Generators and

Stand Alone Hydro Systems

David Roberts
Hydro Power Engineer
morbenhydro@gmail.com

Topics to be covered:

Generator Basics
Types of generator
Induction
Synchronous
Permanent Magnet
Stand alone systems
A.C. synchronous and induction
D.C. systems, battery charging, regulation
Generator Protection
Payment for micro generation

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Generator Basics

Generators convert mechanical energy to electrical

energy through the medium of a varying magnetic
field
Move a wire in a magnetic field and a voltage will
be induced
Generators consist of
a rotor the part that rotates
a stator the stationary part.
Windings in the rotor and stator (and in some cases
permanent magnets) are used to create magnetic
fields which will then be used to induce currents and
voltages in adjacent windings which are moving
relative to each other.

Generator Speed

The synchronous speed of a generator is determined

by the number of poles on the stator the main
winding arrangement.
2 pole means one north pole and one south pole
A 2 pole generator will have a synchronous speed of
3,000 rpm when producing 50 Hz
50 Hz = 50 cycles / second = 3,000 cycles / minute
Speed (rpm) = 3,000 / (no. of poles / 2)
A 4 pole generator will have a synchronous speed
of 1,500 rpm

2
Generator Speeds

No. of poles Synchronous

speed, rpm
2 3,000
4 1,500
6 1,000
8 750
10 600
12 500
14 about 428

Power in = Power Out

The turbine produces mechanical power

The generator converts the mechanical power into
electrical power which is transmitted to a load
There must be a balance between the power going in
from the turbine and the power coming out plus
losses.
If the power going out is reduced the turbine will run
faster, and become more inefficient, until a new
balance of power is achieved.
If the power going out is increased the turbine will
slow down until the generator power output is reduced
a stalling situation which should be avoided.

3
Induction Generators

Also known as Asynchronous Generators

An Induction generator is physically the same as an
induction motor
Available in a variety of speeds
Commonly used as motor drives and therefore
available for slower speed operation.
Example 600 rpm generator for a 20 kW hydro was
available as a standard machine
Mass produced in smaller sizes up to 10 kW
Physically and electrically tough windings often
completely separated from surrounding air.

Induction Generator
Torque / speed characteristic

Induction Generator - Torque Speed Characteristic

100%
90%
Torque as a percentage of rated

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200%
Spee d as percentage of Synchronous Spee d

4
Induction Generator Speed

When the generator is running at Synchronous speed

it has an electrical torque of zero and can produce no
power
As the generator is driven faster than synchronous
speed the torque required will increase and the
electrical output will correspondingly increase.
The maximum torque is produced at 5 to 10% above
synchronous speed.
The stable area of operation is between synchronous
speed and maximum torque speed.
Above the maximum torque speed operation is
unstable runaway will occur

Induction Generator Slip

The slip of an induction generator is the percentage

speed the generator runs at above synchronous
speed
It is expressed as a percentage of synchronous
speed.
Typically slip at rated power will be 3 5%
i.e. a six pole machine, which has a synchronous
speed of 1000 rpm, and a slip of 4% will need to be
driven at 1040 rpm to get maximum power output.

5
Induction Generator Excitation

The rotor of an induction generator is usually a cage

of solid bars would look like a hamster wheel if the
rotor steel was removed (known as squirrel cage).
An current in the stator windings induces a current in
the rotor. This rotor current in turn induces a reactive
voltage in the stator and it is this induced voltage
that produces power.
Induction generators require external excitation to
allow them to produce volts when rotated to provide
the reactive power required to start the process.
The excitation current can come from the mains or
from capacitors if there is no mains

Double Fed Induction Generators

A development of the simple induction

machine
Addition of control of current to the rotor
windings
Requires power electronics and slip rings
Available on larger induction machines,
typically used in wind turbine applications
Allows for control of power factor and variable
speed operation (typically +/- 30%)

6
Double Fed Induction Generator
Outline

Generator Synchronisation
DFIG breaker

Grid

~ -
- ~

-
~

Stand Alone Induction Generator Excitation

A very simple and robust system

The amount of capacitance required depends on the
specification and size of the generator.
The size of the capacitors determines the frequency
at which the system operates. The required amount of
capacitance will change with the amount of power
generated.
The amount of capacitance used is a compromise,
and small variations in frequency are inevitable as the
power produced by the generator changes.

