Unit 1
happened before it, we use the past perfect.
Past tenses
A Past simple
The past simple is used:
to talk about a completed action at a specific time in the
past. The time can be stated or implied.
The plane landed at 10.30.
I bought this coat in Paris.
Why did you decide to study English?
to refer to an activity or situation that continued for a
period of time in the past. The period finished in the
past. We usually use a time phrase with for to indicate
the period.
I lived in New York for six months when I was a student.
to talk about a past habit or regular action in the past.
On our holiday in Spain we had dinner every evening at 10
oclock.
In my last year at school we sometimes went swimming on
Friday afternoons.
to give a series of single, completed actions in the past.
I got up, had breakfast and walked to school with my friends.
B Past continuous
The past continuous is used:
to talk about an activity or situation that was in
progress at a particular moment in the past. It does not
give an indication of the length of the activity.
This time yesterday I was travelling to Rome.
to talk about an activity that was in progress when
another action happened. The activity in the past
continuous started before the action in the past simple
and may or may not have continued after it.
When Peter phoned me I was watching a DVD.
to give a background description.
I was in the park. The sun was shining and a lot of students
were sitting on the grass. A young girl was playing ball with
her dog. Then I saw Mark ...
C Past perfect simple
The past perfect simple is used:
to talk about and focus on an action that happened
before another action in the past. We use the past simple
to talk about an event in the past, and then if we want to
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look back from that point and mention something that
I got home very late. Id met some friends and wed gone to the
cinema.
with time linkers such as when/after/before/by the time/as
soon as/until to emphasize the order of events in the past.
By the time I got home it had stopped raining.
I emailed Sara after Id downloaded the information.
For more information on Time linkers with past tenses,
see Unit 5 below.
to talk about an activity or situation that continued for
a period of time leading up to another point of time in
the past. This use often involves stative verbs, such as
have, be, know.
I went to the doctors on Friday. Id had a bad headache for
three days.
D Past perfect continuous
The past perfect continuous is used:
to describe and focus on the duration of an activity
before and continuing up to a point of time in the past.
The activity may have stopped at that point or
continued after it.
James arrived at 4.30. Id been waiting for half an hour.
I looked at my watch. It was three oclock. Id been waiting for
half an hour and he still wasnt there.
When Dave got here he was very tired. Hed been driving for
twelve hours.
E Used to and would
1 Used to + infinitive is used to talk about regular actions
or situations in the past that have now changed.
I used to take the train to work but now I go by car.
My sister used to hate eating vegetables but now she loves them.
2 Note how we make negatives and questions using used to.
We didnt use to go on holidays abroad very often. Now I go
every year.
Did you use to go to Middleton School? I think I recognise you.
3 Remember that we can only use used to to talk about the
past, not the present. To talk about regular actions or
situations in the present, we can use an adverb such as
usually or normally with the present simple.
usually
I dont use to watch the news on television.
 Grammar reference
4 Would + infinitive is also used to talk about regular
action in the past. However, it is NOT used with stative
verbs to talk about permanent states in the past. It often
describes typical behaviour and can be used with always/
usually/never/often.
My gran would always give me a piece of cherry cake and a cup
of hot chocolate after school.
Our teacher would never let us use a dictionary during tests!
5 It is possible to use would in the negative and question
form but it is not common.
The present perfect
The present perfect is used to link the past and the
present.
B Present prefect continuous
A Present perfect simple
The present perfect simple is used:
to talk about events that happened before the present
time. The exact time is not stated because either it is not
known or it is not important. This event can be a single
event:
Ive seen the new James Bond film.
Ive never eaten sushi.
or it can refer to several events.
Ive been to America three times.
Our teacher has taught in several different countries.
to talk about the first/second/third etc time an action
has happened. We are making the comment in present
time. We also use this pattern + ever after superlatives.
This is the first time Ive eaten cheese and jam together!
Pierre is the nicest person Ive ever met.
to talk about a recent event that has a relevance to the
present.
The taxis just arrived. Hurry up!
Jackies had some bad news. Shes really upset.
to talk about an event or events that happened before
the present. The time period in which it happened
hasnt finished yet. We usually use time phrases such as
this year/today/this morning.
Ive been abroad three times this year.
Helen has eaten six chocolate bars this morning!
with the words just/yet/already/ever/never
Ive just seen Tim. (a moment before the present)
Weve already done this exercise. (so we dont need to do it
again)
The teacher hasnt given us the results yet. (but she will)
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Have you phoned Renee yet? (I know you planned to)
Have you ever done a bungee jump? (to emphasize in
your life)
with stative verbs to talk about something that began in
the past and is continuing at the time of speaking. This
may or may not continue in the future. We usually use
for and since with this use. For indicates the length of the
period. Since indicates the point of time that the period
began.
Ive been here for ten minutes.
How long have you known Katy?
My brothers had his laptop since his birthday.
The present perfect continuous is used:
to talk about an activity that began in the past and is
still continuing at the present time. It emphasizes the
length of time spent on the activity. For and since are
usually used to talk about the time period.
Ive been working on this assignment for two hours. (and I
havent finished yet)
Shes been talking on the phone for at least half an hour.
to talk about an activity that started in the past,
continued for a certain period and finished recently.
This activity has a result in the present.
Ive been working out at the gym and I ache all over!
What have you been doing? You look very guilty!
Note the difference between the present perfect simple
and present perfect continuous.
The simple form focuses on one or more completed
actions.
Ive cleaned the car. It looks really nice.
Ive written three letters this morning.
The continuous form focuses on the activity, which may
or may not be completed.
Ive been cleaning the car and Im soaking wet!
Ive been writing letters this morning.
to talk about a repeated action in the recent past that
has a result in the present. The focus here is not on a
single, prolonged activity but a series of actions. We
often use the words a lot/too much/too many and recently/
lately.
Ive been going out a lot recently and I need to catch up on
some sleep!
Harrys been buying a lot of things for his car lately and hes a
bit short of money at the moment.
Ive been eating too much recently and I need to go on a diet!
 Grammar reference
Unit 2
Ability
A Can and be able to
The modal verb can is used to talk about the present,
and also general ability.
Be quiet! I can hear someone coming. (present)
Maggie can play the violin very well. (general)
be able to is also possible but more formal.
Ms Smith is able to see you now please come this way.
Camels are able to travel for several days without drinking
water.
could and was/were able to can both be used to talk about
past ability (see section B below). Since there is no
infinitive, future or participle form of can, only be able to
is possible in these cases.
I used to be able to play the guitar.
Pam might be able to help you.
Will you be able to come to my party?
Steves been able to get tickets for the match.
The negative form of can is cant or cannot; in the past,
couldnt or could not are used.
To form the negative of be able to, not is used in an
appropriate position; be unable to is also possible.
I cant/cannot believe how lucky I am to have met you!
I regret that I am not able/am unable to attend the ceremony.
Sue hasnt been able/has been unable to play tennis since she
broke her finger.
B Past ability
1 When we talk about general ability in the past, both
could and was/were able to (and their negative forms) are
possible.
Our last dog could swim really well.
Sam couldnt/wasnt able to read until he was eight.
After the course Emily was able to speak Spanish quite
fluently.
2 When we talk about ability to do something on one
occasion in the past, could is not possible. Instead we use
was/were able to, succeeded in + gerund or managed to +
infinitive.
I was able to/managed to repair the DVD player myself.
The police succeeded in recovering the stolen jewellery.
Couldnt, wasnt/werent able to, didnt manage to and didnt
succeed in can all be used to talk about inability to do
something on one occasion in the past.
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Nick couldnt/didnt manage to/wasnt able to get to the
meeting on time.
We didnt succeed in convincing him to change his mind.
C Further ways of expressing ability
be (in)capable of + gerund means to have the ability,
capacity or potential to do something.
Lara is capable of doing well in her exams she just needs to
work hard.
Roger was incapable of telling the truth.
