. 1l 8. 6 5.
2.s (0.100)
5.1 (0.200) : ? 15.5 t2
22
8.5 7
1 5 . 5 t2
5.5
8.5 7.
s
7.6 (0.300)
10.2 (0.400) ? 17
2l
t2. 9.5 7 .
1 5 . t2. 8.5
s
12.7 (0.500) 25 18.5 14.5 10.5
s
Firstloadtestat not lessthanl5Voof availabledeflectron. Again referring to Table 5-2, page35, it is clear that the
Finalload test at not morethan85%of availabledeflection. spring can be made without presetting. Tolerances are s
obtaineOfrom Tables 54, 5-5 and 5-5. The final design
Fis.5-22. Tansled Helical CompressionSprings (Left) becomes: s
and-Spring Flow P ackaging. Final Design Specifications:
Material: ASTM A229
C
Wire Diameter d: 4.8 mm (0.189) Reference
O.D.: 38.0 -r 0.4 mm (1.500+ 0.050)
C
Free Length I-r: 72.2 mm (2.843') Reference
Test Height Lr: 60 mm (2.362') 5
Test Height Lz: 50 mm (1.96Y)
Pr Load at Lr: 275 N (61.8 lbO = ll.0% 5
Pz Load at L2: 500 N (112 lbO =7Vo
. Final Design StressS,: 671 MPa (97,300psi) or 48%TS
N,: 8.4
s
c
C
 HelicalExtension
7
Springs I
D
a
a
a
a
a
I

I
I
I
I

o"tF'!fi349*nrrs
!t
HelicalExtensionSprings
Introduction
Helical extension springs store energy and exert a pul-
ling force. Usually, they are made from round wire and
are close-wound with initial tension. Typical applications
includetape cassetteplayers,balancescales,toys, garage
doors, auiomatic waJhing machines and various types of
spring tensioning devices
-
Helical extension springs are stressed in torsion in the
body. Design proceduresfor the body are similar to those
discussedpleviously for compressionsprings(Section5)
with the following major exceptions. Most helical exten-
sion springs are coiled with initial tension, equal to the
minimum force required to separateadjacent coils. Heli-
cal extension springs do not normally have set removed.
Furthermore, untit<e compression springs, extension
springs do not have a solid stop to prevent overloading.
For thesereasons,designstresslevels are generally lower
for extension than for compression springs. A special
type of extension spring, known as a drawbar spring (fig-
url 7-1), has a solid stop. It is essentiallya compression
spring with special hooks.
Fig.7-1. Drawbar Spring Provides a Solid Stop.
Fie. 74. Load Deflection Curvefor a Helical Extension
Spring with Initial Tension.
t
C
The pulling force exerted by an extension spring body C
is tranimitted to mating parts througfi hooks or loops.
When stressesin the hooks are higher than in the spring
body, the hooks limit spring performance.
C
Alsociated Spring includes hundreds of different ex-
tension spring designs with full twist loops in its SPEC .
line of stbck iprings. These extension springs are made
from.either music wire or stainless steel and are pre- C
engineeredto meet a wide range of applications.
Initiat Tension
C
Initial tension in an extension spring is rneasured ac-
cording to the procedure illustrated in Figure 7-2. T\e C
linear portion of the load deflection curve is extrapolatgf
to zero deflection. The point of intersection on the ordi- .
nate is initial tension Pr. The amount of initial tension
that can be put into a spring depends upon its index,
material, method of manufacture and postcoiling stress-
c
relief treatment. Occasionally, in critical applications
.
when stress is high, a high stress-relief'temperatureis
required to minimize unfavorable residual stresses due
to Loiling or forming the hooks. High temperature stress
e
relief reduces the amount of initial tension. Typical val-
ues of initial tension are shown in Figure 7-3. High C
strength materials such as small diameter music wire are
able io support higher levels of initial tension than low c
strength materials such as large diameter hard-drawn
wire. a
Types of Ends
-Extension
springs require a method of attachment to C
other parts in an assembly. A wide variety of ends has
c
Fig.7-3. Torsional StressDue to Initial Tension as a
Function of Index in Helical Extension
Springs.
e
300 C
c
275

250 3 5 A c
Lood (P) t 22s
I
I c
| :
P1 30 8.
=3 2oo
U =
t v
A
t o
o -
to " c
O

c
gg t7s 2s E .g
9 c C
9 c
j f rso 5 P
o . 9
U|.=
20;E
g s
I
Deflection(f) 3s 125 .n
r s . E TC
tn ; 6
;tg
.ET roo
I t
E
p 6
I t
I
7s l0
50
c
25 I
l0 12 I4 l6
I
lndex--+
I
(
I
 HelicalExtensionSprings
been developed and used successfullyfor many years - Stressesin loops are often higher than in the spring
for example,threadedinserts, swivel hooks, twisi loops, body. This limits spring performance, particularly in cy-
side loops, cross-center loops and extended hooks. clic applications. Generous bend radii in loops and re-
l-oops are attachment ends that have small gaps (Figure duced end coil diameters are two methods frequently
-{).
while hooks.are loops with a large gap. In fact, the employed to reduce stresses.In a full twist loop, stress
'ariet-v-of ends is almost unlimited. The most common reachesa maximum at point A in bending and a maxi-
configurations are those that can be formed during the mum in torsion at point B (Figure 7-5). Stress at these
springmaking operation. Typical types include twist, locations is complex, but can be estimatedwith reason-
crosscenter, side loops and extendedhooks (Figure 74). able accuracy by:
Man), of these configurations are made by bending the
last coils of an extension spring to form loops. Most se: S*, - t-rt
special hooks are formed from straight sectioni of wire #bending
on the so-called "tangent ends" of an extension spring
body. lRr
? t -:4+Ctt 2
whereK f f- Ci at - tn d c r : ?
Guidelines for the lengths of common loops are
presented in Figure 74. Alrhough other configuiations
and lengths are available, common loops of preferred A : 8DP/4C,-l\ 2R,
lengths are generally the most eccnomical. If possible, Ss andCz: torsion e4t
a spring should be designed with one or both loops at
A \4ffi) ?
the prefered length. For example, if a design requires Recommendedpractice is to make C2geater than four.
a-total loop length equal to five times the I.D., a popular
choice is one twist loop with a length equal to the I.D.
and one extended loop with length equal to four times Fig.7-5. r,ocation of Maximum Bending and Torsion
the I.D. Wheneverpossiblefor extendedloops, the de- Stressesin Twist Loops.
signer should allow for a straight section approximately
three wire diameters long at the end of the wire (A,
Figure 74). Loops at each end can be made with a con- P
trolled angular relationship. Specifying an angular rela-
tionship may add to the cost; therefore, whenever an
application permits, a random angular relationship
\ ltl
rl
should be allowed. Production of special end configurir- ,-r;lF-
(--=r-
:f--
)
tions may involve tool charges and generally resufts in
increasedcosts.
Torsion Slress
otB

Fig. 74. common End configurations for Helical Extension Springs.

hceCImm*ndd,,Lrn#h*
?ypr
::'--::i"T_ Min"-t\{sx,

--W
mJ - A\UZ
Twist
Loop or
Hook #@ I.D.
0.5-1.7

CrossCenter t l

Loop or rmA
-TrnF - 7r
/A
-Tr-rr-7r-
I.D.
Hook ullv/ \Jlz
Side
Loop or
Hook
-uNzrz I I

v p- I.D.
0.9-1.0

Extended l . l I . D .a n du p
Hook as requiredby design

@-F E
t Q n l n
Special
Ends
A A av )i Ll 6\ i lZl Y As requiredby design
vvvvvvv -ffi
' <
I
' # - l - g +
I
' length
is distancefrom last body coil to inside of end. I.D. is inside diameter of adjacentcoil in spring body.

