Mechanical Behavior Under Tensile and Compressive Loads* George E. Dieter, University of Maryland ‘THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF MA. ‘TERIALS is described by their deformation and fracture characteristics under applied tensile, compressive, or multiaxial stresses. Determi- ‘nation of this mechanical behavior is nlucnced by several factors that include metallurgical’ ‘material variables, test methods, and the nature ‘of the applied stresses. ‘This article focuses on mechanical behavior ‘under conditions of uniaxial tension and com- pression, The main emphasis is on mechanical behavior during the engineering tension test, ‘which is widely used to provide basic design information on te strength of materials and as ‘an acceptance test forthe specification of mate rials. In this est procedure, a specimen is sub- jected to a continually increasing uniaxial load (force), while simultaneous observations are ‘made ofthe elongation ofthe specimen. In this article, emphasis is placed onthe interpretation OF these observations rater than on the proce: dures for conducting the tests. The article “Uni axial Tensile Testing” inthis Volume discusses the influence of test procedure variables Engineering Stress-Strain Curve In the conventional engineering teasion test, fan engineering. stress-strain curve is. con structed from the load-elongation measure- ‘ments made on the test specimen (Fig. 1). The engineering stress (5) used in this suess-strain curve is the average longitudinal stest in the tensile specimen. Itis obtained by dividing the load (P) by the original area ofthe cress section (641) ‘The strain, ¢, used for the engineering stress-strain curve is the average linear stain, hich is obtained by dividing the elongation of. the gage length ofthe specimen (8)by it oi nal length Peres me & ‘Because both the stress and the sain ae ob: tained by dividing the load and elongation by constant factors, the loud-clongation curve has the same shape asthe engineering stress-strain ‘curve. The two curves frequently are used ia terchangeably ‘The shape and magnitude of the stress-strain ‘curve of a metal depend on its composition, heat treatment, prior history of plastic deforma tion, and the strain rate, temperature, and state ‘of siress imposed during the testing. The pa- rameters thi are used to describe the tres-strain ‘curve of a metal are the tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, percent elongation, and > Enoineering aves reduction in area. The fire two ave strength pa ‘ameter the last wo indicate dusty. ‘The general shape of the engineering stress strain cue (Fig. 1) requires futher explan tion, Inthe elastic region, stess i inealy pro portional to strain. When the stess exceeds a value coresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes gross plastic deformation Tf the load is subsequently reduced t9 zero, the specimen will remain permanently deformed. “The sires required to produce continued plastic deformation increases with increasing plastic strain; tat is, the metal strain hardens. The vol- ume of the specimen (area x length) remains constant during plastic deformation, AZ = Ag tnd as the specimen elongates, its cross: Sectional area decreases uniformly along the ‘gage length. Initially the strain hardening more than com- penstes fo this decrease in area, andthe engi- Enoineerng wan ret eee ea eeraens ngneering sexta crv. nteraction ofthe dished line with the curve determines the fe yield Repeat rm Mechanic Metal, Se McCraw Hl New Yo, 1986 p 275-295, wih pemiion100 / Tension, Compression, Bend, and Shear Testing neering stress (proportional to load P) contin- ues to rise with increasing strain, Eventually, « point is reached where the decrease in spec ‘men cross-sectional area is greater than the in- crease in deformation load arising fom strain hardening. This condition wil be reached first at some point in the specimen that is slightly ‘weaker than the rest. All further plastic defor- mation is concentrated in this region, and the specimen begins to neck or thin down locally. Because the cross-sectional area now is de- creasing far more rapidly than the deformation load is increased by strain hardening, the actual load required to deform the specimes falls off, ‘and the engineering stress defined in Eq 1 con- tines to decrease until fracture occurs, The tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength (7) is the maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional area of the speci- (3) ‘The tensile strength is the value most fre quently quoted from the results of a tension test, Actually, however, itis a value of litle fundamental significance with regard to the strength of a metal. For ductile metals, the ten- sile strength shouldbe regarded asa measure of the maximumload that @ metal can withstand ‘under the very restrictive conditions of uniaxi loading. This value bears little relation to the useful strength of the metal under the more complex conditions of stress that usually are encountered. For many years, it was customary to base the strength of members on the tensile strength, suitably reduced by a factor of safety. The cur- rent trend is to use the more rational approach of basing the static design of ductile metals on the yield strength. However, due to the long practice of using the tensile strength t describe the strength of materials, it has become a fami iar property, and as such, its useful identifc cation of a material in the same sense thatthe ‘chemical composition serves to identify a metal ‘oF alloy. Furthermore, because the tensile strength is easy to determine and is areproduc- ible propery, itis useful for the purposes of specification and for quality contol of a prod uct, Extensive empirical correlations between tensile strength and properties such as hardness and fatigue strength are often useful. For brittle rmaterials, the tensile strength is @ valid design eriterion Measures of