7
Stand Alone Induction Generator systems

Arrangement to provide excitation to a stand

alone induction generator using capacitors:
Generator windings

C Load

2C

Induction Generator Control - IGC

To maintain the system voltage the load on the

generator needs to match the generated power.
Ballast loads used to provide the required total load.
The ballast loads are switched in and out according to
the amount of main load that is being used.
E.g. if the generator output is 10kW and the main load is 6
kW the ballast load will need to take 4 kW
Usually the ballast loads are switched with relays
using a binary logic system i.e. ballast loads will have
sizes of 0.5, 1, 2 4, and 8 kW for a 15 kW system
Voltage at the main load will vary as ballast loads are
switched it is not a completely smooth controlled
system as a synchronous generator AVR

8
Stand Alone IGC arrangement

Main Load

Induction Generator Controller

Generator C - 2C Ballast load

capacitors control relays

0.5 1 2 4 8
kW kW kW kW kW

Induction Generator System

35 kW hydro installed in a water treatment works

Grid connected induction generator

9
Synchronous Generators

Synchronous Generators run at their synchronous

speed no slip as in induction machines
They are specifically designed to be generators, with
electronics to provide their own excitation and control.
The rotor consists of wound poles.
The current through the rotor poles can be controlled.
So the excitation of the machine can be controlled.
If a synchronous generator is run at over or under
synchronous speed Pole Slipping will occur. This will
lead to large variations in rotor current and can
damage a generator.

Synchronous Generators Excitation

The rotor current determines the magnetic

field produced by the rotor.
The rotor current is produced by an exciter
rotor winding which in turn is energised by a
exciter stator winding.
The exciter stator winding is power by the
Automatic Voltage Regulator - AVR

10
Synchronous Generators Operation
Brushless machine

Excitation from AVR Voltage signal and

supply to AVR
AVR

Exciter Stator
Winding Stator Winding Power output

Magnetic flux Magnetic flux

linkage linkage

A.C. D.C
current Current
Exciter Rotor Winding Rotating Diodes Main rotor winding

Synchronous Generators Excitation (2)

Most synchronous generators are Brushless

They have an exciter stator winding which is
magnetically linked to the exciter rotor winding
Some (usually older) machines have brushes
to conduct current to the rotor the brushes
will wear and need maintenance.

11
Synchronous Generators Excitation

The residual magnetism of the rotor is used to

kick system into life or sometimes a small
permanent magnet is attached to the rotor.

A battery can be used to create the initial

energy to get the system started if it has lost
its residual magnetism. It is connected to the
stator exciter windings for a short time (< 1
sec)

Synchronous Generator systems

Mid Wales
Micro hydro
3 kW stand alone

Snowdonia
500 kW grid connected

12
Voltage Control

The rotor current determines the magnetic field

produced by the rotor this determines the induced
voltage produced by the stator and the ability of the
stator to export power.
If the generator is in stand alone mode the output
voltage of the generator will increase as the rotor
current is increased.
If the generator is grid connected the grid system will
determine generator voltage changing the excitation
will change the output power factor

Automatic Voltage Regulators - AVRs

Modern AVRs are solid state devices usually

supplied by the generator manufacturer.
AVRs monitor the main stator output voltage and
produce a suitable D.C. voltage output to the exciter
They can and do fail. Most common cause is
voltage spikes produced by lightning. Other causes of
failure are dampness and vibration.
Use surge arrestors on the line to a power house.
Consider mounting the AVR away from the generator
Manufacturers replacements are relatively expensive
typically 250 for a 10 kW machine and 500 700
for a 500 kW machine.

13
Rotating Diodes

Diodes are mounted on the rotor and are connected

between the exciter rotor windings and the main rotor
windings.
The exciter rotor windings produce an a.c. voltage
The main rotor windings require a d.c. current to
produce a continuous rotating magnetic field
The diodes rectify the exciter rotor output and provide
this as an input to the main rotor winding
These diodes can fail they are easily tested with a
multimeter disconnect them first.
Larger machines can have diode failure monitoring
systems

Power Factor Control

Power Factor Control applies to generators which are

connected to the grid.
In a stand alone system the reactive power supplied by the
generator must match the reactive power demand of the
loads
Synchronous Machines
A Power Factor Control unit (PFC) will be connected to the
AVR and control the AVR excitation output when power
factor control is enabled (when the system is on the grid)
Induction Machines -
Banks of capacitors are used to provide power factor
correction the capacitors are switched in / out by a control
unit that is monitoring the system power factor.