Be possible/impossible/not possible for someone to + infinitive
Im afraid its not possible for the doctor to see you today.
With so many good players it should be impossible for United
to lose.
(not) know/learn how to + infinitive
My dad doesnt know how to drive.
Elisa has learnt how to write her own name.
Comparisons
Comparatives and superlatives
A Formation
1 One-syllable adjectives
Add er to make the comparative form, and est to make
the superlative form.
short shorter shortest
If the adjective ends in e (eg safe, late, large), add r and
est.
strange stranger strangest
If the adjective ends in a single vowel and a consonant
(eg thin, hot, wet), double the consonant and add -er and
-est.
big bigger biggest
2 Adjectives with more than one syllable
Use more and most in front of the adjective to form the
comparative and superlative.
modern more modern most modern
comfortable more comfortable most comfortable
If the adjective ends in y (eg funny, noisy, unhappy),
change y to i and add er and est.
dirty dirtier dirtiest
With some two-syllable adjectives both types of
comparative and superlative forms can be used. These
include the following: clever, common, friendly, gentle,
 Grammar reference
narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple, stupid.
narrow narrower/more narrow narrowest/most narrow
3 Adverbs
Use more and the most in front of most adverbs.
quickly more quickly most quickly
Adverbs with the same form as an adjective, such as
early, fast, hard, late, long, have comparative and
superlative forms which end in er (or r) and est (or
st). The adverb soon is another example.
soon sooner soonest
4 Irregular adjectives and adverbs
Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative
and superlative forms.
good & well better best
bad & badly worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
B Use
1 Comparative and superlative adjectives and
adverbs
a To make a comparison between two people or things we
can use comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs
with than.
Alison is more confident than her brother.
My order arrived earlier than expected.
To describe small differences, use a bit, a little, slightly.
Im feeling a little better than I was this morning.
To describe big differences, use (quite) a lot, much, far.
This house is much more spacious than our old flat, and the
neighbourhoods a lot quieter, too.
b To make a comparison between more than two people
or things we can use superlative forms of adjectives and
adverbs. To specify the group use in before the noun.
Amys the most intelligent student in the class.
The Burj Dubai is the tallest building in the world.
It is possible to use single-word superlative adverbs with
or without the.
Lets see who can sing (the) loudest.
To emphasize the difference between one person or
thing and all the others, use by far, easily.
This is easily the worst holiday Ive ever had!
c less than and the least
Less and least are the opposites of more and most; they can
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be used with all adjectives and adverbs, regardless of the
number of syllables.
I bought the least expensive coat I could find.
Like more and most, they can be used without adjectives
and adverbs.
Most women here work more than the men and get paid less.
Which subjects do you like (the) most and (the) least at
school?
d Use more or less with uncountable nouns, and more or
fewer with plural countable nouns.
You may have less money than him, but hes got fewer friends.
Similarly, use most or least with uncountable nouns, and
most and fewest with plural countable nouns.
We aim to sell your house for the most money in the least
amount of time with the fewest problems.
2 (just) as + adjective/adverb + as can be used:
a To talk about people or things that are the same in some way.
Dont ask me Im just as confused as you are!
Use almost, nearly to qualify the comparisons.
She sings almost as well as her mother.
b In negative sentences so can replace the first as.
Alan isnt so optimistic about the future as I am.
Use not quite with this structure to describe small
differences.
It isnt quite so cold today as it was yesterday. (= its a little
warmer)
Use not nearly for big differences.
The exam wasnt nearly as hard as I thought it would be. (= it
was much easier)
c Use as much with uncountable nouns, and as many with
plural countable nouns.
There werent as many people at the party as I expected.
Ive got just as much work to do today as yesterday.
They can also be used without nouns.
I didnt eat as much as you but I still feel full.
d Use not/never such before adjective + uncountable or
plural countable noun
We didnt have such good weather on our holiday this year.
Ive never seen such ugly buildings as these.
Use not/never such a before adjective + singular
countable noun
Mr Phillips isnt such a good teacher as Mrs Reid.
 Grammar reference
e the same .. as can also be used with nouns.
Grandpas car is the same colour as ours.
3 Other structures
a the + comparative, the + comparative
Use this structure to show that two changes happen
together; the second is often the result of the first.
The easier I find a subject, the less interesting it is for me.
The harder you work, the more you can earn.
b like + noun, pronoun or gerund
You children behave like animals!
c (not) a lot of/a great deal of/much/little/no difference
between
There isnt a lot of difference between the film and the book.
(= the film is very similar to the book)
Unit 3
Modals for speculation and
deduction
A Speculating and making deductions about the
present.
1 When we are sure something is true we use must + simple
infinitive/continuous infinitive without to
You must be Garys sister. The two of you look very similar.
Lenny and Rita must know each other. They were at Barton
High School at the same time.
Penny must be working very hard. She hasnt had a break for
two hours.
2 When we are sure something is not true we use cant/
couldnt + simple infinitive/continuous infinitive without
to. We do not normally use mustnt to express this
concept.
We cant be out of petrol. I filled up two days ago.
He couldnt be having a shower. Theres no hot water.
3 When we think something is possibly true we use
may(not)/might(not)/could + infinitive/continuous
infinitive without to. We do not use could not to express
the concept.
Jack could be in his bedroom but Im not sure. Why dont you
check?
I have no idea of the answer but Peter might know. Ask him.
Kathys gone home. I think she may not be feeling very well.
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B Speculating and making deductions about the
past.
1 We can speculate and make deductions about the past
using information from either the present or the past.
Bill must have passed his exams. (He looks very happy!)
Bill must have passed his exams. (He worked very hard for
them.)
2 We use must/cant/couldnt + perfect infinitive to express
certainty and we use may(not)/might(not)/could + perfect
infinitive for possibility. We can also use the continuous
forms.
Derek cant have got the information about the meeting
because hes not here.
Jackie might have been driving when I called her. Her phone
was switched off.
The holiday must have cost them a fortune. They were away for
a month.
Present simple and continuous
A Present simple
The present simple is used:
to talk about something that is permanent or long term
We live on the edge of a big town.
Ken speaks both French and Russian.
I dont like horror films.
to talk about facts, things that are always true
Too much sun causes skin damage.
to talk about regular, habitual actions.
I catch the 8.30 bus every morning.
We usually meet after school in the cafe.
My dad rarely takes a holiday in the summer.
We often use frequency adverbs to show how regularly
an action takes place. These are the most common:
Always, normally, usually, frequently, often, sometimes,
occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never
A frequency adverb is usually put before the main verb
or following the verb to be or an auxiliary verb.
I often go swimming at the weekend.
I dont usually enjoy detective stories.
We are always on time for class.
It is possible to put some frequency adverbs at the
beginning of a sentence for emphasis. These include
sometimes, occasionally, normally, usually but not always,
rarely, seldom or never.
Usually we have dinner at about 7.30.
 Grammar reference
Sometimes I go round to my friends to play computer games
after school.
to describe a series of events in a film or story. We often
use the present simple when we are telling someone
about the plot of a film we have seen or a book we have
read. It is also used by reviewers when describing films
and books.
The detective flies to Paris where he meets his informant. She
takes him to a night club. He finds the leader of the gang and
they fight in the streets.
to dramatise a series of events that happened in the past.
The effect of this is to make the actions more immediate
so that the listener can imagine the events happening.
I dont know what the matter is with Phil these days. Take
yesterday for example. He comes home after school, throws his
bag on the floor and starts shouting at me for some reason.
to talk about a scheduled or timetabled event in the
future.
The exam starts at 10.30 tomorrow morning. Dont be late!
See Grammar reference Unit 5 below.
B Present continuous
The present continuous is used:
to describe an action in progress at the time of speaking.
We often include now or at the moment but a time
reference is not always necessary as the time may be
implied.
Sorry, I cant come out at the moment. Im doing my
homework.
What are you listening to? Is it the new Killers album?
to talk about an action that is in progress but not
necessarily happening at the time of speaking.
Im reading the new Larsson novel. Im about half way
through. Its excellent!