A'"oEFIf;g
&wwyvW
Helical ExtensionSprings C
Extension Spring Dimensions Choice of Operating Shess - Static C
Free length of an extension spring is the distance be- Recommended maximum stresses for extension
tween the inner surfaces of the ends (Figure 7-6). It is springs used in static applications (Table 7-1) are similar
equal to the spring body length plus ends, where spring to levels recommendedfor compression springs without C
body length is given by Lur, = d(N + 1). The gap, which set removal. For springs that cannot be adequately
is sometimes referred to as hook or loop opening, can stress-relieved due to high initial tension requirements, C
be varied by the springmaker. Certain manufacturing the ma,rimum recommendedstress in the body should be
processes require a minimum gap and the designer reduced to that recommended for their ends. Maximum C
should consult Associated Spring engineersif a gap must recommended stress in the ends is lower than in the
be less than one-half wire diameter. The number of ac- body because the wire is often stretched, marked or
distorted during loop-making.
C
tive coils in a spring is approximately equal to the num-
ber of coils in its body. For springs with threaded inserts
or swivel hooks, the number of active coils is less than
Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic C
Maximum recommended stresses for extension
the total coils in the body. Hooks and loops add to the springs used in cyclic applications are presentedin Table C
number of active coils. Allowances of 0.1 N" are occa- 7-2. These data are for stress-relieved springs with low
sionally made for one-half twist loops. Allowances as levels of initial tension.
large as 0.5 N" can be made for some cross center, full C
twist and extended loops. Tabte7-1. Maximum Allowable Stresses('Kn,Corrected)
Desigp Equations for Helical Extension Springs in Static Appli-
C
Design equations for extension spring are similar to cations.
compressionsprings. The rate is given by: Pcrst of Twih Sftng{h C
16:
P-Pr :m Gd4
(7-3)
fi4rnniak InT
Ddf
n
affd
In
End
C
wherePr is initial tension.Stressis given by: Patented, cold-drawn or
hardened and tempered 45-50 40 75
s
8PD-- carbon and low alloy steels
5 = --liTKw (74) -
Austenitic stainlesssteel 35 30 55
and nonferrous alloys -
Dynamic considerations discussed previously in Section
5 are generally applicable to extension springs. Natural This information is based on the following conditions: set not removed
frequency when one end is fixed is given by: and low temperanrre heat treatment applied.
For springs that require high initial tension, use the same percent of
C
5.6 x ldd EE (7-s)
tensile strength as for end.
C
n:5;;V7 metnc
t76xlffd Tobb 7-2. Maximum Allowable Stresses for ASTM A228 C
forsteeln=j::+- metric
metn( and Tvpe 302 StainlessSteel Helical Exten-
W- sion Sirings in Cyclic Applications.
C
n: ofu.',tr English Scrwt-of Tadk @$
,.,ill
ff,'ffd6
.. In tordffi In Ucntrry C
Tooog
fcr r s t e e l n : N F English Epdl, ffiil trffi
C
ld 36 34 51

Fig. 74. Typical Extension Spring Dimensions. 106

107
33
30
30
28
47
45
5
This inforrration is based on the following conditions: not shot-
peened, no surging and ambient environment with a low tempera-
C
ture heat treatment applied. Stress ratio : 0.
C
C
C
c
5
5
C
s
EA""Th!8$M I
= Helical Extension Springs
- Clearances ical to spring performance should have tolerances
-
Extension springs,when deflected,do not require cen- specified. Commercial free length, angular relationship
r- tral arbors or holes to prevent buckling. When a spring of ends,and load tolerancesare presentedin Thbles7-3,
- is dynamically loaded or unloaded suddenly (as a cam 7-4, and 7-5 respectively.O.D. tolerancesare the same
a- drop-off), it may vibrate laterally, inducing additional as for compressionsprings (Table5-5, page43). These
-, stresses.If clearanceis not allowed, this lateral vibration tables should be used only as a guide since some manu-
.- may be noisy and result in premature failure from abra- facturing operations have different process capabilities
-, sion of the ppring or adjacent parts. which can cause variations in tolerancevalues. For spe-
rl Tolerances cial applicationsrequiring closer tolerances,consult As-
- Since requestingclose tolerancescan increasemanu- sociatedSpringengineers.
r-,
facturing costs, only those characteristicswhich are crit- How to Specify
- For minimum cost, it is important to specify springs
Table 7-3. Commercial Free Lensth Tblerancesfor Heli- properly. The following checklist is presentedas a guide.
r- cal Extension Springs Wtttt Initial Tdnsion.
- Table74. Toleranceson Angular Relationshipof Exten-
r-, $pring Sreelxngttu tirsidn koolrri Tohrsscs sion Spring Ends.
<, rnm fin-) * nrm {in.}
Arryular Tohranm ptr Coih I Deperx
Up to 12.7(0.500) 0.51(0.020) Index
- over 12.7to 25.4(0.500to 1.00) 0.76(0.030) 4 5 6 7 E 9 l0 t2 t4 l6
Over25.4to 50.8(1.00to 2.00) r.0 (0.040)
-

-
Over50.8to 102(2.00to 4.00)
Over 102to 203(4.00to 8.00)
Over 203to 406(8.00to 16.0)
1.5 (0.060)
2.4 (0.093)
4.0 (0.155)
0.75 0.9 l.l 1.3 1.5 t.7 1.9 2.3 2. 6
For example, tolerance for a lGcoil spring with an index of 8
l0x+1.5=tl5o.
J

;ffi
Over406to 610(16.0to 24.0) 5.5 (0.2r8) If angulartolerance is greater than * 45o,or if closer tolerancesthan
indicatedmust be held, consult with AssociatedSpring.
-

a H E L I C AE
L XTENSION
SPRINGS
SPECIFICATIO
CNHECKLIST

a (Fill in requireddoto only.) SuggestedDesign Doto:

Wire diometer mm(in.)
a Moteriol

Working Conditions:
Outsidedio
Totol number of coils
=l Moximum outside diometer mm(in.) Free length inside ends mm(in.)
In i ti o lt ens ion N(l b0
a Lood N(lbf), + Speciol Informotion:

of length mm(in.) Fi ni sh
!r Lood N(lbf), + Moximum operoting temperoture
ot Operoting environment
rD lmpoct Looding
length mm(in.)
sec (in. /sec) Frequency of Looding hertz
Required life
a Rote
Moximum extended length in service
N/mm(lbf/in)
mm(in.) Required Reliobility (see Section 4)

a Direction of coil: right

) during instollotion
left
optionol
r} Typ" of ends

a Posifion of ends ond toleronce

Gop opening ond toleronce mm(in.)