Yielding. ‘The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the sensitivity of the strain measurements. With most materials, there is @ gradual transiton from elastic to plastic behev- ior, and the pcint at which plastic deformation begins is difficult to define with pression, In tests of materials under uniaxial loading, three ‘itera for the initiation of yielding have been used: the elastic limit, the proportional limit, and the yield srength, Elastic limit, shown at point A in Fig. 2, is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain re- maining after the complete release of load. With increasing sensitivity of sain measure- iment, the value of the elastic limit is decreased tut it eqeals the true elastic limit determined from microstrain measurements, With the sen- sitivity of strain typically used in engineering studies (10 inJin.), the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit. Determination of the elastic limit requires a tedious incremental loading-usloading test procedure. For this rea- son, it is often replaced by the proportional limit Proportional limit, shown at point A’ in Fig, 2, isthe highest stress at which stess is directly proportional to strain It is obtained by absers- ing the deviation from the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve. ‘The yield strength, shown at point B in Fig. 2, the stress required to produce a small spec- ified amount of plastic deformation. The usual efinition of this property is the offset yield strength determined by the stress correspond- ing tothe intersection ofthe stress-strain curve ‘offset by specified strain see Fig. 1 and 2). In the United States, the offset is usually specified asa strain of 0.2 or 0.1% (e = 0.002 oF 0.001): Peri tte 02) 4 Offset yield strength determination requires a specimen that has been loaded to its 0.2% off- Set yield strength and unloaded so that it is 0.2% longer than before the test. The offset yield strength is often referred to in Great Brit- fin as the proof stress, where offset values are either 0.1 or 0.5%. The yield strength obtained by an offset method is commonly used for de- sign and specification purposes, because it avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or proportional limit. ‘Some materials have essentially no linear portion to their stress-strain curve, for example, soft copper, gray cast iron, and many polymers. For these materials, the offset method cannot bbe used, and the usual practice is to define the Yield strength as the stress to produce some to- tal strain, for example, ¢ = 0.005, (B44) Sein, « 2 Typical tension stress-strain curve for ductile ‘mal indicating Yielding era, Pot A, ela. i tm ‘peint'X proparioal limit point 8, yield Srerth ort (0 ye regi, ersection of thesresestaincurve withthe sranaxis Some metals, particularly annealed low- carbon steel, show a localize, heterogeneous {ype of transition from elas to plastic detor- ‘mation that produces a yield. point in the stress-strain curve. Rather than having a flow curve with a gradual transition from elastic 9 plastic behavior, such as Fig. 1 and 2, metals with a yield point produce a flow carve or 3 Joad-longation diagram sinilar to Fig. 3. The Joad increases steadily with elastic trai, drops suddenly, fluctuates about some approximately constant value of load, and then rises with fur. ther sain "The Joad at which the sulen drop occurs is called the upper yield point. The constant load is called the lower yield poat, and the elonga- tion that occurs at constant load is called the Yyld-pont elongation. The deformation occur fing throughout the yield-point elongation is heterogeneous. At the upper yield point, a dis- crete band of deformed metal, often readily vis- ible, appears a a stress concentration, suchas & fillet Coincident with the formation of the band, the load drops to the lower yield poi The band then propagates slong the length of the specimen, causing the jck-point elonga- tion. A similar behavior acct with some poly ters and superplastic metal alloys, where 3 neck forms bat grows in & stable manner, with ‘material being fed into the necked region from the thicker adjacent regions. This type of defor- sation in polymers is called “drawing.” In typical eases, several bands form at sev- eral pots of stress concentration, These bands are generally at approximately 45° to the ten- sile axis. They are usually called Loders bands or stretcher strains, and this type of deforma tin i sometimes referred to asthe Piobertef- fect. When several Liders bands are formed, the flow curve during the yeld-pointelonga- tion i imegular, each jog coresponding tothe formation of anew Liiders band. After the Liiders bands have propagated to cover the en- tire length ofthe specimen tet section, the flow will increase with stain in the typical manner. ‘his marks the end of the yeld-point elonga- tion. Liiders bands formed on a rimmed 1008 ‘ee are shown in Fig. 4 Unveided meta ig. 3. Tywicalyeld point behwvior of low-carbon Fig. 3 SEI The slope of the tata near potion of the srs: sain curve, designated by the modulus of elas.Measures of Ductility. Currently, ductility is considered a qualitative, subjective property ‘ofa material. In general, measurements of duc- tility are ofierest in three respects (Ref 1) ‘¢ To indicate the extent to which a metal can bbe deformed without fracture in metalwork- ing operations, such a rolling and exusion '* To indicate tothe designer the ability of the ‘metal t0 flow plastically before fracture. A hhigh ductility indicates that the material is “forgiving” and likely to deform locally without fracture should the designer err in the stress calculation or the prediction of se vere loads ‘¢ To serve as am indicator of changes in impu- rity level or processing conditions. Ductili measurements may be specified to assess ‘material quality, even though no direct rela- tionship exists between the ductility mea- surement and performance in service. ‘The conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test ae the engi ‘neering stain a fracture (e,) (usually called the clongation) and the reduction in area at fracture (@). Elongation and reduction in area usually fare expressed 5 a percentage. Both of these ‘properties are obtained after fracture by puting the specimen back together and taking mea- surements ofthe final length, L, and final spec- ‘men cross section, A eget 9) = (Ba Fig. 4 Rimmed 1008 see with Liders bands on the surace a2 result of seching the sheet fst ‘beyond they pin daring ong ‘Mechanical Behay att eo & Because an appreciable fraction ofthe plastic deformation wil be concentrated in the necked region ofthe tension specimen, the value of er will depend on the gage length (Lg) over which the measurement was taken (se the section of this article on ductility measurement in tension testing). The smaller the gage length, the greater the contribution to the overall elonga- tion from the necked region and the higher the value of ¢, Therefore, when reporting values of percentage elongation, the gage length should Always be given. Reduction in area does not suffer from this difficulty. These values can be converted into ‘an equivalent zero-gage-length elongation (e). From the constancy of volume relationship for plastic deformation, AL = Aol: = a7) ‘ ‘This represents the elongation based on a very short gage length near the fracture. ‘Another way to avoid the complications re- sulting from necking is to base the percentage ‘elongation onthe uniform strain out tothe point at which necking begins. The uniform elonga- tion (e,), correlates well with stretch-forming operations. Because the engineccing. stress- strain curve often is quite flat inthe vicinity of rocking, it may be difficult to establish the strain at maximum load without ambiguity. In this case, the method suggested in Ref 2is useful ‘Modulus of Elasticity. The slope ofthe in tial linear portion of the stress-strain curve is the modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, as shown in Fig. 3. The modulus of elasticity (B) is a measure of the stiffness of the material ‘The greater the modulus, the smaller the elastic strain resulting from the application of a given stress. Because the modulus of elasticity is needed for computing deflections of beams and other members, i is an important design value ‘The modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms, Because these forces cannot be changed without chang- ing the basic nature of the material, the mods- lus of elasticity is one of the most structure sensitive ofthe mechanical properties. Generally, itis only slightly affected by alloying additions, hheat treatment, or cold work (Ref 3). However, Increasing the temperature decreases the modu- Table 1_Typical values of modulus of elasticity at different temperatures z Mad ty Ga poate Matra ae ITO cme ae Coa aT Eaton met amano 6TH CSSA) ~~) ARO) Auenierainlessee 199080) 685) 93M) 18828) SLO) Tato Matisse 40) 74107) 70(100) ne als mains) 85583) sus) Under Tensile and Compressive Loads / 101 lus of elasticity. At elevated temperatures, the modulus is offen measured by a dynamic method (Ref 4). Typical values of the modulus of elasticity for common engineering metals at different temperatures are given in Table 1 Resilience. The ability of a material to ab- sorb energy when deformed elastically and to return it when unloaded is called resilience. ‘This property usually is measured by the modu- lus of resilience, which isthe stain energy per unit volume (Up) required to suess the material from ze0 stress to the yield stress (69). The strain eeergy per unit volume for uniaxial ten- on) Uae so. 2 From the above definition, the modulus of re- silience (Ug) is: Tt dreo=t50% 4) 22 “a ‘This equation indicates that the ideal material forresising energy loads in applications where the material must not undergo permanent dis- tortion, such as in mechanical springs, is one having a high yield stress and alow modulus of elasticiy For various grades of steel the modulus of resilience ranges from 100 io 4500 ki/m? (14.5-650 Ibf + inn), with the higher values representing stels with higher carbon or alloy contents (Ref 5). The cross-hatched regions in Fig. 5 indicate the modulus of resilience for two steels Due to its higher yield stength, the high- Carbon spring stecl has the greater resilience ‘The toughness of « material is its ability to absorb energy inthe plastic range. The ability to withstand occasional stresses above the yield stress without fracturing is particularly desir- able in parts such as freight-car couplings, sears, chains, and crane hooks. Toughness is & ‘commonly used concept that is dificult to pre- cisely define. Toughness may be considered to be the otal area under the stress-strain curve ‘This arca, which is refered to as the modulus (of toughness (Up) is an indication of the amount of work per unit volume that can be done on the material without causing it to nup- ture Figure 5 shows the stress-strain curves for high: asd low-toughness mate‘ials. The high carbon spring stel has a higher yield strength and tensile strength than the medivm-carbon Structural steel, However, the structural steel ‘more ductile and has a greater total elongation, ‘The total area under the stress-strain curve is ‘greater fr the structural sce: therefore, itis @ tougher material. This illustrates that toughness is parameter that comprises both strength and loci, ‘Severl mathematical approximations for the area under the stress-strain curve have been suggested. For ductile metals thot have a stress-strain curve like that of the structural steel, tbe area under the curve can be approxi- mated by:102 / Tension, Compression, Bend, and Shear Testing (&10) (equ) For britle materials, the stess-strin curve is Sometimes assumed to be a parabo, andthe area under the curve is given by 2 Una b re B12) Typical StressStrain Curves. Figure 6 compares the engineering stes-srain curves