Were setting up a new school website. Perhaps you can help us.
to refer to something that is in the process of changing.
The companys profits are increasing.
My English is getting much better!
to talk about a temporary situation.
Im working at the cafe at the moment. Its only for a few
weeks during the holiday.
Mr. Thomas is teaching us this week while Miss Browne is
away.
with always to refer to a repeated action that annoys the
speaker. This is one occasion where we can use always
without the simple tense.
The government is always talking about reducing taxes but
they never do.
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My brother is always borrowing my bicycle without asking me.
to describe future arrangements.
Im getting the 9.30 train tomorrow. Its usually crowded so
Ive reserved a seat.
See Grammar reference Unit 5 below.
we do not usually use the continuous form with stative
verbs.
I have a new laptop. Do you want to see it?
Do you think itll rain today?
However, sometimes these same verbs can be used with
an active meaning. In these cases, the continuous form
can be used.
Im having dinner at the moment. Ill see you in about half an
hour.
Johns very quiet. I wonder what hes thinking about.
Unit 4
Gerunds and infinitives
The gerund is used:
as the subject, object or complement of a sentence or
clause.
Walking makes me hungry.
Robs given up smoking.
Joes favourite pastime is doing nothing.
after prepositions.
Are you interested in going to the cinema tonight?
after look forward to and be/get used to, where to is a
preposition.
Ive got used to being on holiday, and Im not looking
forward to going back home on Saturday.
after certain verbs.
eg admit, adore, appreciate, avoid, cant help, cant stand,
consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, feel like, finish,
imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practise, prevent
somebody, resist, risk, suggest
I like the countryside but I miss living in the city.
We planted that tree to prevent people looking into our house
from the street.
not is placed before the gerund to make it negative:
Its hard to imagine not having a mobile phone.
after these expressions.
have difficulty/problems/trouble, its/theres no use, its (not)
worth, theres no point (in)
 Grammar reference
Its worth buying a good guidebook before you go to Rome.
She had difficulty understanding his Scottish accent at first.
If the subjects of the main verb and the gerund are
different, an object (pronoun) is added or, in formal
English, a possessive determiner.
I cant imagine him (or his) playing football.
The infinitive with to is used:
to say why you do something.
We gave the children some sweets to keep them quiet.
after certain adjectives.
eg (It is/was etc) difficult, easy, essential, important, lovely,
(un)necessary, (im)possible, (un)usual, wonderful
(I am/She will be etc) delighted, disappointed, (un)happy, (un)
lucky, sad, surprised
Were sad to hear you cant come; it would have been
wonderful to see you again.
after certain nouns.
eg ability, chance, decision, failure, idea, opportunity, plan,
refusal, right, way
Whats the best way to get to the station?
after certain verbs.
eg afford, agree, appear, arrange, attempt, choose, decide,
demand, deserve, hesitate, hope, learn, manage, offer, prepare,
promise, pretend, refuse, seem, threaten
Pattys arranged to meet Mike on Saturday.
not is placed before the infinitive to make it negative:
Jodie called to her son but he pretended not to hear her.
With some verbs a direct object is needed.
eg advise, allow, enable, encourage, force, invite, order,
persuade, recommend, remind, teach, tell, warn
Pattys persuaded him to go to the opera with her!
Some verbs can be used either with or without a direct
object.
eg ask, expect, help*, need, want, would like, would love, would
hate, would prefer
Julie wants to buy a new coat and she wants me to go with her.
* Help can also be used with an infinitive without to: see
below.
The infinitive without to is used:
after modal verbs.
You can go to the party, but you must be home by midnight.
after help, let, make, would rather, had better.
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Id better go its very late. Id rather stay here, though.
Make and let are followed by a direct object; help can be
used with or without a direct object.
Can you help (me) clean the kitchen?
Verbs followed by either a gerund or an infinitive
with to
Begin, start and continue can be followed by either a
gerund or infinitive with to, without any difference in
meaning. The gerund is not usually used after a
progressive form of these verbs. He continued writing/to
write until his hand began aching/to ache.
Its starting to rain. [not Its starting raining]
Either form can also be used after hate, like, love and
prefer with no difference in meaning.
I like singing/to sing in the shower.
With remember, forget, stop and go on the gerund refers to
actions or states occurring before these verbs; the
infinitive with to refers to things occurring afterwards.
remember doing something = to recall a previous action
I remember reading something about Andorra last year.
forget doing something is not often used to talk about an
action you do not recall. Instead, not remember is used.
I dont remember telling you Id lend you some money.
remember/forget to do something = (not) to do something
you have to do or intend to do
I remembered to buy your stamps here you are.
But I forgot to post your letter Im really sorry.
stop doing something = no longer do something
You can put your umbrella down its stopped raining.
stop to do something = interrupt one activity to do
another
On his way home from school, Ian stopped to buy some sweets.
go on doing something = continue doing something
If you go on eating like that, youll have a stomach ache.
go on to do something = do something after doing
something else
After losing their first two matches, the Italians went on to win
the tournament.
mean doing something = involve
If you come fishing with me, itll mean getting up early.
mean to do something = intend
I didnt mean to break the window it was an accident.
 Grammar reference
try doing something = do something to see what will
happen
If you have problems sleeping, try counting sheep.
try to do something = attempt/make an effort to do
something
I tried to tell her I was sorry, but she didnt want to listen.
need + gerund has a passive meaning
This kitchen needs cleaning. (= needs to be cleaned)
need + infinitive with to has an active meaning
We need to clean this kitchen.
So and such
So and such can both be used to give emphasis.
1 So is used before adjectives and adverbs (without a noun)
and means:
very/really.
I was so proud of my daughter. She sang so beautifully in the
school concert.
to this or that extent/like this or that
She was shaking. Id never seen her looking so nervous.
Youre shouting at me again. Why are you behaving so rudely?
So is also used before the quantifiers much, many, little
and few. A noun may or may not be present: an
uncountable noun is used after so much and so little, and a
plural countable noun after so many and so few.
Ive got so much to do and so little time to do it.
There are so many people looking for work but so few jobs
available.
2 Such is used on its own before uncountable and plural
countable nouns (with or without an adjective).
Miguel speaks such good English! (= really good English)
Ive never seen such ugly buildings. (= buildings as ugly as
these ones)
If the noun is singular and countable, the definite article
a or an is needed.
Why are you in such a hurry?
Helen is such an interesting person to talk to.
Such is used before a lot (of).
Weve got such a lot of homework to do tonight. Dont
complain its not such a lot.
3 So and such can both be followed by a that clause to talk
about results or consequences. The word that can be
omitted.
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Chris was so tired (that) he fell asleep in the cinema.
It was such a short book (that) I finished in one morning.
Indirect ways of asking questions
When asking for information, it is generally more polite
to use an indirect form of question with the help of
phrases such as these.
Could you explain ? Could you tell me ? Would you
mind telling me?
Do you think you could tell me ? Could you (possibly) give me
an idea ?
I would like to know I would be interested to know
I would be grateful if you could tell me I was wondering if
you could tell me
Compare:
How do I get to the station?
Could you tell me how I get to the station?
When asking questions in this more indirect way:
there is no inversion of the subject and verb. The word
order is the same as for making statements.
Would you mind telling me how old you are? [not how old are
you?]
the auxiliary verbs do, does and did are not used in
indirect questions.
I would be interested to know where you bought it. [not where
did you buy it]
A question mark is used if the indirect question begins
with a question form (Would you mind telling me ?), but
not if it is a statement (I would be interested to know ).
In Yes/No questions (where the answer to the question
will be either yes or no) if or whether are used.
We would like to know if/whether we can hire bikes in your
campsite.
Unit 5
Time linkers with past tenses
1 After, as soon as, before, once, until, when, whenever can be
used with the past simple. The gerund is also common
with after and before.
I recognized him as soon as I saw him.
Before she went/Before going to bed Sue had a glass of milk.
Two past simple tenses often indicate that the second
action resulted from the first, and that it happened soon
afterwards.
I cried when I heard the news.
 Grammar reference
Whenever means every time that.
Whenever we went camping, it rained/used to rain.
After, before, as soon as can be qualified in the following
way:
soon after, (not) long after, shortly after; (not) long before,