I
I
I
L,'
F
L
I Associatgd ..*,,, :':ri' :r:;,,r:,.,xff:
"'"' ':': iwffii
';;:ffi
- SPring "M:'6'" "':;";: '
Helical Extension SPrings C
Table7-5. Load Tolerancesfor Helical Extension Springs. -
Sodg
i
J
I"e.qgth Tokrrm*r: * Pstcnt of:,$hgroilld ld
{Cb*rr tohnnct* nry rt@ll dlt*ud
qpcl "}
G
k&x 1 Uirldcd
a i ,bf j
Ildlecth*r Whc Dfiril#cr: )
d i ,,,,.,f;{ 3.t . :,
:,'1,!l; , ::g;l['::., ',:,1'8 t1.l
*s1 tr"f ,,3
I
i
I
]
*p
r
*JS
t0..CIls)
0;56
(0.f22) {0;03?} t0;0*tl (0.ffiat f0,0e!) {0"r2ft {0;lft} ta;ffSt {off,f,} @8n, G
r3.0 t2.6
r2
8
20.0
18.5
18.5
17.5
17.6
16.7
16.9
15.8
16.2
15.0
15.5
14.5
15.0
14.0
14.3
13.2
13.8
t2.5 11.5 11.0 C
tl.2 9.9 9.4
4
6
4.5
2.5
r6.8
15.0
13.1
16.1
t4.7
LZ.4
15.5
14.l
r2.r
t4.7
13.5
l1.8
13.8
12.6
10.6
13.2
12.0
10.0
t2.7
11.5
9.1
11.8
r0.3
8.5
9.7
8.0
8.4
6.E
7. 9
6.2
r
8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.1 5.3 4. 8
r0.2 9 .3 8.9
1.5
0.5 6.2
9.9
5.4 4 .t 4.6 4.3 4.1 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.2 C
13.5 l2.E 12.3 12.0 I1.5
t2
E
l7.E
l6.E
16.5
15.7
t5.7
t4.9
15.5
t4.3
14.8
13.5
t4.l
13.0 12.5 tr.7 rt.z 10.6 l0.l IE
6 15.8 14.8 13.8 13.2 12.3 11.8 tl.4 10.7 r0.0 9.3 8.7
8.0 7.4
5 4. 5
? s
14.2
12.3
l3.l
1l.3
t7.3
1 0 .8
tl.7
10.0
1l.l
9.6
10.5
9.0
10.2
8.7
9.6
E.l
8.8
1 < 6.5 6.r C
E.4 8.0 7.7 7.2 6.5 6.2 5.0 4.5
1.5 10.0 9.3 E.9
0.5 6.2 5.4 4 .9 4 .6 4.4 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.7 3.4 3.3 C
14.6 t4.I 13.5 l3.l 12.7 12.0 11.5 tt.2 10.7
12 17.0 15.5
8 16.2 t4.7 13.9 13.4 12.6 12.2 tL.7 11.0
10.0
10.5
9.4
10.0
8.8
9.5
8. 3
C
6 t5.2 14.0 12.9 t2.3 I1.6 10.9 10.7
10.0 9.6 9.0 E .3 7.6 7.1
6 4. 5
2. 5
13.7
11.9
12.4
10.8
11.5
10.2
11.0
9.8
10.5
9.4 9.0 E.5 7.9 7.2 6.2 6.0
4.7
C
8.3 7.7 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.4 6.0 4.9
1.5 9.9 9.0
3. 4
5.5 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.3 4.1 4.0 3.7 3.5
0. 5 6.3 -
13.1 1 3.0 t2.l 12.0 I1.5 r0.8 r0.2 10.0 9. 5
t2 15.8 t4.3
8
6
r5.0
t4.2
13.7
1 3 .0
12.5
rr.7
12.l
rt.2
rr.4
10.6
11.0
r0.0
10.6
9.7
l 0.l
9.3
9.4
E .6
9.0
8.1
E. 5
7. 6 C
rt.7 1.0.7 l0.l 9.7 9.0 E.7 8.3 7.E 7.2 5.6
8 4.5 12.8
5. 6
? s tt.2 10.2 9 .5 8.8 8.3 7.9 7.7 7.4 5.9 6.1 -
7 .8 7.1 6.9 6.7 6.5 6.2 5.E 4.9 4. 5
1.5 9.5 8 .6
4.4 4.1 3.9 3.6 3.5
0. 5 6.3 5 .6 5 .0 4 .8 4.5 4.2
9.2 E. 8
C
t2 14.8 13.3 1 2 .0 11.9 1l.l 10.9 10.5 9.9 9.3
8. 0
8
6
14.2
t3.4
12.E
12.l
1r.6
1 0 .E
rr.2
10.5
10.5
9.8
r0.2
9.3
9.7
8.9
9.2
E.6
8.6
8.0
8.3
7.6 7. 2 3
9.0 8.5 8.1 7.E 7.3 6.8 6.4
r0 4. 5 t2.3 10.8 r0.0 9.5
2. 5 1 0 .8
9.2
9.6
8 .3
9.0
7 .5
E.4
6.9
8.0
6.7
7.7
6.5
t.5
6.3
7.0
6.0
6.5
5.6
5.9
5.0
5.5
4.6 C
1.5 3.E 3. 7
5 .7 5.1 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.3 4.2 4:0
0. 5 6.4
14.0 12.3 1l.l 10.8 10.1 9.E 9.5 9.0 E .5 8.2 7. 9 C
t2 7. 2
13.2 11.8 10.7 r0.2 9.6 9.3 8.9 E.4 7.9 7.5
8 6.4
12.6 rr.2 10.2 9.7 9.0 8.5 8.2 7.9 7.4 6.9 .
6 5. E
rr.7 1 0 .2 9.4 9.0 E.4 E .0 7.6 7.2 6.E 6.3
L2 4.5
5.6 <)
7,E 7.4 7.0 6.6 5.1
) <
1.5
10.5
8.9
9.2
8 .0
8.5
7.2
E .0
6.E 6.5 6.3 6.1 5.7 5.4 4.E 4. 5 C
5.1 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.3 4.2 4.0 3.3
0.5 6.5 5.8 5.3

T2 13.1 l1.3 r0.2 9.7 9.1 8.8 8.4 8.1 7.6 1' ' 7. 0 C
10.9 9.8 9.2 8.7 8.3 8.0 7.6 1' ' 5.8 6.4
E t2.4
6 11.8 10.4 9.3 8.8
8.2
8.3
7.8
7.7
1 J
7.5
7.0
7.2
6.7
6.8
6.3
6.3
5.8
5.9
5.4 C
l4 4. 5 ll.l 9.7 8.7 <)
8.1 7.6 7.1 6.7 6.5 6.2 5.7 5. 0
2. 5 10.1 8.8
1.5 8.6 7.7 7.0 6.7 6.3 6.0 5.8 5.5 < t 4.7 4.5
4.0
C
5.9 5.4 \) 5.0 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.2
0.5 6.6
t2 1 2 .3 10.3 9.2 8.6 8.1 1 1
7.4
7.2
7.2
6.E
6.8
6.5
6.3
6.0
6.1
5.7
C
8 rr.7 10.0 8.9 8.3 7.8 7.4

l6
6
4.5
11.0
10.5
9.6
9.1
8.5
8.i
8.0
7.5
7.5
7.2
7.1
6.8
6.9
6.5
6.1
6.5
6.2
>.t
6.2
5.8
5.4
5.7
5.3
4.9
5.4
5.1
4.7
c
2.5 9.7 8.4 7.6 7.0 6.7 6.3
4.6 4.4
1.5 8.3
6.7
7.4
5.9
6.6
5.5
6.2
5.3
6.0
5.1
5.8
5.0
5.6
4.8
5.3
4.6
5.1
4.5 4.3 4.1 C
0.5
C
C

ssociated t
snrindf&S&'ffiflq$
b Helical ExtensionSPrings

t r-rtrrdon Spring Desi$ Example

-{ spring is to be incorporated into an overload circuit
rreaker. It is to be preloadedat length Lr :25.00 mm
7 . Calculate free length I+ and deflections fr and fz;
assumefull twist loops:
I-r : 2(ID) + (N" + l)d : (2)(4.5)+ (13.2+ 1X0.9)
D 0.84-l and must exerta load of 17.5N(3.93lbf), + IsVo, : 2 1 . 7 8m m
sten the circuit breaker is closed. If overload occurs,
a Cre circuit breaker is tripped and the spring is extended
u a lengrh Lz : 29.00mm (1.142').The load must be 30
f, = L, - I4 : 25.00- 21.78= 3.22 mm
fz: Lz - Lr :29.00 - 21.78: 7.22mm
a \ - ll%. to operatea lock, preventing accidentalreset-
nng before the malfunction is corrected. Either twist or 8 . Calculate initial tension P1 and uncorrected stress
a ertended loops with generousradii are satisfactory.Be-
cause of surroundingcomponentsthe maximum O.D. is
due to initial tension 51:
Pr : Pr - kf' : 17.5- (3.13)(3.22):7.42N
a nrm (0.276'). Probability of overloads is small and
t'reaker operation is expected only three or four times 2.55 PrD
sd r = - - F
(2.ss)(7
.42)(s.4)
: 140MPa
rn a )'ear. The spring will not be extended beyond Li
a during service or installation.
For static application, in an ambient environment, the
(0.e0)'
Referring to Figure 7-3,it can be seenthat this is in the
a material selected is ASTM A227. preferred range for initial stress for an index of 6.