14
Permanent Magnet Generators

Permanent Magnet Generators have are made using

permanent magnets on the rotor
Advantage is that no rotor excitation is required
simple construction
Disadvantage is that there is no electrical control of
the rotor magnetism i.e. the rotor excitation
The electrical output from the stator will be an A.C
voltage. The frequency will depend on the speed of
rotation of the rotor.
The voltage output will also depend on the speed of
the rotor and the magnetic flux linkage between the
rotor and the stator

Permanent Magnet Generators (2)

Often used for small battery charging systems where

frequency is not important. Output can be rectified to
D.C using simple diode arrangement a bridge
rectifier.
Can be efficient for small generators few hundred
Watts to a few kW.
Sometimes the air gap can be adjusted to control the
flux linkage, and hence optimise output for a given
rotor speed.

15
Stream Engine
Permanent Magnet Generator (and
turbine)

Permanent Magnet Generator

Outline of Battery charging system

PM
Generator Bridge Rectifier Main Loads

Batteries

16
Permanent Magnet Generator
Battery charging system more detail

Voltage regulator ensures the batteries are not over

charged

PM Main Loads
Bridge
Generator D.C. loads or
Rectifier
Inverter

Battery
Fuses
Battery
Dump
voltage
load
regulator

Batteries

Electronic Load Control - ELC

An ELC is a system to balance the power produced

by a generator with the total load so that frequency
(speed) is kept stable.
They are mostly used in stand alone systems, but can
also be used to control synchronisation to the grid.
Two basic types:
Thyristor
Fast switching transistor usually using FETs
Two types of thyristor load controller
Phase angle controlled
Burst firing controlled

17
Basic ELC arrangement

Waveform

Main Load

Generator Electronic Load

Controller

Ballast Load

Waveform

Thyristor Systems - Options

Phase angle thyristor Burst firing thyristor

Fast response, chops each half Slower response, operates over

cycle 100 times a second a large number of cycles
typically 1 second
Voltage spike on generator No voltage spike as switching is
waveform every half cycle. Can done at zero volts no filtering
cause electro magnetic required
interference requires filtering
Fine resolution each half Limited resolution can only
cycle can be chopped switch on / off whole cycles
Robust Thyristor technology can withstand voltage spikes

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 Fast Switching MOSFETs

Can provide a very rapid response

Fast switching (kHz or above) means a
smooth output waveform is possible
MOSFETS still not as robust as thyristors in
withstanding voltage spikes.
In theory they should be better than thyristor
based systems, but I would not yet
recommend them due to their potential for
failure.

Phase angle control - ballast load

voltage
Firing angle = 30 degrees

Firing angle = 80 degrees

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Phase angle control - ballast load
voltage
Firing angle = 120 degrees

Firing angle = 160 degrees

Burst Firing Control

In Burst Firing mode the thyristor(s) are turned on for

a number of whole cycles. Switching is at zero
voltage.
Usually controlled over periods of one or two
seconds.
Over one second there are 50 cycles the thyristor(s)
can be turned on for between 1 and 50 cycles per 50
cycles resolution is 2%
The generator speed will vary during each second, at
the beginning of each second it will slow down, then
when the thryistor(s) turns off it will speed up.
Can be used for synchronisation not suitable for
stand alone system control

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Burst firing thyristor
example using a 10 cycle period

20% on time
1

-1

40% on time
1

-1

Burst firing thyristor

example using a 10 cycle period

80%on time

-1

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Stand Alone System
Synchronous generator with ELC

Frequency
trip

Generator Electronic Load

Contactor Main Loads
Controller

Ballast Load
Air and / or
water heaters

Stand Alone System

ELC Ballast Loads

Ballast loads must have a total capacity greater than

the maximum output of the turbine / generator. About
10-15% greater is ideal.
Ballast loads must be always available if they are
air heaters then the thermostats must be removed.
(this can contradict the Wiring Regulations which
state that a heater must have an over-temperature cut
out.)
Water heating for domestic use or as part of a wet
heating system - can be ideal, BUT a changeover
switch with air heaters must be provided as a back up
for when the water is hot