shortly before; almost as soon as. Just can be used with all
three.
Just/Shortly/Soon/Not long after he got married, Tim lost his
job.
The past perfect can be used, especially if we want to
emphasize that the first action finished before the
second one started.
My mum wouldnt let me go out until Id tidied my room..
Once Id eaten something, I felt a lot better.
2 As, while, when can be used with the past continuous to
introduce an action or situation which was in progress
when another, shorter action occurred. Whilst is formal.
When/As/While we were having our picnic, we saw a deer.
They can also be used with two clauses in the past
continuous to talk about two actions or situations
occurring at the same time. While is more common in
this use.
While you were having fun and making lots of noise, I was
trying to do my homework!
3 During, for are prepositions and followed by a noun.
During tells us when something happened.
I stayed at my sisters house during the summer.
For tells us how long something took or lasted.
My brother was on the phone for two hours!
4 At first, at last, finally, eventually, at the end, in the end, by the
end
At first is used to talk about the beginning of a situation
and to contrast it with what happens later. It is often
followed by but.
At first it was cold and grey, but then the sun came out.
At last indicates very strongly that you have been waiting
for something to happen for a long time. Finally has a
similar meaning.
After ten years in prison he was free at last!
Mike finally managed to pass his driving test on the sixth
attempt.
In the end and eventually suggest that something happens
after some problems, changes or uncertainty.
Lucy wasnt sure about the job, but she accepted it in the end/
eventually.
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At the end refers to the point at which something finishes.
It can be followed by of + noun.
I spoke to the teacher at the end of the class.
By the end can also be followed by of + noun and means at
some time during the period before something finishes.
I started reading the book at lunchtime and by the end of the
day Id finished it.
5 By the time, at the time
By the time is used for saying what had already happened
before something else occurred. It can be followed by the
past simple or the past perfect.
By the time we (had) arrived at the station, our train had left.
(= The train left before we arrived at the station)
At the time means at the particular point when something
occurred. It may suggest a contrast with what happens
later.
It seemed like a good idea at the time (but I know now that it
wasnt).
As and like
We use like:
to introduce an example or examples.
I enjoy team sports like football and basketball.
before nouns and pronouns to make comparisons.
Carla sang like a bird.
This use is common after these verbs: feel, look, seem,
smell, sound, taste.
My daughter looks like me, but she sounds just like her mum.
to describe typical or untypical behaviour.
Its just/not like John to be late. (= John is late and that is/
isnt typical)
to ask for descriptions or information about someone or
something.
Whats Sue like? Is she nice?
What was the campsite like?
to mean in the same way (as someone). The verb do usually
follows like.
Im going to cycle to school like Paul does.
As is also possible, but is very formal.
We use as:
to mean in the same way.
Please leave the room as you found it clean and tidy.
Like might also be used, but is very informal.
 Grammar reference
in the expression it looks as if/though + verb phrase, when
something appears to be true.
It looks as if its going to rain.
Like is common instead of as if/though in spoken English,
but is considered incorrect by some.
after such to introduce an example or examples.
You can feed your hamster vegetables such as carrots or
broccoli.
after the verbs consider, describe, regard, think of, refer to,
know.
Ive always considered/regarded/thought of him as a friend.
As is optional with the verb consider.
to say what someone or something is, does or is used for.
As a vegetarian, I never cook meat.
Roger once worked as a waiter.
The Romans used salt as money.
with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons. (see
Unit 2)
I cant run as fast as I used to.
to mean because.
As we havent got any homework, we could go to the cinema.
to mean when or while. (see Time linkers p.8)
As I was leaving the house, the phone rang.
in a number of phrases, including:
as far as I know, as far as Im concerned, as soon as possible, as
well as, as a result, as usual
I look forward to hearing from you as soon as possible.
The future
Will
Will + infinitive without to can be used to:
talk about hopes, expectations and predictions. It is
often used after these verbs: hope, expect and think. A
present tense can also be used after hope.
I expect Tom will arrive late he usually does.
We hope you come/will come back and visit us.
Adverbs such as probably and definitely are normally
placed after will and before wont.
I think shell definitely pass the exam but she probably wont
get an A.
make factual statements about the future.
Spring will be here soon. Tim will be twenty in April.
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talk about decisions made at the moment of speaking,
including offers.
Youre cold, arent you? Ill close the window.
Going to
Be going + infinitive with to can be used to talk about:
intentions and plans formulated before the moment of
speaking.
Owen says hes going to leave school at 16.
The infinitive to go can be omitted.
Im not going (to go) to Sarahs party tomorrow.
predictions, as an alternative to will.
I dont think Taylor is going to/will win the election.
If there is evidence now that something is certain to
happen, we usually use going to.
That car is out of control its going to crash!
Modal verbs
Modal verbs express degrees of certainty when talking
about:
intentions.
We may/might have a barbecue on Sunday. (Possibility)
predictions.
It may/might/could well rain tomorrow. (Probability)
You should be able to find a parking space quite easily.
(Probability)
Present simple
The present simple can be used:
to talk about timetabled or scheduled events.
Our train leaves at 6.30 tomorrow morning.
to refer to the future after time linkers such as after, as
soon as, before, until, when. The present perfect and present
continuous can also be used.
Ill call you just before we get on the plane.
After weve had our lunch were going shopping.
While Im driving to work, youll still be in bed.
Present continuous
The present continuous can be used to describe future
arrangements we have made, usually with other people
or organisations.
Im picking Gavin up at 1.30 and were having lunch at Le
Bistro. Ive booked a table for two oclock.
 Grammar reference
Future continuous
The future continuous, will + be + present participle, is
used to talk about:
actions that will be in progress at a particular moment
in the future.
My mum cant come to the parents meeting; shell be working
then.
plans and decisions we have made for the future.
My sons ill, so he wont be going to school tomorrow.
Future perfect simple
The future perfect, will + have + past participle, is used to
talk about actions which will be completed before a
certain time in the future.
I think Ill have finished this book by the end of the week.
Future perfect continuous
The future perfect continuous, will + have + been + present
participle, is used to talk about actions which continue
up to, and possibly beyond, a certain time in the future.
Well have been going out with each other for six months on
Friday.
Other ways of talking about the future
Be (just) about + infinitive with to is used to talk about the
immediate future.
Im sorry, I cant talk Im just about to go out.
Be (un)likely + infinitive with to is used to express
probability.
Its likely to snow later on so take a hat.
Shall I and shall we are used to ask for suggestions, advice
and instructions.
What time shall we meet this evening? Where shall we go?
Shall I phone Peter tomorrow?
The infinitive with to is used after some verbs to talk
about future hopes, plans, intentions and expectations.
We expect/hope to get home before 9 oclock.
I plan/intend to go to bed early tonight.
The verbs plan and think can be followed by a preposition
and a gerund.
Mick and Irene are planning on getting married next year.
Theyre thinking of going to Tahiti for the honeymoon.
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Unit 6
Reported Speech
When we are reporting what someone has said we can
use either direct speech or reported speech.
Direct speech: Ive bought a new car, said Dan.
Reported speech: Dan said that he had bought a new car.
When we use reported speech, we may have to make
changes to the actual words that the person spoke. We
can use that after the reporting verb but it is optional.
He said (that) he wanted to live in Poland.
1 We usually have to make changes to the verb tenses. This
is sometimes called backshift as most tenses go back
one tense.
Direct speech Reported speech
Present simple
We live in the countryside. She said they lived in the
countryside.
Present continuous
Im waiting for Tina. He said he was waiting for
Tina.
Present perfect
Ive worked here for three She said shed worked there
years. for three years.
Present perfect continuous
Jacks been looking for you. She said Jack had been
looking for me.
Past simple
I spoke to Matt outside school. He said hed spoken to Matt
outside school.
Past continuous
We were playing a computer He said theyd been playing
game. a computer game.
Future
Ill meet you at 6.30. She said she would meet me
at 6.30.
The modal verbs must/may/can are reported in these
ways:
I can understand the text easily She said she could understand
the text easily.
I may be a bit late. He said he might be a bit late.
I must do the essay before She said she had to do the
Friday. essay before Friday.
 Grammar reference

