ADVANCED ANTENNA

THEORY

By: Dr. Sohail Khalid

Course Details

Quiz weightage : 10%

Assignment weightage : 10%
Mid-Term : 30%
Final Term : 50%
Lab : Antenna Lab is designed in two parts
Design Labs on HFSS

Course Book: Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design

By Constantine A. Balanis

2
Course Content

Theory
Antennas Basics
Antenna Characterization in Terms of its Far-Field
Gain and Bandwidth
Dipole and Monopole Antenna
Loop Antenna
Antenna Arrays
Microstrip Antenna

Lab
UHF probe
Dipole and monopole
Horn antenna
Microstrip Antenna

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Introduction to Antennas

Antenna or Aerial
Is a transducer that transmits or receivers electromagnetic waves.
Converts the voltage and current into the electromagnetic radiation and vice-versa.
Is a transitional structure between free-space and a guiding structure.

The American Heritage Dictionary: A metallic apparatus for sending and receiving electromagnetic waves.

Websters Dictionary: A usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves.

What is an ANTENNA

An antenna is a device for radiating and receiving radio waves. The antenna is the transitional structure
between free-space and a guiding device.

Source Receiver
Tx Rx 4
Introduction to Antennas

5
Antenna understanding
An antennas size/length depends on the
frequency.
Its functionality largely depends on the height
above the ground, as well as the polarity and its
configuration.

Antennas
A good antenna works.
A bad antenna is a waste of time & money.
Antenna systems can be very inexpensive.
They can also be very, very expensive.
Antenna Considerations
The space available for an antenna.
The proximity to neighbors.
The operating frequencies you will use.
The output power.
Money. 6
Introduction to Antennas
A transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of the antenna system

The transmission line is represented by a line with characteristic impedance Zc.

The antenna is represented by a load ZA= (RL+Rr)+ j XA connected to the transmission line.
The load resistance RL represents the conduction and dielectric losses associated with the antenna.
Rr, the radiation resistance, represents radiation by antenna.
The reactance XA represents the imaginary part of the impedance associated with radiation by the
antenna. 7
Radiation Resistance and Efficiency

Power radiated Rr
e ( Dimension less )
Power accepted by Antenna Rr RL 8
Radiation Pattern

Radiation Pattern can be plotted on a rectangular- or polar-coordinate graph. These patterns

are a measurement of the energy leaving an antenna.

Isotropic Radiation Pattern

Characteristics
Completely non-directional antenna
Radiates and receives equally well in all directions
Radiation pattern is spherical

Exists only as a mathematical concept

Used as a reference

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Radiation Pattern

Antenna radiation pattern is 3-D dimensional

The 3-D plot of antenna pattern assumes both angles Elevation, El

and varying, which is difficult to produce and to
interpret 3-D pattern

Azimuth, Az

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Radiation Pattern
Generally speaking, there are two types of antenna:

1. Directional
this type of antenna has a narrow
beamwidth; with the power being more
directional, greater distances are usually
achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
e.g, Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic
antennas
2. Omni-Directional
this type of antenna has a wide
beamwidth and radiates 3600; with the
power being more spread out, shorter
distances are achieved but greater
coverage attained e.g monopole,
horizontal loop antenna, Whip antenna.
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Radiation Pattern Lobes (Beamwidths)
Main lobe
maximum direction
Radiation
Intensity
Main lobe
0 dB
1.0
Half-power
Main lobe Beamwidth
(HPBW)
- 3 dB HPBW
back lobe
- 10 dB Side lobe
0.5 Beamwidth
between
FNBW
first nulls
(BWFN)

Minor
(b)
lobes

back lobe
(a) 12
Field Regions
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions:
Reactive near-field region is defined as that portion
of the near-field region immediately surrounding the
antenna wherein the reactive field predominates.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is defined as
that region of the field of an antenna between the
reactive near-field region and the far-field region
wherein radiation fields predominate and wherein the
angular field distribution is dependent upon the
distance from the antenna.
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as that region
of the field of an antenna where the angular field
distribution is essentially independent of the distance
from the antenna. If the antenna has a maximum
overall dimension D, the far-field region is commonly
taken to exist at distances greater than 2D^2/ from
the antenna, being the wavelength.
13
Radian and Steradian

The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a

sphere of radius r

dA r 2 sin ( ) d d (m 2 )

The element of solid angle d of a sphere can be

written as

dA
d 2 sin ( ) d d ( sr )
r

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Radiation Power Density
Radiation power density is defined as:

W = EH
W = instantaneous Poynting vector (W/m^2)
E = instantaneous electric-field intensity (V/m)
H = instantaneous magnetic-field intensity (A/m)

Poynting vector represents the directional energy flux density (the rate of energy transfer per
unit area, in units of watts per square meter (Wm^2)) of an electromagnetic field.

P W. ds W. n da
S S
Average power radiated by an antenna
Prad Pav Wrad .ds Wav. n da
S S

1
Re( E H ). ds 15
2 S
RECIPROCITY

RECIPROCITY of antennas means that the various

properties of the antenna apply equally to
transmitting and receiving.

An antenna ability to transfer energy form the

atmosphere to its receiver with the same efficiency
with which it transfers energy from the transmitter
into the atmosphere.

Antenna characteristics are essentially the same

regardless of whether an antenna is sending or
receiving electromagnetic energy

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Radiation Intensity

Is the power density per solid angle:

U r 2 Wr
where,
Wr Re {E H*}r [W/m 2 ]
is the power density also
known as Poynting vector.
2
Prad U d U sin( ) d d
0 0

Prad U o d U o d 4 U o
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Beamwidth

HPBW is defined as In a plane containing the

direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle
between the two directions in which the radiation
intensity is one-half value of the beam.