in tension for tree materials. The 8% carbon cutectoid ste is representative of « material with low ductility. The annealed 0.2% carbon mild steel stows a pronounced upper and lower Yield point. The polycarbonate enginesred Polymer has no well-defined linest modulus, fand a large strain to fracture. Note the pro: ‘nounced difference in stress level at which Yielding is defined, as wel as te quite differ- ent shape of the stress-strain curves. True Stress-True Strain Curve ‘The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication ofthe deformation char- Acterstcs of a metal because itis based en- tirely on the original dimensions of the speci ‘men, and these dimensions change continuously during the test, Also, ductile metal that is pulled in teasion becomes unstable and necks ‘down during the course ofthe test. Because the cross-sectional area of the specimen is decreas- ‘ng rapidly a this stage in the tes, the load re- ‘uired to continue deformation falls off, ‘The average stress based on the original area likewise decreases, and this produces the fall-off in the engineering stress-strain curve Deyond the point of maximum load. Actually, ‘the metal continues to strain harden to fracture, so that the stess required to produce further de: formation should also increase. If the true stress, based on the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is used, the stress-strain curve Svan ig. 5 Compuriton of sress-rain crestor high- and Fig. 5 (Gacaughnes sch, Cane hied poe in this cave represent the modulus of relence (0p) ote {wo materi The Uy i Setermined by mestting he area under the arse san cutve upto he eas it oF the materia. Pit A represents the late tof te ‘pring eo: poi B represents that ofthe set se increases continuously to fractare. Ifthe strain ‘measurement is also based on instantaneous measurement, the curve that is obtained is known as true stress-ine strain curve, This is also known as a flow curve because it repre- sents the basic plastic flow characteristics of the material ‘Any point on the flow curve can be consid- cred the yield stress for a metal strained in ten- sion by the amount shown on the curve, Thus, if the load is removed at this point and then re- ‘applied, the material will behave elastically ‘throughout the entre range of reloading ‘The thie stress (6) is expressed in terms of engineering stress (8) by: oF (ee axer) ‘The derivation of Eq 13 assumes both con- stancy of volume and a homogeneous distribu- tion of sirain along the gage length of the ten- sion specimen. Thus, Eq 13 should be used only unl the onset of necking. Beyond the ‘maximum load, the true stress should be deter- ‘mined from actual measurements of load and (413) Eqs) ‘The tne strain, e, may be determined from the engineering or conventional strain (e) by: t erijen eat Ceram Teton smelt oti ot Bape orep intel ont snes lnk tet ae soe Giecucacaeosa = canal au ae (3) ion coment a oe ho a caw wa Kt conmpondag ogieaing tas in carve Now is bone o atively large plastic strains, the elastic region has been compressed into the yaxis. In agree- (16) = (Gime ] = 1 [ot “ av [he al 05010 OI Oa) 025 030 Sai, an Fig. 6 Typical engineering sven cvs ‘meot with Bq 13 and 15, the true stress-true strain curve is always to the left of the eng neesing curve until the maximum load is reached, However, beyond maximum load, the high, localized strain in the necked region that are used in Eq 16 far exceed the engineering strain calculated from Eq 2. Frequently, the flow ‘curve is linear from maximum load to fracture, while in other cases its slope continuously de- creases to fracture. The formation of a necked region or mild notch introduces triaxial stresses that make it difficult to determine accurately the longitudinal tensile stress from the onset of necking until fracture occurs. This concept is discussed in greater detail in the section ofthis article on instability in tension, The following parameters usually are determined from the true stress-irue strain curve. The true stress at maximum load corre- sponds to the true tensile strength. For most materials, necking begins at maximum load at a value of strain where the tre stress equals the slope of the flow curve. Let 6, and e, denote the tue stress and true strain at maximum load When the cross-sectional area of the specimen ‘Ay. The ultimate tensile strength ean be de- fined as ane ei ana o,f ais Eliminating Ppa Yields 19) 20 The true fracture stress isthe load at frac- ture divided by the cross-sectional area at frac- ture. This stress should be corrected for the lwiaxial state of stress existing in the tensile specimen at fracture, Because the data required Fig. 7 Comparton of engine an tue seefer this correetioa Frequently are availble nue rastore stress values ae Srequcedly incre” “The true fracture strain, este ews strzin tnwied on tbe original area (Ag) and the area af. terrace (Ap: ae gah eg 2ip a ‘This parameter represents the maximace true strain thal the muterial can withstand before fracture and is analogous to the total stain Iracaure ofthe engineering seess-traia curve ‘Bocause Eq 13 is not yal beyond be onset of neeking, ais not possible to calcolate e, from. ‘measuted valuescte;, However, fer cylizdrial ensile specimens, the seduction im area (2h i lao to the true rscrare strain by sot aime ‘The true uniform strain cy the nse sro trased anly cae sti Upto maximus fou may be calcslaid from either the spreimea cromtsec tonal ees (A,) oF the page length (E> ‘i miomu toa, Buadion 13 way be wsed a anvert comventional uniform sro re uae form stain. The uniform siren eequecly is Usefol in csmasing the Conrmbiity of metals fram the resalis t eee A e221 (eazy The true local necking strain (eg) is the stevin requnned t deform the specimea from maim Icad to fracture: (eam) Fg 8 thadenteroeen fh es ooph ameticet, Beer Fig. 9 varaesGrme pone cure tre Mechanical Behavior Under Tensile and Compressive Loads / 103 Mathematical Expressions for