2 We do not need to change the tense:
for verbs in the past perfect.
Id never thought about it. He said hed never thought He said me (that) hed seen ....
about it.
for the modal verbs might/could/would/should/ought to
You should buy a new computer, He said I should buy a new indirect object.
computer.
if the statement is still true.
I want to talk to Mia. Bill said he wants to talk to 2 Verb patterns for other reporting verbs are:
you, Mia.
if we are reporting a statement using a present reporting
verb.
The answer is number 4. Paula says the answer is
number 4. (teacher to class)
3 Other changes we may have to make are:
to pronouns and possessive adjectives.
Ive forgotten your phone He said he had forgotten You really should go to My parents encouraged me
number. my phone number.
If you havent got a dictionary She said if I hadnt got
you can borrow mine. a dictionary I could borrow verb + gerund
hers.
to this/that/these. We sometimes replace them with the.
This article is very interesting. He said that the article was
very interesting.
to adverbs and adverbial phrases of place and time.
Direct speech Reported speech
Now then
today that day
tomorrow the next/following day
yesterday the previous day/day before
the day after tomorrow in two days time
three days ago three days before/earlier
next week/month/year the following ...
last week/month/year the previous .... the ... before
this morning that morning
here there
Reporting verbs
1 The most common verbs we use to report statements are
say and tell. The verb tell must be followed by a direct
object.
Ive seen the film on DVD.
He said (that) hed seen the film on DVD.
He told me (that) hed seen the film on DVD.
He told (that) hed seen ....
Say, like explain and complain, can be used with an
I said/explained/complained (to the receptionist) that the
heating in my room wasnt working.
verb + infinitive with to
Offer, promise, refuse, threaten
I wont take the test again. He refused to take the test
again.
verb + object pronoun/noun + infinitive with to
Advise, beg, encourage, invite, order, persuade, recommend,
remind, urge, warn
university. to go to university.
Recommend, suggest
Lets go to the new Thai He recommended going to
restaurant. the new Thai restaurant.
These verbs can also be followed by that + should +
infinitive without to. The words that and should are
optional.
You ought to do more exercise. She suggested (that) I
(should) do more exercise.
Suggest, unlike recommend, cannot be followed by an
infinitive.
She recommended me to do more exercise.
She suggested me to do more exercise.
Reported questions
When we report questions we have to make the same
changes as for reporting statements regarding tenses,
pronouns and phrases indicating time and place. We
also need to remember the following:
the word order in a reported question is the same as for
a statement. We do not use inversion as we would with a
direct question and we do not use auxiliaries do/does/did.
When we report a question we do not use a question
mark.
Where do you live? He asked me where I lived.
Who was your first teacher? He asked me who my first
teacher had been.