a l. Assume a clearanceon O.D. of lWo:

O . D . - ( 0 . 9 )( 7 ) : 6 . 3 m m
9. Check stressesin the hooks:
Bending Stress:
a l. Assume Sz : 700 MPa uncorrected; let D = O.D. l6PD..
A :fff'
Se - 4P tKr
#
f, = 4Cr2 - C- I ,
; letCr:C
:6.3 mm ffi
a Calculate wire diameter d:
Kr:
4 ( . 6 ) 2 - 6 - r:
1.142
' i(2.ssx30)(6.3) 4(6X6- l)
a /zffi : 0.88 mm
o: \r::
v 700 So:
(16)(30X5.i1)9.142)
* 1^3%,: LJ
1340
'v 'Mpa or
a
Y J vA
z(0'90)3 z(0'90)z
letd:0.9mm
74.9%o TS
a Tensile strength taken from Figure 3-3, page 19, is
1790MPa.
Torsional stress, where Rz : 2.70 mm:

a Calculate mean diameter.D and coil index C: DB

8PD14C2-1\ ^
c r =;Ar
\rc= )
t,:
2Rz
d
D = O . D . - d = 6 . 3- 0 . 9 : 5 . 4 m m .
a 7 4
6 _ (8)(30)(s.4)t4(6) - l\
ss: =1ffi (Affi ):6sr MPaor 36vo
rs
C:Drdi;:6
a Final Desig Specifications:
a 4 . Calculate mean stressat the extended length:

Lz = 29.00DD, Pz = 30 N
Free Length l-t 21.78 mm (0.854') Reference
Outside Diameter: 6.3 + 0.10 mm (0.248f 0.004'J
a - 2.55PzD., Wire Diameter d: 0.9 mm (0.035t Reference
)=: -a3-n*t Initial Tension Load Pi: 7.45 N (1.68lbf) Reference
a Extended Length L1: 25.00 mm (0.9&4')
tK w r_: 4 1 - 0 . 6 1 5 _ 4 ( 6 ) - I _ -0 . 6 1 _5 1 Extended Length Lz: 29.00mm (1.142')
I NC -
c 46)----:1.25 P1Load at L1: 17.5+2.0 N (3.93*0.45 lbO
PzLoad atLz:30 +2.5 N (6.74+0.55lbO
I Su:
(2.55X30X5.4)(1.2s)
: 708 MPa or 4Vo TS Final Design Stress Sz: 708 MPa (103,000psi) 40"76TS
(0.eOf
a Calculate rate k:
N": 13.2Coils
Refer to the load tolerances for helical extension springs
a -
g =,Pt P' : 39^-Y;t :3.13
Lz-L, 29-25
r ' L e N/mm
(Table 7-5). Tolerance on load for P1is -r llVo, which is
less than the required + lsVo, and Pz is = 8Vo,which is
a 6 . Calculate number of coils N":
less than the required + lTVo.

a rY Gd4 Q.g3 x 104)(0.90)4

N":d m:ffi:13.2
a
I
a
I AssoS&!fi$,'eP*sqres
ffi
 C
C
HelicalTorsion C

Springs C
C
C
C
C
-

C
C
.

g----''-'; '' "

ff 5
C
& C
Lff
3
5
C

c
I
a Helical TorsionSprings

a lntroduction
Helical springs used to apply a torque or store rota-
shaft or tube and spring at all times to prevent binding.
The ideal shaft size is equal to, or slightly less than,90Vo
donal energy' are commonly referred to as torsion of the I.D. when the spring is fully deflected (minimum
!D springs. The two most common types are single and diameter). Shafts significantly smaller than 907a should
double-bodiedsprings (Figure 9-l). Torsion springs are be avoidedto prevent buckling during large deflections.
!D found in clothes pins, window shades, counterbalance Length
mechanisms,ratchetsand various types of machine com-
a ponents. They are also used as couplings between con-
Most torsion springs Ere close-wound, with body
length equal to the wire diameter multiplied by the num-
centric shafts such as in a motor and pump assembly.
a Torsion springsare generally mounted around a shaft or
arbor. and must be supported at three or more points.
ber of turns plus one. When a spring is deflected in the
direction that will reduce the coil diameter, body length

a Yarious kinds of ends are available to facilitate mount-

ing.
increasesaccording to:

a Torsion springs are stressedin bending. Rectangular

uire is more efficient in bending than round wire, but
L = d ( N o + 1 + 0 ) (9-4)

a due to the premium cost of rectangular wire, round wire

is preferred. If possible, a torsion spring should always
For applications that require minimum hysteresis,
springsshould be designedwith space between adjacent
be loaded in a direction that causesits body diameter to
a decrease.The residual forming stressesare favorable in
this direction, but unfavorable when the spring is loaded
coils to reduce frictional losses.

a in a direction which increases body diameter. Unless

there are unfavorableresidual stressesin the end bends,
Spring Rate
Spring rate for helical round wire torsion springs is
given by:
a springmakers normally heat-treat these springs at a low
temperatureto stabilize the end positions rather than to , M E d . (e-s)
a fulll' stressrelieve them. If the direction of loading tends
to increase body diameter, the springmaker should be
t : - _ -

e l0.8DN"

a advised to stress relieve the springs.

The Associated Spring SPEC line contains many tor- The 10.8factor is greater than the theoretical factor of
C
a sion spring designsusing stainlesssteel and music wire,
either left or right-hand wound. These springs have tan-
gent ends and are available for immediate delivery.
10.2 to allow for friction between adjacent spring coils
and between the spring body and the arbor. This factor
is basedon experienceand has been found to be satis-
a \umber of Turns
The number of active turns in a helical torsion spring
factory. Loads for torsion springs should be specified at
a fixed angular position and not at a fixed deflection from
a is equal to the number of body turns, plus a contribution
from the ends. For straight torsion ends, this contribu-
the free position (Figure 9-1). Presenfly, there is no stan-
dard way to test loadsfor torsion springs. Consequently,
a tion is equal to one-third of the moment arms and is
usually expressed as an equivalent number of turns:
in critical applications,it is advisableto contact Associ-
ated Spring engrneersto establish a test method during
a N":t# (e-t)
prototype work.

a Lr : length of the moment arm of the first end.