the Flow Curve ‘The flow curve of many mevls inthe region ‘of uniform plasic deformating can be ex [pressed by the simple pawer carve reletica: an kee where ris the sirain-hardening exponent, and Kis the steogth coefficient. A log-ag plot of true stress seal true strain up ws masimam load ‘will eel na straight line if Eg 25 is tise Dy the data Fig). "The linear slope of thie Line i'm. amd Kis the as stress te = 1.0 (corresponds tn 4 = 0.83), [As shown in Fig. 9, the strain-bardening expo- lent may have values from & = 0 (perfectly plastic solid) w m= 1 (elastic suis). For most freeads, wh values between 0,10 and 0,50 (ene Table 2 ‘The rate of sirin hardeaing doe is not Identical to the stais-Randening expeert. From the definition of ino) ae « laze eget ES ant 7 Band ea20 Devisions from fy 25 frequently are ob ferved fen. at low arains (10) oF high frains(e= LD}. One commen typeof devision (soe log-log plot of Ba 2680 real in ra ftmigh lines ith diferent elopec, Somesiines dita that de wot plot sccocting 10 Eq 25 wall Yield strap tne according Oy tbe elation shop: oasiey er 42) Fyn fe considered to be the ameant of sain thatthe susterisl received peor tothe tenio test (Ret 8). Another common. variation 6a Eq 26 be he Ladi equation: 0-0, 6KE bya) where ep is the yield stress, and andr are the same constants ar in Bq 25. This egeation may he more satisfying than Fq 2S, hecause the lat ‘cer implies cht at nero true stain the stress Es een. Ithas heen shown that pean be obtained from the intercept of the arain-hardenlag por ‘damn of the stress-strain curve and the elastle modulus line by (el 9} ou(G) ‘The troe strese-troe strain carve of metas such as austenitic stale steel, which devione markedly froas Fi 25 at lowe sain (Ref 10}, ‘sam be expres By: ut aoa hy het (430) shore tic appeoximately equal fo the propor: riogal limit, and mis the slope ofthe deviation ‘of tess from By 28 plactedainsce Oder ex ressives forthe flow curve are available (Ret 11, 12}, The tome strain tern in EG 25 wo 28 reper scald be the plastic san, Fy = Ey = 6 = Gia SVE. whene Gg roves elastic Effect af Strain Rate and Temperature: ‘The cate at which strain is epic w te ten ssn specioies Ie an important influence 6& ‘Se stress-strain curve, Stes rue i deine! a = ded Ie is expressed in units of 1. The ngs of seria rates encompsssod by various teats i shown in Tale 3, Tncreasing stnin rete increases the flow soess. Movesver the simi-rute dependence of ‘soengti increases with increasing temperanure ‘The yield sires and ane flow sess wt lower values of plastic strain me more affected by stearate thu the tensile erengeh If the cromheed velocity af the testing ene cine is v= del, then the stun rate expres intecmsaf conventional eagineering strain i de TLE )Ng ae Lat Rae ean Tale 2 Values for mand Xfor metals at room temperature ass 0 1" & ta a 5 a ; a0 wa 5104 / Tension, Compression, Bend, and Shear Testing ‘The engineering strain rate is proportional to the crosshead velocity, Ina moderntesting ma chine, in which the crosshead velocity can be set accurately and controlled, it isa simple mat- ter to carry out tension tests at a constant engi- neering strain rate, ‘The tru sain rate is given by extent 1d» earn) 0.5, m values of 0.1 t0 0.2 are ‘commoni metals. Polymers have much higher values of m, and may approach m = 1 in room- temperaure tests for some polymers The temperature dependence of flow stress can be represented by: (&435) (&36) where Q is an activation energy for plastic flow, cal/g - mol; R is universal gas constant, 1.987 ca K - mol: and Tis testing temperature in kelvin. From Eq 36, a plot of n ¢ versus 1/T ‘will givea straight line witha slope Q/R. Instability in Tension Necking generally begins at maximum load during the tensile deformation of a ductile metal. An exception to this is the behavior of ‘cold-rolled zirconium tested at 200 to 370 °C (390-700 °F), where necking occurs ata strain Of twice the strain at maximum load (Ref 13). ‘An ideal plastic material in which no strain hhardening occurs would become unstable in tension and begin to neck as soon as yielding occurred. However, an actual metal undergoes strain hardening, which tends 10 inerease the load-carrying eapacity of the specimen as de~ {ormatioe increases. ‘This effect is opposed by the gradual de- crease in the cross-sectional area of the speci ‘men as itelongates. Necking or lcalized defor- mation begins at maximum lead, where the increase in stress due to decrease in the ‘eross-sectional area of the specimen becomes ‘Subuagont of unity Fig. 11 Craghcal etre of cing rn. Te pot of ekg 8 ‘Scoeoranmcanety inal ponte tcc hg ‘greater than the increase inthe load-carrying abil ity ofthe meal due to strain hardening. This con- tion of instability leading w localized deforma tion s defined by the condition dP Poca (437) dP =0dh +Ado=0 (6438) From the constancy-of-volume relationship ae da de a3 Loa = and from the instability condition, Eq 38 aA_ do ahs 40) a (&4 40) ‘0 that ata point of tensile instability: = (east) a ‘Therefore, the point of necking at maximum load van be obtained from the true stress-true strain curve by finding the point on the curve ‘having a subtangent of unity (Fig. 11a), or the point where the rte of strain hardening equals the stress (Fig. 11b). The necking criterion can be expressed more explicitly if engineering strain is used, Starting with Eq 41: ao Bareeo te i= ae doe = rs me Equation 42 permits an interesting geomets- cal consiuction for the determination of the point of maximum load (Ref 14), In Fig. 12, the Stres-strain curve is ploted in terms of true sess against enginecting stain, Let point A represent a negative strain of 1.0..A line drawn from point A, which is tangent to the strest-train curve, will establish the point of ‘maximum load because, acording to Eq 42, the slope at this point is O/+ e). er kad can be bof the se Lanyon where dade = 8By substiing the necking ritron given in 15,4 ito Eq 26, simple