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 Grammar reference

when we are reporting a yes/no question we use if/ news pollution progress research
whether.
smoke spaghetti traffic transport
Do you speak Spanish? He asked me if/whether I
travel water weather work
spoke Spanish.
Languages (eg English, Polish, Swiss) are also uncountable.
Are you English? He asked me if/whether I
was English.
B
when we are reporting a question beginning with a Nouns which can be used both countably and
wh- question word, we use that question word in the
reported question. uncountably.

Where have you been? She asked me where I had Some words for food and drink change their meaning
been. slightly:
Would you like a coffee? ([C] = a cup of coffee)
when we report a request we use the pattern ask + object
pronoun/noun + infinitive with to No, thanks. I dont drink coffee. ([U] = coffee in general)
Could you shut the window She asked me to shut the Ive made a cake. ([C] = a whole cake)
please? window.
Can I have some cake? ([U] = a piece of cake)

Reported command Other words, such as paper, room, time and work, change
We use tell + object pronoun/noun + infinitive with to to their meaning completely:
report a command or imperative. The storys in all the Sunday papers. ([C] = a newspaper)
Take the next turning on the The driving instructor told Can I have some paper, please? ([U] = paper to write/draw
right, Anna. said the driving Anna to take the next on)
instructor. turning on the right.
Three of Taylors works are on display. ([C] = a work of art)
Jos having trouble finding work. ([U] = a job)
For a negative command we add not before the infinitive.
Dont open your books, class. The teacher told the class not C
to open their books. Making uncountable nouns countable.
Some uncountable nouns have countable equivalents
Unit 7 with a similar meaning.
Uncountable Countable
Countable and uncountable nouns
accommodation a room/hotel/guesthouse
A
advice a tip/suggestion
Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In
the singular they are always preceded by a word such as luggage a bag/suitcase
an article, a number or a determiner.
travel a trip/journey/holiday
a garden four student each day some animals
work a job/an occupation/a profession
Uncountable nouns have no plural form. They can
appear alone or be preceded by a word such as the or a Some other nouns can be made countable by using
determiner, but not a/an or a number. They are used piece(s) or item(s).
with a singular verb form. a piece of advice / chewing gum / equipment / food / furniture /
Knowledge is strength. homework / information / luggage / news / research
The news was good. an item of clothing / equipment / jewellery / luggage / news
Weve made little progress. Passengers are limited to one piece of hand luggage.
These nouns are usually uncountable. Two items of news caught my attention.
Accommodation advice behaviour damage
equipment food furniture graffiti
health help homework housework
information knowledge luggage money

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 Grammar reference

D
Words and phrases used with countable and uncountable nouns.

Before countable and

Before countable nouns Before uncountable nouns
uncountable nouns
(very) few (very) little some
a few a little any
quite a few much no
many too much (quite) a lot of
too many a great deal of plenty of
several a large/small amount of most
a large/small number of a couple of all
each enough
every more

(Very) little and (very) few mean not much/many or not as
much/many as you would like or expect.
Ive got very little money left. Can you lend me some?
Few people attended the meeting.
A little and a few mean some or a small number of.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
Ive got a few sweets left. Would you like one?
Quite a few and quite a lot of mean a fairly large number/
amount of.
Quite a few people came to our concert we were very pleased.
Plenty of means a lot of or more than enough.
Pauls got plenty of toys dont buy him any more.
Each is used to talk about two or more people or things;
every is only used to talk about more than two. They
both precede a singular countable noun and a singular
verb.
Each player starts with six cards.
Notice on building site: Hard hats must be worn at all times.
to give strong advice.
You really must go to that new Indian restaurant.
to make polite invitations.
You must come and have dinner with us sometime.
to tell ourselves what we personally feel is necessary.
I must remember to buy some more bread.
Have to can also be used to express obligation,
particularly when this is imposed by someone else or by
external circumstances.
One student to another: The teacher says I have to finish my
essay by tomorrow.
My eyesights getting worse so I have to wear glasses for reading.
Must only has a present form; have to is used for all other
forms.
Youll have to hurry if you want to get there on time.
I had to buy some more bread.