Fig. 9-1. Specifiing Load and Deflection Requirements
for Torsion Springs.

a Lz: length of the moment arm of the second end.

l-L
(e-2)
t N":Ns*N.
Nu : number of body turns.
t Mean Dinmeter
D Mean diameter is equal to I.D. plus O.D. divided by
tu'o. When the direction of loading tends to reduce the
bodl' diameter,the mean diameter changeswith deflec-
b tion accordineto:
D,N,
L D - -
N o + 0
(9-3)
E n d si n
Free Position
E n d si n
Free Position

a *here D, is initial mean diameter and d is deflection in

Specify:
c =
P=
L=
Angle between ends
Lood on ends ol a

a
Moment orm
revolutions. Clearancemust be maintained between the 0 = Angulor Deflection from Frce Posiiion

AssogFifiS&ff*nfn$
@
Helical Torsion Springs C
Stress
Stress in torsion springs is due to bending, and for
d
n: ,ffiV7; f" forsteel:
8040dF-^,:-,-
English C
ffi
round wire is given by:
n : 32M, and with both ends fixed:
C
t (e-6t
ff*, i- -
2.5 x ld, 4 x tfd _--^--:
During elastic deflection of a curved beam, the neutral n: VT ; forsteel:ffi metricQ-II.
axis shifts toward the center of curvature, causinghigher ffid C
stress at the inner surface than the outer. Wahl (Refe- lE8od
d
rence 3, page 102) has calculated the stress correction n: E rfor steel : tr-I\a English C
factor at the I.D. of a round wire torsion spring as: A",tFi.I" !-
4C2 - C - I
f7
ABrD:
rc16 _ t)
(e-7) To avoid or minimize resonancephenomena,the natural C
frequency must be much greater than the operating fre-
A convenient approximation for engineeringcalculations quency and/or the spring should contain initial tension. C
is: Choig of Operating Stress - Static
f, 4C-l
llBrD:4C_4 (e-8) Recommendedmaximum operating stressesfor static
applications are given as a percentages of tensile
c
strength in Table 9-1. For spring bodies or ends loaded .
4C+1 (e-e) in a direction that increases the radius of curvature,
l(gop:4C+4 "stress-relieved" column are most
stress levels in the
appropriate. These stresses should be calculated using C
At low indexes, stress is significantly higtrer on the inner tfie appropriateKB stresscorrection factor (Equation 9-8
surface than the outer. These factors are useful to de- or 9-9). When the outer surface is in tension, springs C
termine the stress range for cyclic applications and the with a low index usually yield at the inner surface, while
set point for fully stress-relievedsprings in static appli-
cations. A stress correction factor of 1 is recommended
those with a higfr index may yield at the outer surface.
For springs not stress-relievedand loaded in a direction
a
to determine the set point of springs that have favor- that decreasesthe radius of curvature, the stress levels .
able residual stresses induced by yielding during form- recommended for springs with favorable residual stress
ing. Yielding results in a more uniform stress distribution are appropriate. No stress correction factor is used since -
over the round cross section. Therefore, the actual the spring has yielded.
stress correction factor approaches the recommended
value of l.
Fig.9-2. Com.monHelical Torsion Spring End Config'
c
End Configurations uratrcns. 3
Some of the more common end configurations avail- A A
able are shown in Figure 9-2. Special configurations are
available on request. In designing ends, it is important
/
O-O ftfif l
lil ltl c
to recall that bends, loaded to decrease their radius of
,',,}t
*s t(
\r/
)) ililll
I'UU
curvature, have favorable residual stresses. They can
I
C

M
\ SHORTHOOK ENDS
operate at higher applied stress levels than bends that
increasethe radius by loading. Frequently, spring perfor-
mance is limited because the sharply bent ends have /6\)) [m e
greater stress than the body. Equation 9-6 is generally (( ]iltl a
employed to determine maximum bending stress in the ENDS
SPECIAT
\r/ tulj
ends. Torsion springs are subject to surging and reso-
nance phenomena. The natural frequency n for a torsion
HINGEENDS

-^.
c
spring with one end fixed is: /-\\ illt
(v/ n5liltr
I t \ l r I I I

bm N
t.26xldd r tuu
n: : 2 x t d d meric9-Ioi C
VT ; forsteet ffi
STRAIGHT OFFSET
ffi
C
DOU T ORSION
e
TORSION
STR.AIGHT
-

f
c
c
4 t
Associatec'
sprindl&**firys I
b Helical TorsionSprings

b CLoi- of Operating Stress - Cyclic from rectangular wire, the wire cross-section distorts

t, \tarimum allowed operating stressesfor cyclic appli-

;arions are presentedin Table 9-2 as percentagesof ten-
sile suength. All stressesare assumedto be calculated
and becomes "keystoned" (Figure 94).The wire axial
dimension br can be estimated from:

F
p
rrith the appropriate Ks correction factor. This infortna-
ion can be used to estimatefatigue lives at other stress
rangesb1'methodsdiscussedpreviously (Section4). Fre-
quentll'. bending stressesare higher in the ends than in
br:bF#)
When axial length is critical, keystone-shapedwire can
(9-r2)

be purchased. This wire will have a near rectangular

F the bodl'. In this situation, bear in mind that during for-
rr.ng of sharp bends, the wire may be stretched or
rrarked. resulting in stress concentrations that reduce
shape after coiling. The rate equation is:

F design stresslevels below those recommended.Because

of friction, the point of contact between torsion end and
k:M/0=6*K (e-I3)

I arbor is often the highest stressed area.

DouHe Torsion Springs
and the stressequation is:

P
p
Double-bodied torsion springs are designedusing the
sarnemethods as for single-bodiedtorsion springs. The
rate for a double-bodied torsion spring is equal to the
t:#*" (9-r4)

sum of the rates for eachcomponent. For the samewire These equations are for springs wound either on edge or

F diameter, coil diameter and wire length, double-bodied

torsion springs have rates four times those of single-
on flat (Figure 94).Stress correction factor Ks is slie[tly
lower than for round wire and can approximated by:

F bodied types. Double-bodiedtorsion springs should be

designed so they are coiled out from the center rather Kgro :
4C
4Cl
(e-r5)

F than in from the ends (Figure 9-3).

Rectangular Wire
Ksoo =
4C (9-r6)

t Rectangular wire torsion springs have higher energy

storage capacities than similar round wire springs. The
general comments on round wire torsion springs apply
4C+3
Sharp corners on rectangular wire cause stress concen-

P
p
to springs with rectangular wire. In producing springs

Tablc 9-1. Maximum RecommendedBending .Stresses

trations and should be avoided, while generous corner
radii of rolled wire reduce the wire cross sections suf-
ficienfly to lower the rate.

F for Helical Torsion Springs in Static Applica'

tions. Table9-2. Maximum Recommended Bending Stresses
(Kp Corrected) for Helical Torsion Springs in

T
Fr,*mi nf :Tcrdle,Slrqfh Cyclic Applications.
lf,frl:f*v,otl&,,
M.lrtrid fucml of Tnnr*lelitrugth
$trr*r'&trcv ,{,tr} *eeied SrcrF {2}

T Patented and
{XrCo
EO
l , {lio Corrac'thnFrctori
r00
ASTeilA23t
rild TIF t&l $trtudwscel A"5TlilA?*rO
sd he3,2,

P
lJf"
Cold Drawn Noil Sbo{- I L$oe:. 8*
fi$kl . ' ,
M l snot-n t*O. Sbqt-ften*d*

p Hardened and Tempered

Carbon and Low
Alloy Steels
85 100
105
106
53
50
62
60
55
53
&
62

I Austenitic Stainless
Steelsand Non-
60 80 This information is based on the following conditions: no surging,
springs are in the "as-stress-relieved" condition
*Not always possible.
a Ferrous Alloys
t l) Also for springs without residual stresses. Fig. 94. KeystonedCross Sectionsof SpringsWoundon
i2) Springs that have not beenstress-relievedand which have bodies and
I ends loaded in a direction that decreasesthe radius of curvature.
Edge and Flat

I Fig. 9-3. Preferred Windingfor Double-Bodied Torsion

Springs.
Wound On Edge Wound On Flot

a -l-
l-br
a _i_ _l_
br

a
F'-l -l ' l--
a Spring
Axis
a
I A"TFtfi8ArynffisH

Fig. I1-2. Load Deflection Curvesfor BeIIeviIIeWashers
with Various h lt Ratios.
hh = 0.4
BellevilteSPringWashers
Fig. 11-5. Comparison of S7 and Sn for Various De-
flections, h lt Ratios and Diameter Ratios (R
Values) of Belleville Washers.

hh = o.7 L r
Tl-T.c
h/r = L4l

h/t = 2'83
l
Srz Hi g h e r
t l I #W{ffi bd*
9-': -cil
t1\

a
- 0.6
/,
4eij
/

zt Srr Higher
. l l
+

Fig. 11-3. Mounting a Belleville Washerfor Deflection

Past the FIat Position.