relationship forthe Stn at which necking occurs soba een (6a) Although Eq 26is based on the assumption that the flow curve is piven by Eq 25, it has been, shown that €, =m does not depend on this ‘power law bebuvior (Ref 15), » Stress Distribution at the Neck ‘The formation of a neck inthe tensile speci- ‘men introduces a complex triaxial sate of ‘ress in that region. The necked region sin ef- fect a mild notch. A notch under tension pro- duces radial stress (6,) and transverse stress (@) which raise the value of longitudinal stress required to cause the plastic flow. Therefore, the average true stress atthe neck, which is de- termined by diriding the axial tensile load by the minimum cross-sectional area of the speci- ‘men atthe neck, is higher than the stress that ‘would be required to cause flow if simple ten- sion prevailed. Figure 13 illustrates the geometry at the necked region and the stresses developed by this localized deformation. R is the raius of curvature of the neck, which can be measured bby projecting the contour of the necked region on a screen or by using a tapered, coni- cal radius gage. Bridgman made a mathematical analysis that provides a corection to the average axial stress to compensate forthe introduction of transverse stresses (Ref 16). This analysis was based on the following assumptions: ‘©The contour ofthe neck is approximated by the are ofa circle, ‘The cross section of the necked region ro- mains circular throughout the test. {The von Mises criterion for yielding apples. ‘©The strains ae constant over the cross sec- tom of the neck. According to this analysis, the uniaxial flow stress corresponding to that which would exist in the tension test if necking had not introduced triaxial stresses Fig. 12, Contidee’s conscton forthe deena es tion ofthe point of maximum load. Source: ‘Mechanical Behavior Under Tensile and Compressive Loads / 105 ew ( ef where (6,8 the measured sess inthe aah Shrcton old divided by minimum ros sec- thn) and the minima radios a the neck. Figure 7 shows how the aplication of the Bridgman correction changes the true stress- tre strain curve, A correction forthe triaxial stresses inthe neck of a lt tensle specimen has been corsidered (Ref 17). The values of A needed forthe analysis canbe obtained c- therby straining specimen given amount be- yond necking nd unlondng fo measure a and FR sirectiy, o by measuring these prsmstery continuously past necking using photography or tapered sng gage (Ret 18) "To avoid these measurement, Bridgman pre- sented an empirical relation botwees a/R and the teeta nthe neck. Figure 1 shows that this pve clone agreement for steel specimens, tut not for aher meals with widely diferent necking strains. A much beter corelation is tain! eres: a Sitges oops ens the re strain inthe neck mimo the ve sain at necking, (Ref 2. Dowling (Ref 21) has. shown that the Bridgman conection factor B canbe estimated from: 83-0186 loge(0.1SSe23) (E445) where B = a1(6,)yy Ductility Measurement in Tension Testing, ‘The measured elongation from a tension spec ‘men depends on the gage length of the speci- men, oF the dimensions of its cross section, “This ie because the total extension consists of {two components: the uniform extension up t0 necking and the localized extension ence neck- ing begins. The extent of uniform extension de- ; Cc) o Stes disbstion tthe neck of tense pele a) Gea of necked regan ts the ad of carvatur of he nec 4 he mime tah tte rk Stress acing on een a pot {Svar athe ares nthe nal decion oy she akal Set stevens sess pends on the metallurgical condition ofthe ma- terial (through ») and the effect of specimen size and shape on the development of the neck. Figure 15 illustrates the variation of the local longation, as defined in Eq 7, along the gage Jengih of a prominently necked tensile spect- ‘men. The shorter the gage length, the greater the influence of localized deformation at the neck on the total elongation of the gage length. ‘The extension of a specimen at fracture can be ‘expressed by: Lyla 4g 46) where ais the local necking extension, and ‘és the uniform extension. Thetensileelon- ‘gation is then: a ‘This clearly indicates that the total elongation is a function ofthe specimen gage length. The shorter the gage length, the greater the percent elongation. ‘Numerous attempts have been made to rato nalize the strain distribution in the tension test Perhaps the most general conclusion that can be ‘drawn is that geometrically similar specimens develop geometrically similar necked regions. (ean) os a a Sein. ge 14, Bsmt eee Brn omen fer Figs 14 Geqandvuetnae in Sure: Re 18 j ome gh Yariaon of loca elongation with postion Fig. 15. ongmnelengnotenalepecimen106 / Tension, Compression, Bend, and Shear Testing ‘According to Barba’s law (Ref 22),0 =By/A,. and the elongation equation becomes Lose, te wher isa coefficient of proportionality ‘To compare elongation measurements of dif- ferent sized specimens, the specimens must be ‘geometrically similar. Equation 48 shows that {he extial geometrical factor for which simi td st fe maintsined is Z9//Ay for set specimens, oF L/Dy for rod bas. In the Tass Ses ht dard pa sti ped sen has «128 mm (0305 in) diameter and a 50 mm (2 it.) gage length. Subsze specimens ive the following respective diameter and ‘age length: 9.06 and 33.6 mm (0.357 and 1 fn), 64 and 25 mm (0252 and 1.9 in), and 4406 and 161 mm (0.160 and 0634 in), Ditfer- ft values of Loy are specified for sheet. Specimens bythe tanardizing agencies in df= {erent counties. In the United Stas, ASTM FReommends # Zy/ftg vale of 43 for set specimens and a 1)Dp value of 4.0 for round (e4) specimens. Generally, « given elongation will be pro- ced inmate if fy, mained constant as predicted by Eq 48. Thus, at a con- Sea Soros eee Sa eee naan Fee ioe ote Besos ees Sloe ae ee oe acu See oe dict the elongation with a $0 mm (2 in.) gage a Cee ees ae 63 mm, or 2 in. (0.125 in./0.080 in.)'