FNBW is defined as the angular separation between

the first nulls of the pattern.

Resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish

between two sources is equal to half the first-null
beamwidth (FNBW/2), which is usually used to
approximate the halfpower beamwidth (HPBW).

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DIRECTIVITY

Directivity of an antenna defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.

U 4 U
D
Uo Prad
If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation intensity
(maximum directivity) expressed as

U max 4 U max
Dmax Do
Uo Prad
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ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

Three types of losses

1. Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna
2. I^2 R losses (conduction and dielectric)

In general, the overall efficiency can be written as

eo er ec ed
e0 = Total efficiency (dimensionless)
er = Reflection(mismatch) efficiency = (1 | |^2) (dimensionless)
ec = Conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
ed = Dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
= Voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna

eo er ecd e cd (1 )
2

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GAIN

Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as the ratio of the intensity, in a given
direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically
radiated power is equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4. In
equation form this can be expressed as

Radiation Intensity U ( , )
Gain 4 4 (dimensionless)
Total input (accepted) power Pin
U ( , )
Gain 4 (dimensionless)
Pin (lossless isotropic source)

Prad ecd P in and G ( , ) ecd D( , )

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Reflection Coefficient

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Problem

1- A hypothetical isotropic antenna is radiating in free-space. At a distance of 100 m from the

antenna, the total electric field (E) is measured to be 5 V/m. Find the

(a) power density (W rad)

(b) power radiated (P rad)

2- Find the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) and first-null beamwidth (FNBW), in radians and
degrees, for the following normalized radiation intensities:
(a) U() = cos (b) U() = cos2

3- The maximum radiation intensity of a 90% efficiency antenna is 200 mW/unit solid
angle. Find the directivity and gain (dimensionless and in dB) when the

(a) input power is 125.66 mW

(b) radiated power is 125.66 mW 23
Approximate Method

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Cont.
Cont.

26
Cont

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BEAM EFFICIENCY

Beam efficiency is another parameter that is frequently used to judge the quality of
transmitting and receiving antennas

power transmitted (received) within cone angle 1

BE= (Dimensionless)
power transmitted (received) by the antenna

2 1

U ( , ) d d
BE 0 0
2

U ( , ) d d
0 0

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BANDWIDTH

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified
standard.

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POLARIZATION

Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the polarization of the wave

transmitted (radiated) by the antenna.

Polarization is the direction of the electric field and is the same as the physical attitude of the
antenna. A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically polarized wave. The receive and transmit
antennas need to possess the same polarization.

Vertical waves travel at 90 degree to the earths surface

Horizontal waves travel parallel to the earths surface
Wire antennas are horizontal or vertical depending upon their orientation
Yagi type antennas can be either vertical or horizontal
Circular antennas can be both vertical and horizontal
Usually, horizontally polarized antennas receives less noise but vice versa w.r.t the earth
surface.

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POLARIZATION

Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as that property of an electromagnetic wave

describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric-field vector.
There are three types of antenna polarization,
1. Linear polarization.
2. Circular polarization.
3. Elliptical polarization.

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Polarization

32
Polarization

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POLARIZATION LOSS FACTOR AND EFFICIENCY
In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same as the polarization
of the incoming (incident) wave. This is commonly stated as polarization mismatch.

PLF . a cos p
2 2
(dimensionless)
Polarization efficiency the ratio of the power received by an
antenna from a given plane wave of arbitrary polarization to
the power that would be received by the same antenna from
a plane wave of the same power flux density and direction of
propagation, whose state of polarization has been adjusted
for a maximum received power.
inc 2
E
pe
e

inc 2
E
2
e

e = vector effective length of the antenna

Einc = incident electric field 37
PLF FOR APERTURE AND LINEAR WIRE ANTENNA

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EXAMPLE ANTENNAS

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INPUT IMPEDANCE OF ANTENNA
Input impedance is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or the
ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components
of the electric to magnetic fields at a point.

ZA = RA + j XA

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INPUT IMPEDANCE OF ANTENNA

In general the resistive part consists of two components; that is

RA = Rr + RL
If we assume that the antenna is attached to a generator with internal impedance

Zg = Rg + j Xg

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ANTENNA POWERS

42
CONT.

43
CONT.

44
CONT.

45
ANTENNA EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The effective length of an antenna, whether it be a linear or an aperture antenna, is a quantity
that is used to determine the voltage induced on the open-circuit terminals of the antenna
when a wave impinges upon it.

46
CONT

47
EFFECTIVE AREA (APERTURE)

48
EFFECTIVE AREA (APERTURE)

49
APERTURE EFFICIENCY

Aperture Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the For aperture Antenna :

maximum effective area Aem of the antenna to its
physical area Ap

50
CONT

51
FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION
The Friis Transmission Equation relates the power received to the power transmitted between
two antennas separated by a distance R > 2D2 /, where D is the largest dimension of either
antenna.

52
CONT

53
CONT

54
RADAR RANGE EQUATION
the area
intercepting that amount of
power which, when scattered
isotropically, produces at the
receiver a density which is
equal to that scattered by
the actual target.

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RADAR RANGE EQUATION

56
CONT.

57
ANTENNA TEMPRATURE

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CONT

59
ANTENNA, TRANSMISSION LINE AND RECEIVER
ARRANGEMENT FOR SYSTEM NOISE POWER
CONT
CONT
SYSTEM NOISE POWER AT RECEIVER TERMINALS