Fig. 11-6. Compressive Stress Constantsfor Belleville

Washers.
2.5

6
" t = , ' l n R fl R - r l
2 )

=
=, 1.5
o
d
(J

U
6
Fig.114. Highest Stessed Regions in Belleville a
o
Washers. ; 1.0
o
(J

6 l - ( R- l ) ' l
=;"e-l
@ *r-1
777777V,
Spring
Axis

Assogb?ifi8,r,.fuffi*
ffi
Belleville Spring Washers t
Fig. 11J. Tensile Jtress
Washers.
Constants fo, Belleville Determining an optimum solution to a belleville wash-
er design problem is a trial and error process which may e
3.0 have to be repeated many times. A simple approach,
designed to minimize the number of repetitions, is c
presentedbelow. All of the graphs are basedon belleville
washer designswith a ratio of O.D. to I.D. of 2 (R : Z).
Designs that have R approximately equal to 2 have muu(-
c
imum energy storage capacity.
The first step is to select an appropriate h/t ratio based
c
on the load, outside diameter and stress constraints giv-
en. For example, (referring to Figure l lJ), assumethe
c
)' 2.O desired load at flat is 1125N and outside diameter is 76
RlnR-(R-l)
mm. A washer with an h/t equal to 1.41 would have a C
R
"=--r.F;t1n-1y
I

+ ' R - r
_l . = -
0.5R I
|

I
maximum stress S. of 1500MPa. Loads at intermediate
deflection can readily be computed with the aid of Figure e
ll-9. Material thickness is then determined from:
E
o
(J
. -
l.)
l t l
e
t=*Vmmetric
C
r : l /\@tg.z
E nx gto?(h/t
)
rish
- e
Before finalizing a design based on these graphs, it is
best to check results using the equations, making final
e
T z :
0.5
1 3
I l r r r
adjustmentsas required. For cyclic applications, stress
levels Srr and Sp mustbe determinedin order to estimate e
belleville washer life.

Fig. 11-8. Inads and CompressiveStresses

R
e
Srfor SteelBelleville Washerswith VariousOutsideDiameters and h/t Ratios.
A I L e e'E e
o. = = o
g E
=
o
!o
F\
o
o
ra)
o
o
O
(n
Lood At Flot - (lbf) When R = 2
o
q
o
o
Fi E. e
U)
q,

i
c
v,
r
tt)
o
60 80 r00 200 400 6008001000 2000 4000 60008000
I
.tt
8 f r
6 ; e
I
I
I a
r 0I l
81
6l
I e
100
80
sJ
41
e
60
''rl
2
3J
I

r0.
a
160
(
1 2 0 60 l-30
- 21
I
I .5.{
8
6'
e
o 80 40 120
l"
l 2'
r.l 4.o
o
5. E
e
60 3 0 F 1 5 I
751rI J. o a
o Il
40 2 0 F r o
30 r 5 F7.s
).s.1
I
). 1 . 5
37J0.
I 2.
e
20 Metric Units I(
2s1 1.0
a
.-
'-
r ,4b- 1F,-
to-\/ t 32A (h/r)
Y
,4ffi
19.2xlo? (h4)
I
II a
4 6 6 8
I
I a
Metric t l
a
I I
E n g l l s h1 0 0 200 400 600800I 000 6000 r
L o o d A t F l o t- ( H ) W h e n R= 2

a
ffiAssogb?lfi F$ a
3;"fu$.*ff .a
It Bellevitle SPring Washers

F
F
Ch)ic! of Sress Level - Static
For static applications,stressat the convex inner cor-
:er S. us,uellvcontrols the spring set point. Carbon steel
3g{lrrlle u-asherswill start to set when stress (S") reach-
diagram (Figure 11-10) illustrates fatigue strength for
various thicknesses of carbon and alloy steel washersat
HRC 47 to 49. (Use of this diagram is discussedon page
27.) Shot peening increasesfatigue strength while burrs,
Es l,l[Fr of tensile strength (Table 1l-1). Set is removed edge cracks and surface imperfections reduce it.
!p :r nilostbellevillewashers,and in this case stress(S.)can
:each T56c of tensile strength before additional set oc-
J.rrs. These calculated stressesEueconsiderably higher
Stacks of Belleville Washers
To increasedeflection or loads, belleville washerscan
:hen actual stressesdue to yielding. If washers are to be
be used in series, parallel or a combination of seriesand
b piarcd or operated at elevated temperatures,these values
must be reduced.
parallel (Figure 1l-11). Deflection for a series stack of
identical belleville washers is equal to the number of
a Cbob of Stress Level - Cyclic
For cy'clic applications, it is necessary to consider
washers multiplied by the deflection of one, while the
load is equal to the load of one washer. When belleville
a both the stress level and stress range at the concave
conrcrs Srr and Sr2.Minimum and maximum stress must
washers with an h/t ratio greater than 1.3 are used in
a stack, the load deflection curve will be erratic as some
!| be evaluatedat both Srr and Srzusing a modified Good- washerswill snap through the flat position. To avoid this
man diagam. The location with the more severe condi- problem, the h/t ratio for each washer in a seriesstack
ions u'ill control washer life. The modified Goodman should not exceed 1.3.
-

a Fig. 114. Load Deflection Characteristicsfor BellevilleWashers.

tf ootl .{lo o/ouruolpolreo

a
!)
I
a
a + , 0
o
CL
o =
t :,
. E r
s
o
t o
o-
o
o
o-
E l

t !
o
o
t2.
a o
s
o

o
3

a :
o
o
o
a
plv

a J

t
t
I
I
90 too
4
I

Deflecionino/ool f' lf OO t .:
o

f o
o-
- 3
B

a lf a *'asher is supported and loaded at its edges so that it is deflected

:c1'ond the flat position, then the greatest possible deflection can be
labeled at the right and top to be read upside down for deflections
beyond horizontal. Dotted lines extending beyond the chart indicate

t :ru-lizcd.Since the load/deflection curve beyond the horizontal position

:s slmmetrical with the first part of the curve, this chart has been
continuation of curves beyond flat.