. eee ences ee eee Ee eee SS ee, ee eee Se ee ee an acess epee Searle eee Se eer See eee Soe ore ojo ge! Se See ep laeecrtpelach efron S ea oo eS See Foe eae nee in the neck, values of reduction in area are de- pendent on specimen geometry and deformation behavior, and they should not be taken as true ‘material properties. However, eduction in area the most structure-sensitive dosti paraine ter, and as suc, itis useful in detecting quality ‘changes in the material Notch Tensile Test Ductility measurements on standard smooth tensile specimens do not always reveal metal- lurgical or environmental changes that lead to reduced local ductility. The tendency for re- duced ductility in the presence of a triaxial stress field and steep stress gradients (such as ‘occur at a notch) is called notch sensitivity. A. ‘common way of evaluating notch sensitiv tension test using a notched specimen. ‘The notch tensile test has been used exten- sively for investigating the properties of high-strength steels, for studying hydrogen fembritlement in steels and titanium, and for ing the notch sensitivity of high- {temperature alloys. More recent, notched te- sion specimens have been used for fracture me- chanics measurements (see the Section “Imy Toughness Testing and Fracture Mechanics” in this Volume). Notch sensitivity can also be in- vestigated with the notched-impact test. ‘The most common notch tensile specimen uses a 60° notch with a root radive 0.025 mm (0.001 in) oF less introduced into a round (cir- ‘cumferential notch) of flat (double-edge notch) tensile specimen. Usually, the depth of the rotch is such that the cross-sectional area atthe ‘oot of the notch is one half of the area in the ‘unnotched section, The specimen is aligned carefully and loaded in tension until fracture ‘occurs. The notch strength is defined as the ‘maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional area a the notch. Because of the plastic constraint a the notch, this value will be higher than the tensile strength of an unnotched specimen ifthe material possesses some ductil- ity. Therefore, the common way of detecting notch brtleness (or high notch sensitivity) is by determining the notch-strength ratio, NSR: sp = Sa for notched specimen at maximam load) (lense strength for unnotched specimen) 8449) If the NSR is less than unity, the material is notch brite. The other property that is mea- sured inthe notch tensile testi the reduction in area at the notch, AAs strength, hardness, or some metallurgical variable restricting plastic flow increases, the ‘metal at the root of the notch is less able to flow, and fracture becomes more likely. Notch brittleness may be considered to begin at the ‘strength level where the notch stength begins 1 fall or, more conventionally, atthe strength level where the NSR becomes les than unity The sensitivity of notch strength for detecting ‘metallurgical embrittement is illustrated in Fig. 16. Note that the convestional elongation Imam oth pins wes un detect the fall in notch streagth produced by tempering inthe 330 to 480 °C (600-900 °F) range. For a more detailed review of notch ten- sile testing, see Ref 25. Compression Test ‘The compression test consists of deforming a cylindrical specimen to prodace a thinner cyl Inder of larger diameter (upsetting), The com- pression testis @ convenient method for deter- ‘mining te stress-strain resposse of materials at large strains (€ > 0.5) because the testis not subject tothe instability of necking that occurs ina tension tes. Also it may be convenient to use the compression test because the specimen is relatively easy to make, and it does not re- 4uire large amount of material. The compres- sion test is frequently used in conjunction with evaluating the workability of materials, espe- cially at elevated temperature, because most deformation processes, like forging, have a high component of compressive stress. The test {s also used with brittle mateils, for which it is extemely difficult to machine a specimen and teasile test it in perfect alignment. ‘There are two inherent difficulties with the ‘compression test that must be overcome by the test technique: buckling of the specimen and burreling of the specimen, Both conditions ‘cause nonuniform stress and stain distributions {in the specimen that make it dificult to analyze the results ‘Buckling is a mode of fallure characterized bby an anstable lateral material deflection caused by compressive stresses. Buckling is controlled ‘Tempering ternperstute ‘= * 7 ale “ 5 = i ee ee Ho Seo Sliced ee ocean nally te! 33 hnctn of empering em perature Source: Rel 24by selecting 2 specimen geocsetry with 8 low Jemga-ersiamecer ratio. LAD) should be ess thas and » coenpression specimen with LID = is often used. also is impomant vo have ‘ery well aligned Toad tae and eneare that the end faces of the apecizsem ae parallel and perpendicular Wo thelond aks (Re 26). Often a posi alignior Fixture is aed wit the vex ing machine 49 ensure am accurate load path (Ref 27. reling isthe generat of a coewex. aur- face on the exterior of a cylinder that is de formed i compression. The crass section of ‘uch a species is barrel shaped Barreing is ‘ane yt ton te el eo = compression specimen sod tbe anvils has fly te Hud A cylinder decrees Dla i it warns Wy increwse in lameter (D) Because oF the volume of an insonpressibe ‘material must resin conscant (eq 30) ‘AS the mateclat spies outward over tbe an- ‘ily iis eee bythe (sine at his mtn thee, The materia neu the eid- hci pote In less rested by frletan ad spreads yt the greatest extent. Toe rats next 9 the anil wrth is revi teen spreing the mest; hence the creation af a barreled pro- file This defarraatin paternal leds te development of region of relatively wnde- ‘med mucials under te anvil surfaces “Ts deformation behavioe clearly mca that the ses state i wot norm asia expres shonin addtiog to the axial comgetsive ‘tre, » circumfereoinl emsile sets devebps she specimen bares fief 28, Because ha reling inreemses