Mustnt + infinitive without to is used to express

Obligation, prohibition, advice and
necessity
Obligation
Must + infinitive without to can be used:
to express strong obligation.
Teacher to student: You must finish your essay by tomorrow.
in signs and notices indicating rules and laws.
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prohibition (see below).
Dont have to expresses a lack of obligation.
Compare:
You mustnt eat those chips youre on a diet!
You dont have to eat all those chips if you dont want to, but
you must finish the fish.
Make + infinitive without to is used to express obligation.
I hate fish but my parents make me eat it.
 Grammar reference
In the passive, make is followed by the infinitive with to.
Liam was made to apologise to the teacher for his behaviour.
Prohibition
The modal verbs cannot/cant and must not/mustnt can be
used to express prohibition.
You cannot/must not talk during the exam.
Negative forms of let + infinitive without to, and allow +
infinitive with to can be used with a direct object.
My parents wont let me have a tattoo.
The hotel does not allow guests to have pets in their rooms.
The passive am/are/is not allowed + infinitive with to can
also be used.
The dogs not allowed to come into the kitchen.
To talk about past prohibition, use couldnt, didnt/
wouldnt let, didnt/wouldnt allow or was/were not allowed to.
There is no past form of mustnt and no passive form of
let.
When I was your age, we couldnt wear trainers to school.
Mark wasnt allowed to go fishing; his parents wouldnt let
him stay out all night.
Advice
Should/shouldnt and ought (not) to are used to give advice.
You should see/ought to see a doctor about your headaches.
They can also be used to say what we think is the right
thing to do.
Supermarkets ought not to give customers plastic bags; they
should charge for them.
In the negative, I dont think you should is more natural
than I think you shouldnt.
I dont think you should eat any more sweets.
Had/d better (not) + infinitive without to is used to give
advice and warnings. It suggests that the speaker thinks
there will be negative consequences if the advice is not
followed.
Wed better get the tickets soon theyll sell out very quickly.
Youd better not be late - Ill be furious if you are!
Necessity
Need to + infinitive is used to express necessity.
Have you got a minute, Sven? I need to talk you.
Neednt and dont need to both express a lack of necessity.
The doors open at seven thirty but we neednt get/dont need
to get there until eight.
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Neednt have + past participle is used to indicate a past
action that was completed but that was not necessary.
We neednt have taken our coats; the weather was warm all
week.
Didnt need to + infinitive is used to indicate a past action
that was not necessary. The context usually makes it
clear whether the action was performed or not.
We didnt need to wear a suit to the party, but I wanted to look
smart so I did.
There is/was no need (for someone) + infinitive with to can
also be used to express a lack of necessity in the past or
present.
Theres no need (for you) to shout! I can hear perfectly well.
Unit 8
The passive
A Form
1 To form the passive we use the appropriate tense of
the verb to be and the past participle.
Present simple: My salary is paid directly into my bank.
Present continuous: My car is being repaired at the moment.
Present perfect: Ive been asked to join the football
team.
Past simple: Luke was given his results on Friday.
Past continuous: I didnt know I was being tricked.
Past perfect: The papers had been signed before we
saw them.
Future simple: Well be transferred from the airport to
the hotel.
Gerund: Do you like being photographed?
Infinitive with to: Id like to be invited to the party.
Infinitive without to: Mobile phones must not be taken into
the exam room.
B Use
We use the passive when an event or action is more
important than who or what is doing the action (the
agent). Our attention is directed to the person or thing
that is affected by the action. It can be used in both
spoken and formal written English:
My husband was made redundant last month.
Crime figures for the last year will be released tomorrow.
If we want to indicate the agent in a passive
construction, we use by.
This book was written by P.J.Stone.
 Grammar reference
If we want to indicate the instrument used by the agent
to do the action, we use with.
The graffiti was painted with a spray gun.
The passive cannot be used with intransitive verbs.
The glass was fallen off the shelf.
When there are two objects in a sentence, the person
usually becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
The teacher gave Trudy a prize.
Trudy was given a prize by the teacher.
(This is more usual than: A prize was given to Trudy by the
teacher.)
C Non-use of agent
The agent is not usually included in passive
constructions:
when we do not know the agent or the agent is
unimportant.
Graffiti has been painted all over the front wall of the building.
These houses were built fifty years ago.
when the agent is obvious from the context.
The thief was sentenced to ten years in prison.
Our rubbish is collected every Monday.
when the agent is people in general.
The killer is known as Jack the Ripper.
in official notices or advice to avoid using you.
Tablets should be taken after meals.
when we want to avoid mentioning the agent.
It has been decided not to increase salaries this year.
Passive of reporting verbs
1 Reporting verbs can be used with passive constructions
when we want to introduce a widely held opinions or
facts. There are two ways of doing this.
It + passive + that clause
It is said that fish is good for our brains.
It is thought that global warming caused the floods last month.
It is believed that economic conditions are getting worse.
Subject + passive + infinitive/perfect infinitive/
continuous infinitive
Fish is said to be good for our brains.
Global warming is thought to have caused the floods last month.
Economic conditions are believed to be getting worse.
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Verbs that we often use with these constructions are say,
believe, expect, know, think, feel, consider, hope.
2 We can use these constructions to introduce ideas about
present time, past time and the future.
Present
It is felt that school class sizes are too large.
The government is known to be thinking about the
introduction of another tax soon.
Future
It is believed that astronauts will visit the moon again within
twenty years.
Brian is expected to pass all his exams next month.
Past
It is said that Einstein did not speak until he was four years old.
The famous sailor, Lawrence Jarvis, is thought to have
drowned off the coast of southern Australia last weekend.
Unit 9
Conditionals
Conditional sentences contain:
a) a subordinate clause expressing a condition and
introduced by words such as if, unless, as long as
b) a main clause describing the likely result of the
condition becoming reality.
If I miss the last bus, Ill phone you.
(condition) (result)
When the result clause appears first in the sentence,
there is usually no comma.
Id learn to sail if I had more time.
(result) (condition)
Zero conditional
The zero conditional is used to talk about situations
which are always or generally true. We use the present
simple in both the conditional clause and the main
clause. If has the same meaning as when, whenever or
every time in these sentences.
Everyday situations: I usually feel sick if I read in the car.
Scientific facts: If you add salt to water, it dissolves.
First conditional
The first conditional is used to talk about possible
future situations and their likely results. We use the
present simple in the conditional clause and a future
tense in the main clause.
Well probably go swimming if the weathers fine tomorrow.
If you dont let me play, Im going to tell my mum.
 Grammar reference
Modal verbs such as can, may, might and could can also be
used in the main clause.
If the pain gets worse, I might go to the doctors.
Second conditional
The second conditional is used to talk about imaginary,
impossible or unlikely situations in the present or
future. We use the past simple or, less frequently, the
past continuous in the conditional clause and would/
might/could + infinitive without to in the main clause.
If I lived/was living in Spain, Id eat paella every Sunday.
(imaginary)
I could do this job a lot faster if I had six pairs of hands.
(impossible)
When the second conditional refers to the future, the
implication is that the condition is less likely to become
reality than if it were expressed with a first conditional.
Compare:
If Ian phones tonight (possible), what will you say to him?
If Ian phoned tonight (unlikely), what would you say to him?
Were instead of was is often used after if in second
conditional sentences.
If I were/was you, I wouldnt worry about it.