I
AssogFlf;S&H*ffirns
ffi
Belleville Spring Washers C
Load on a parallel stack of identical belleville washers Tolerances
is equal to the load of one multiplied by the number of To ensure proper clearance, it is good practice to C
washers, while deflection is equal to the deflection of specify outside diameter with a minus-only tolerance and
one washer. inside diameter with a plus-only tolerance. Recortmen- C
The load deflection curve for both series and parallel ded tolerancesare shown in Table ll-2. Load tolerances
stacks has a hysteresis due to friction. Hysteresis (Fi- should be specified at a test height. For belleville wash- C
gure 1l-I2) is greater for parallel than series stacks and ers with h/t < 0.25, reqommendedload tolerances zue
can be minimized by lubrication. The energy absorbed =, l1Vo. For washerswith h/t > 0.25, use + lVo. The C
by this hysteresishelpsto dampen vibrations. By careful recommendedtolerance for washers made of nonferrous
selection, stacks can be designed with increasing, ap- materials generally is + lsVo. Closer diameter and load C
proximately linear or decreasingrates. Stacked belleville tolerances are available.
washers must be guided either over a pin or in a tube.
Hardness of the guides should be at least HRC 50 to How to Specify C
minimize wear. Clearancebetween washer holes and pin A checklistto aid the springdesignerin specifyingbelle-
or tube should be about 1,.5Vo of the relevant diameter. ville spring washersis shownon the next page. For wash- C
ers with critical load requirements,it is recommendedthat
Fig. 11-10. Modtfted Goodman Diagram for Fatigue
a test fixture be developed. C
Strength of Belleville Washers. Carbon
and
Alloy Steel at HRC 47-49 with Set Removed but Not
Fig. 11-11. Stacksof Belleville Washers. 3
Shot-Peened.

50
Lower Tensile Stress (103 psi)

r00 I 50 200 250

ffiRR: Combinolion of
Series ond Porollel
C
Fig. 11-12. Hysteresisin StackedBelleville Washers.
Deflection (in.)
C
o.
A
= o
C
o o
aA
o
v,
o C
o o
F
o
o
F

o
o
C
I

C
z C
o

xxx C o l c u l o t c dC u w e
C
Lower Tensile Stress (MPo)
--Tcst

-
Ten in Series

Test Five in Porollcl

C
Figurc| l - 10 maybereadas follols:
A bclleville washer0.8mm (0.030") thick maybe expectedto havea life of approximately106cycles C
whenstrcssedbetweeneither
0-820MPa (0-I 17,000psi)
or 350-990MPa (50,000-141.000
or 700-l 170MPa (100.000-167,000
psi)
psi)
C
andmaybe expcctedto harrea lifc of approximarelyl0: cycleswhens!rcssedbctwceneither
0-740MPa (0-105.000 psi)
or 3 15-890MPa (45.000-127,000 psi) Dcflcction (mm) C
or 630-1050MPa (90,000-150.000psi)

Table 11-1. Maximum RecommendedStressLevels C

S, for Belleville Washers in Static
Applications. Table11-2. Belleville WasherDiameter Tolerances. C
Lll, m,(h-l
D*rrn*tcr, mnn{in.}
*0.ffi C
-0.20(-0.00E) +0.20(+0.00E)
Carbon or Alloy Steel up to 5 (0.197)
s-10(0.1924.3%) -0.2s(-0.0r0) +0.25(+0.0r0) C
Nonferrous and tL25 (0.3,94-0.984) -0.30(-0.012) +0.30(+0.012)
Austenitic Stainless Steel 2s-s0(0.98f 1.%9)
5L100(r.%9-3.937)
-0.40(-0.016)
-0.50(-0.020)
+0.40(+0.016)
+0.50(+0.020)
5
Based on R = 2, increased tolerances are required for lower R ratios. C
C
ffiAssoget#Affieffiffis I

B.{leritle Spring VYasberDesign Example
ln a clutch. a minimum pressureof 900 N (202 lbfl is
rcquired. This pressuremust be held as nearly constant
as possible*'hile the clutch facing wears down 0.80 mm
r0.031-r.The washer O.D. is 76 mm (2.99). Material
sclected for this application is carbon steel HRC 47-50.
l. Base the load on a value l0Vo above minimum load,
or 900+ lVo :990 N. Assume O.D./I.D. = 2.
From Figure 1l-9, select a load deflection curve
*'hich gives approximately constant load between 50
and l$Vo of deflection to flat. Choose the hlt : l.4t
curve.
2. From Figure 1l-9, the percent load at 50Vodeflection
to flat is 88%.
3. Flat load is Pr:990/0.88 : 1125N
4. Using Figure ll{ (follow line A-B from 1125N to
h/t = 1.41, and line B-C to approximately 76 mm
O.D.), estimatedstress is 1500MPa.
5. From Table11-1, maximum staticstresswithout setre-
movedis 120% of tensile strength. From Table l9-1,
page 103, tensile strengthat HRC 48 will be approxi-
mately 1650 MPa. Yield point without residual stress
will be 1650 x L.20 = 1980 MPa. Therefore,stress
1500MPa is lessthan maximumstressof 1980MPa.
' Compressive S.: 1216MPa (185,000psi) at fz ESVoof h
I /-qDF
6. Stock thickne; s S
rS':
mv 132-4hh
7 . h = 1 . 4 1t = l . 4 l x 1 . 3 7: 1 . 9 3m m
H : h * t = 1 . 9 3+ L . 3 7= 3 . 3 0 m m
BELLEVILLE WASHERSPECIFICATION
SPR,ING CHECKLIST
(Fillin requireddoto only.)
Moteriol
Working Conditions:
To work in mm(in.) diometer hole
To work over diometer pin
Lood N (1b0,I -N(lb0
Testheight
Reloxotion
Requiredlife
Required reliobility (see Section 4)
Belleville Spring Washers
8 . Referring to Figure 11-9, the load of 990 N will be
reached at fr = 5Wo of maximum available deflection.
fr : 0.50 x 1.93:0.97 mm deflection, or the load of
990 N will be reached at Hr : fl - fr = 3.30 - 0.97
: 2.33 mm height at load. To allow for wear, the
spring should be preloaded at Hz : Hr - Af (wear)
:2.33 - 0.80: 1.53mm height. This preloadcorre-
spondsto a deflection fz : H - Hz : 3.30 - 1.53:
1.77 mm. Then fzlh : 1.7711.93: 0.92or 92%.
9 . Because 92Voof h exceeds the recommended85Vo
(the load-deflection cunre is not reliable beyond 85Vo
deflection when a washer is compressedbetweenflat
surfaces), increase the deflection range to 4Vo to
85%. From Figure ll-9, the percent load at 40Vode-
flection is78.5Voand Pr : 990 + 0.785 = l26L N. Re-
peat previous procedures4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, and find
that fz + h x 100: SlVo of h.
Final Desrgn Specifications:
Material: AISI 1074, 1075
O.D.: 76 +0.00,-0.5 mm (2.99 +0.00,-0.020)
I . D . : 3 8 + 0 . 0 4 0 , - 0 . 0 0m m ( 1 . 5 0 + 0 . 0 1 6 , - 0 . 0 0 )
Thickness t: 1.40 mm (0.055') Reference
Height h: 1.97 mm (0.078') Reference
Load: 990 N (223 lbf) + lVo at h1 : 1.18 mm (0.046')
Tensile Stress Srr: -203 MPa (-29,500 psi) at f2 85Vo
ofh
Tensile Stress Srz: +710 MPa (103,000psi) at fz 85%
ofh
Speciol Informotion:
Moximum operoting temperoture "c("F)
*
Operoting environment
To be used in o stock (type)
Reference Doto:
Thickness mm(in.)
Outside Dio
mm(in.)
o/o
Inside Diomefer
Free height m(in.)
h/r
Assog&r#&H*ffitr$
ffi
 C
C
SpecialSpring
ruffi
.

Washers C
C
C
C
c
.