with the spacimes ratio DY, te foece to deform 4 cmp eye ae ‘erases with Bh (Fig. 17). Calculation of Sess and Strain. The eal- alison of ress an strain forthe compression lestts based on developing o eo condition thar tinmines feta (el barelig) and assumes tho ses sate fs axl compression. Whes fe ‘oe cab neglected, te unten compress ap Aewtbns —= edu nna Fig 17 tannin ne ce tect hong eines Mechanical Behavior Under Tensile and Compressive Loads / 107 ‘sess (ow sires) is related t the deformation ooce P by Fast ‘where the lst term is obtiined by substituting ‘ot Eg 0. Ta Bg SH sate Heels to the nial ‘ales of Ds. while sie Prefers 1 conds- toons at some smbsequent valos of specimen height, Equation 51 shows that the few stoess canbe obtalned direcily fxm the toad P and che instantaneous height(h;),providedehan ftision can be eglected. ‘The trie straia io the campression test i sven by wfs)(8) where either the displcersen: af the anil or the diameter af the specimen ean be used, ‘mchever is mae coawenient Minimizing barreling of the comgeenion ‘seciven cons mining fesion on the ends te specimen hat ae in our Wit he i The fs oe By sing a effet‘ Ft ae and machining cance rag of ee ed fhe specimen to ret the Lbsicsat wad Keep ite King soared on, An Utensive sas ‘of eats Bare shown what works eat (REE. Fgire 18 shows tho tne sires tain care (low curve) foram annealed Al-25 Mg e432 toy. Stress sod strain were caleued as de- ‘ribo in the previous section, Note bow the flow curve i compreition ages with that de- termined in atenaile tet, and how the campeet sive curves extend to muuch Iiger safoa be Cane there is 0 specimen necking. Figure 19, textes the strain over dub ce range of Fig. 8. Note that once beyond & > IS the cars beginto civerge depending oa the effectiveness of the lubrication. The highest curve (greatest evlouoes from unisnal siess) at for grooved nv platens} tha gin and preven aides Bo. Thea fiction is fort comraion where Teflon (EL Bu Pont de Nemouts & C0, In, Wilrsngts, DE} fen peayes ich Bing ke (Dow Coming Comorstion, Midland, MI is ‘laced betwees the anal sd! the spire, sseatally oo baceling accu i rome erate compression ists whee Teflon film placed Uecweeu the anval and the end of the speciznn. Because dhe itm will eventually ear, iis necensay fran the es merely, and replace se film when an slctrl signal i ses tha there is no lens gemma File ‘Oba. med ma the Wt Pee tally isimeorvenion A sce of sngkencrcinent compcestion testi oo a range of material with seraim-bardeaing exponeass fem = 808 ls 0149 shone that lubreaat conditions dot hesome significa wil & 0.5 50 lang a5 > (315. For araine outta = 1.0, x grooved speci: mon with molybdenum disfide (MoS ) grease Fig. 18 & oo tou ae oS Copa tment tei nani at Ati toy Cer en a Cue B, noes mi Ey Trae tere coins or bron nice alot care Tose Mao aa a5) aor ‘Tue conpreechenan lg, 19, fos ier or AlN tn ted income ica inion) C8 Cnt ‘moyen: cuve tym speay cure 3 ea cere 8 baron ia sai sorve, Fen and oirinesay Cane pel yard cae greed oa Sa ets108 / Tension, Compression, Bend, and Shear Testing, lubricant gave consistently good results. Nearly as good results ae achieved with smooth anvils. and a spray coat of MoS, (Ref 29). For additional details on compression testing, see the article “Axial Compression Testing” in this Volume. For information on hot compres- sion testing and other forms ofthe compression test, see the article “Bulk Workability Testing” inthis Volume. REFERENCES 1, GEE. Dieter, Introduction to Ductilty, in Ductility, American Society for Metals, 1968, 2.P.G. Nelson and J. Winlock, ASTM Bull, Vol 156, Jan 1949, p 3 3. DJ. Mack, Trans. AIME, Vol 166, 1946, p 68-85 4.PE, Armstrong, Measurement of Elastic Constants, in Techniques of Metals Re- search, Vol V, RF. Brunshaw, Ed., Interscience, New York, 1971 S.HLE. Davis, GE. Troxell, and GFW. Hauck, The Testing of Engineering Mate- rials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964, p 33, 6.1R. Low and F. Garofalo, Proc. Soc. Exp. ‘Siress Anal, Vol 4 (No, 2), 1947, p 16-25, 7.R. Low, Properties of Metals in Materials Engineering, American Society for Metals, 1949 8.4, Datske, Material Properties and Manu. facturing Processes, John Wiley & Sons, ‘New York, 1966, p 18-20 9, W.B, Morin, Tran. ASM, Vol 59, 1966, p 24 10. D.C. Ludwigson, Metall. Trans., Vol 2, 1971, p 2825-2828 11. HJ, Kleemola and M.A. Nieminen, Metall Trans, Vol 5, 1974, p 1863-1866 12,€, Adams and 1.G. Beese, Trans. ASME, Series H, Vol 96, 1974, p 123-126 13, LH, Keeler, Trans. ASM, Vol47, 1955, pls7-192 14, A. Considére, Ann. Ponts Chaussées, Vol, 1885, p 574-775 15. GW. Gel and NL. Carwile, J. Res. Natl Bur, Stand, Vol 45, 1950, p 129 16, P.W. Bridgiman, Trans. ASM, Vol 32, 1944, p53 17.1. Aronofsky, J. Appl, Mech., Vol 18, 1951, 75-84 18. T.A. Trozera, Trans. ASM, Vol $6, 1963, p 280-282 19, ER. Marball and M.C. Shaw, Trans. ASM, Vol 44, 1952, p 716 20, W.J. McG. Tegart, Elements of Mechanical ‘Metallurgy, Maceaillan, New York, 1966, p22 21. NE. Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Preice-Hal, Englewood Chil, NJ, 1993, 165 22. Mi. Barba, Mem, Soc. ng. Chis, Pat 1, 1880, 682 23,EG, Kula and NN. Fahey, Mater. Res Stand, Vol, 1961, p 631 24, GB. Espey, MHL jones, and W.F. Brown, I, ASTM Proc, Vol 59 1959, p 837 28.1. Laban, Trans. ASME, Vol 79,1957, ties 26. "strdard Methods of Compression Testing of Metalic Materials at Room Tempers ture E-9, Annual Book of ASTM Stan- dards, ASTM, Philadephia, PA 27,6. Snes, T. Okada, and S. Mack, Fisture for Accurate Load Path in Axial Compres- sion, Compression Testing af Homose neous Materials and Composites, R. Chait fnd R. Papirno, Ed, STP 808, ASTM, Phil Adega PA, 1983,» 97-108 28, P. Dadras and IF. Thoms, Deformation Inhomogeneites in Upset Forging, Com- pression Testing of Homogeneous Mae Fials and Composites, R. Chait and Papimo, Ea, STP. 808, ASTM, Philadl- pla, PA, 1983, p 24-39 29, ML. Lovato and M.G, Stxt, Met Trans A Wal, 1992, p 935-951