Third conditional
The third conditional is used to talk about imaginary
situations in the past and to speculate about how things
might have been different. We use the past perfect
simple or continuous in the conditional clause and
would/could/might + perfect infinitive without to in the
main clause.
If Id lost my job, we would have had to sell the house. (I didnt
lose my job so we didnt have to sell the house.)
If my wife hadnt been working last night, we could have gone to
the concert. (My wife was working last night so we
couldnt go to the concert.)
Mixed conditional
A mixed conditional is a combination of a second and a
third conditional. The time reference in the conditional
clause is different from that in the main clause.
My parents would be happier if I hadnt bought a motorbike.
If the car wasnt so unreliable, we would have driven down to
London.
Alternatives to if clauses
As long as and provided/providing (that) can be used in
place of if to emphasize the condition.
Ill let you borrow my bike as long as you promise to look after it.
You can watch the television provided you finish your
homework first.
This page has been downloaded from Direct to FCE: www.directtofce.com. Written by Roy Norris and Lynda Edwards
17 Copyright Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 2011
Otherwise can be used to introduce the result clause. We
use it to talk about the negative consequences of
something not happening.
I hope it stays sunny, otherwise we wont be able to have a
barbecue. (= If it doesnt stay sunny, we wont be able to
have a barbecue.)
Its a good job we took our umbrellas, otherwise we would have
got soaking wet. (= If we hadnt taken our umbrellas, we
would have got soaking wet)
Or can be used in a similar way, especially in warnings,
threats and advice.
Youd better go now, or youll be late for school. (= If you dont
go now, youll be late for school.)
Stop being silly, or Ill send you to bed early. (= If you dont
stop being silly, Ill send you to bed early.)
Relative clauses
Relative clauses give information about someone or
something in the main clause. They usually begin with a
relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, what) or a
relative adverb (where, when, why).
Defining relative clauses
Defining relative clauses identify, or define, who or what
we are talking or writing about and are essential for our
understanding of the whole sentence.
Commas are not required at the beginning or end of the
relative clause. The relative pronoun that can be used
instead of who and which.
Ive got a friend who/that can speak four languages.
An widower is a man whose wife has died.
There are not many places where you can experience complete
silence.
The relative pronouns who, which and that can be
omitted, but only if they are the object of the verb in the
defining relative clause.
What was the name of that film (which/that) we saw on
television last night?
(The relative pronoun is the object of saw and can be
omitted.)
People who/that say they never cry are liars.
(The relative pronoun is the subject of say and cannot be
omitted.)
The relative adverbs when and why can also be omitted in
defining relative clauses.
Ill never forget the time (when) you fell in that lake.
The reason (why) he disappeared remains a mystery.
The relative pronoun what can be used in defining
relative clauses and means the thing which.
He showed me what hed bought.
 Grammar reference
Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses contain information
which is not essential to our understanding of who or
what we are writing or talking about. The main clause
would make sense, even without this additional
information.
Commas are used to separate the relative clause from
the main clause. That cannot be used instead of who or
which, and the relative pronoun cannot be omitted.
JK Rowling, who is now a multi-millionaire, once taught English
in Portugal.
The Man of the Match was Ward, whose two goals ensured his
teams victory.
We went to Gouda, where the cheese comes from.
The relative pronoun which can be used in non-defining
relative clauses to refer to the whole of the main clause.
Alex arrived on time, which surprised everyone.
Whom
In both defining and non-defining relative clauses whom
can be used instead of who when it is the object of the
verb in the relative clause.
Sarahs French teacher was Mr Jenkins, whom she had always
disliked.
There is someone here whom I would like you to meet.
However, many speakers consider whom to be too
formal and avoid using it.
There is someone here (who) Id like you to meet.
Relative clauses and prepositions
Prepositions can be placed at the end of both defining
and non-defining relative clauses. In defining relative
clauses the relative pronoun can be omitted.
The film was directed by Clint Eastwood, who I have a lot of
respect for.
This is not a subject (which/that) I want to comment on.
In more formal English, the preposition often appears
immediately before the relative pronoun; whom for
people and which for things. That cannot be used and the
relative pronoun cannot be omitted.
The film was directed by Clint Eastwood, for whom I have a
great deal of respect.
The Finance Minister said it was not a subject on which he
wished to comment.
This page has been downloaded from Direct to FCE: www.directtofce.com. Written by Roy Norris and Lynda Edwards
18 Copyright Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 2011
Unit 10
Wish, if only and hope
We use the verb wish when we would like things to be
different. We can also use If only to express the same
ideas as wish. We use If only when we want to make the
wish stronger. It is often considered more dramatic.
I wish I had enough money to buy that bicycle.
If only I had enough money to buy that bicycle!
Wish/If only + past simple
1 We use wish + past simple when we are unhappy with a
present situation and would like it to be different, even
though this may not be possible. The verbs used with
wish for present situations are normally stative verbs
such as have, be, know, live etc.
I wish I didnt live in the town centre.
Maria wishes she had a car like ours.
If only I were/was old enough to learn to drive.
I wish I didnt speak English so badly.
I wish we didnt have to do tests every day.
If only I could speak another language.
Verbs other than stative verbs can be used if we are
referring to regular or habitual actions.
I wish it didnt rain so much in this country.
If only Paul didnt smoke. Hed be so much healthier.
Wish/If only + would/could
1 When we want someone to do something or something
to happen now or in the future but it is very unlikely we
can use wish + person + would
I wish James would ask Greta out. They really like each other.
2 We often use this form when something irritates us and
we want it to stop/change.
I wish the neighbours would stop parking their car right outside
our front gate.
3 We can never use I wish I would when talking about the
future. We use I wish I could to talk about something that
we would like to do in the future but cannot.
I wish I could go on holiday with you this summer but Ive got to
work.
4 We use hope + present when a future event is possible.
I hope I win the swimming competition on Saturday.
Wish/If only + past perfect
1 When we regret something about the past we use wish
+ past perfect. Obviously changing the past is impossible
 Grammar reference

but using wish indicates that we would like things to

have been different.
I wish I had gone to Tonys party. Sue says it was really good.
I wish we hadnt played that trick on Miss Barker. She was very
upset.
My dad wishes hed gone to university when he was my age.

Should have/ought to have done

We can also use should/shouldnt + have + past participle and
ought/ought not + to have + past participle to express regret
about the past.
I shouldnt have stayed out so late last night. I feel terrible this
morning.
We ought to have told your mum where we were going. Shell
be worried if were late for dinner.
I should have revised more for the test. Its my own fault I got
bad marks.

Causative passive with have

1 When we refer to things that we do not do ourselves but
pay for or ask others to do we use subject + the correct
form of have + object + past participle. Get can be used
instead of have.
I had my laptop repaired last week.
Im going to get my car serviced tomorrow.
Our friends are having their house extended at the moment.
I must get my eyes checked soon. I think I need contact lenses.
2 We can also use the construction when we talk about
unpleasant events that are not asked for.
We had our house broken into three times last year.
Daves going to have his driving licence taken away because
of the crash.
The shop had its windows smashed yesterday evening.

This page has been downloaded from Direct to FCE: www.directtofce.com. Written by Roy Norris and Lynda Edwards
19 Copyright Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 2011