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a
 SpecialSpring Washers

Introductiron Wave Washers

Special spring washersexert a thrust load and absorb Wave spring washers,Figure 13-3,are especiallyuse-
rrbration. reduce end play or apply pressure. The state ful to apply moderate thrust loads when radial space is
of stress is primarily bending, and most of the general limited. The rate is linear between 20 and 8Vo of avail-
desienconsiderationsfor flat springs(Section 12) apply. able deflection. During forming, the washer is often
Spnng u'ashers are used in seals,bearings, motors and stretched at the crest and trough of the waves. Washers
o$er rotating mechanisms, and because of the trend that are round in the free position go out-of-round when
tosard miniaturization and compactness, demand for deflected. Generally, a ratio of D/b = 8 is a good bal-
tbem is increasing. ance betweenflexibility and load-carrying ability. When
The Associated Spring SPEC product line contains the ratio of D/b is substantiallylower than 8, a belle-
rnanv precision engineered wave, curved and finger ville washeris preferred.
spring washers. These washersare made to close toler- The number of wavesN" can be equal to 3 or more
ancesand are available for immediate delivery. Selecting and is usually selectedon the basis of desired spring
SPEC washer designs savesdesigntime, avoids tooling rate, since spring rate is proportional to the number of
costs and is generally more cost-effective than specifying wavesraised to the fourth power, as:
custom-designedparts.
Ebt3N.oD"
Cured Washers ft=Plf=r/ot-, (13-s)
Curved washers exert a relatively light thrust load and
are often used to absorb axial end play. Designersmust This formula is basedon the equations for a simple beam
provide space for diametral expansionin a direction per- with correction factors based on experience to improve
pendicular to the A dimension (Figure l3-1). Bearing accuracy. Stress is given by:
surfaces should be hard to prevent washer corners from
scraping or digging in. The spring rate is approximately 3zrPD
"s - (t 3-4)
linear up to 80Voof available deflection. Beyond 80Vothe 4bttN.'
rate increasesand is considerablyhigher than calculated.
Design equations for spring waJhers are similar to The outside diameterof the washer changesupon de-
those for simple beams, discussedin Section 12, except flection and at flat is given by:
for an empirical correction factor K. The equation for
load is: (I 3-s)
o
^ = (oD)'K
@ (r3-r) Do is outside diameter in the free position. The above
equations for load, stress and diametral change are not
O.D. is outside diameter in the flat position and the exact solutions, but do provide useful engineeringesti-
equation for stress is: mates for design purposes.
r:T* (13-2)
Fig. 13-2. Empirical Stess Correction Factor K for
Curved Spring Washers.
Correctionfactor K is shown in Figure l3-2. Theseequa-
tions are approximate and yield satisfactory solutions 4.0
only for deflections up to 80Voof h where f is less than
li 3 of O.D. Associated Spring engineersshould be con- \
sultedwhen clearancesare critical or more exact designs
required.
3.0
Y
Fig. 13-1. Typical Curved Spring Washer. o
o
e 2.5
.9 \

F o
o
e,
2.0 \
\

2.O 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

At Flor
RofioO.D./1.D.

*Long
oxis of the wosher in free position

Assog&'lfi3&ffi*ffiF$
@
SpecialSpring Washers C
Finger Washers How to Specify
Finger washers,Figure 134, combine the flexibility of The specification checklist on the next pageis provid-
C
curved washers and the distributed loading points of ed as a guide to all critical aspects of special spring
wave washers. Load, deflection and stressare approxi- washers. C
mated by assuming that the fingers are cantilever
springs; then samplesare made and tested to prove the
design. Finger washers are used in static applications
Special Spring lVasher Design Example
A wave washer is needed to go into a 80 mm (3.15') c
bore and over a 60 mm (2.362') shaft, to support a load
such as applying an axial load to ball bearing races to of approximately 500 to 550 N (112 to 124 lb) with 1.8 C
reduce vibration and noise. mm (0.071')deflection. The applicationrequires a steady
Choice of Operating Stress - Static load and is therefore a static application. The washer will C
Operating stressesrecommended for special spring operate in an ambient environment. AISI 1075 is the
washersare similar to stresslevels recommendedfor flat preferred material. C
springs and are shown in Table l3-l as a percent of Since deflection is comparatively large for a spring of
tensile strength. Finger washers are generally produced this type, select the most flexible design - a three wave C
in the stress-relievedcondition. If favorable residual configuration.
stressesare required, consult AssociatedSpring. Assumea 75 mm (2.953") outside diameter and a 64
mm (2.520") inside diameter to fit the given conditions.
C
Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic This would make the mean diameter (D) 69.5 mm
Maximum recommended operating stressesfor cyclic (2.736"). C
conditions are shown in Table l3-2 for curved and wave
washers. Finger washersare not recommendedfor cyclic
1. Substituting these values in the load-deflection equa-
tion, solve for thickness:
C
applications.
Tolerances ,: \ = l . 3 0m m
C
Dimensional tolerances are similar to those on flat Y(207,000)
(1.s)(5.t (3r0t
springs. Load tolerancesdepend primarily on strip thick-
C
ness tolerances and are listed in Table l3-3. All load &
tolerances should be specified at a test heigttt and only P,=
D, = 530N C
those dimensions critical to spring function should have
tolerances. Special tolerances are available for deman-
ding applications.
2.4 D3
Fig. 134. Typical Finger Spring Washer. c
Fig. 134. Typical Wave Spring Washer.
'-ll'- C

p C
-

h\-
+:+.:+,*il.-
b h = H - t
C
C
C
C
C
Table13-1. Maximum Recommended Operating S/ress Table13-2. Maximum RecommendedOperating Stress
Levels for Special Spring Washersin Static Levels for Steel Curved and Wave Washers C
Applications. in Cyclic Applications.
C
Pcreent of T,mih Strerylh
C
3
c
Finger washers are not generally supplied with favorable resid-
ual stresses.
This information is based on the following conditions: ambient environ-
ment, free from sharp bends, burrs, and other stress concentrations.
5
AISI 1075
c
H#Assos&tfi8
/fu H#,ffirp$ C
I
 SpecialSpring Washers

l. Set the maximum stress at solid at 8Vo of tensile Deflection to load of 1.8 mm is 75% of deflectionto
suenglh. Steel with a hardnessof HRC 49 has a ten- solid, which is satisfactory.Diameter in the deflected
sile strength of 1725MPa (250,000psi) (Table l3-1 and position:
Figure 3-6, page 2l). \Vo of 1725MPa is 1380MPa.
Solve for deflection at that stress. Using the equation: Do'=ffi:
pPsD _ (9.6x69.t'(1380x64)
fr r_= fe.6
fi- Do': 75.1 mm

There is adequate clearance.

f, = 2.39mm
Tablc13-3. Load Tolerancesfor Special Spring
Washers.
0.r-1.0 (0.0044.03e)
0.1-0.25(0.004{.010)
0.2il.30 (0.0104.012)
0.H.5 (0.0124.020)
0.5-1.0 (0.020{.039).
1.G2.0 (0.039-0.079)
finat Dexf,gnSpecifications:
Material: AISI 1075
O.D.: 75 *,0.2 mm (2.953+ 0.008)
I.D.: S,!,+ 0.2 mm (2.520<- 0.008)
Thickness t: 1.30 mm (0.055'r 0.002)
H: 3.69 mm (0.145') Reference
33 Load P1: 530 N + lTVo(119 lbf + l7Vo)
25 H,: 1.89 mm (0.074')
20
15
t2

SPECIAL
SPRINGWASHERSPECIFICATION
CHECKLIST
(Fill in required doto only.) Speciol

Type of Wosher: Mqximum operoting temperoture ,"c('F)

Operoting environmeni
Curved wove finger designer
recommendotion
Reference
Moteriol:
Working Conditions: Thickness
To work in mm(in.) diometer hole Outside diometer mm(in.)
To work over rm(in.) diometer pin Inside diom
I Lood N(lb0+ -N(lbo
i Test height mm(in.)
Required reliobility (see Section 4)
Describeone cycle

Assog&'ifi8/&,H*ffis
ffi