22
Generator Drives

Direct drive of the generator from the turbine is

usually preferable if a suitable turbine / generator
combination can be achieved.
This is not always possible, so some form of drive is
required.
Gearboxes
Small induction motors available with integrated
gearboxes can be a simple solution for a small
system (up to a few kW)
Typical range of speed ratio up to 1: 5
Require careful alignment and maintenance
Not very efficient in smaller sizes

Generator Drives (2)

Belt drives
Typical range of speed ratio up to 1:3 for each pair
of pulleys
Several different types of belt and pulleys, each
with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Belts inevitably exert a side force of the generator
and turbine bearings
Belts will need maintenance and replacement

23
Generator Drives (3)

Electronic Variable Speed drives

Using standard solid state Motor Controllers a
variable speed drive system can be set up to allow
the turbine / generator speed to vary according to
conditions.
Good for lower head systems
No moving parts so little maintenance /
replacement
This is discussed in more detail later

Generator Winding Insulation

Generators in hydro power systems are inevitably

housed in cold and damp environments
Windings can get damp, absorb water and then they
may short circuit. The result is a broken generator
requiring a rewind or replacement.
Anti condensation Heaters can be installed in the
generator to keep it warm when it is not running but
this requires an external power source.
Windings should be tested with an insulation
resistance tester (Megga) before use.
Typical winding resistance is > 1MOhm for small
generators and > 10-20 MOhm for larger generators.

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Generator Winding Insulation (2)

Generators can be dried out by:

Using hot air blown through the machine running at
low speed.
Short circuiting the output terminals and injecting a
small excitation d.c. current into the exciter stator
this is the best method for synchronous machines.
Different grades of winding insulation are available
from manufacturers
Get the best grade available. Sometimes referred to
as Marine Grade or Double Dipped Double Baked,
the latter referring to the application and curing of the
varnish.

Generator condition monitoring

The main items to be monitored are:

Winding temperature
Bearing temperature
Rotating diode condition
Pole slipping

25
Generator Winding Temperatures

Generators can be supplied with temperature sensors

embedded in their stator cores
Usually PT100 (resistance) type sensors
Enables core and winding temperatures to be
monitored
If a machine is producing excessive currents the
windings will overheat can lead to insulation
breakdown and shorten winding insulation life
Getting a reasonable winding temperature helps fully
cure insulation varnish and prolong winding life

Generator Winding Temperatures (2)

Generator winding insulation is classified according to

the temperature it can run at.
Class F insulation = 105 deg C temperature rise
Class H insulation = 125 deg C temperature rise

Note these are temperature rise above ambient

ambient is usually specified as up to 40 deg C

26
Generator Bearing Temperatures

Generator bearings can be supplied with temperature

sensors fitted
Usually use PT100 resistance type sensors
Monitoring bearing temperature can enable bearing
failure to be predicted and completed failure avoided.
A rapid rise in bearing temperature indicates imminent
bearing failure
Note that bearing temperature will rise temporarily
after re-greasing (do not use excessive amounts of
grease or it will all melt out and the bearing will fail)

Rotating diode condition and

Pole Slipping

Rotating diode condition can be monitored on the

generator output using a specialised module from the
generator supplier
If a diode has failed there will be an unbalance in
excitation on the rotor

Pole slipping monitors can also be supplied by

generator manufacturers

Both items usually used on larger machines (>500

1,000 kW)

27
Generator Overspeed

When a turbine looses its load it will run faster. The

amount of overspeed depends on the type of turbine
and the particular system design.
Generators must be rated to accommodate this
turbine overspeed
During overspeed the rotor windings will be forced out
under centrifugal force. They may contact the stator
resulting in a broken generator. Bearings must also
be capable of taking the overspeed
Some generators can be supplied with overspeed
banding on their rotors at a cost.
Most small generators will tolerate overspeed for
short periods (minutes or a few hours)

Payment for micro generation

Currently off grid generators can sell the ROC

element in sell-buyback agreements
This can provide a useful income for off grid
generators, up to 12p / kWh for small
systems.
Proposed Feed In Tariff (FIT) will apply to off
grid generation and will allow greater
payments for smaller generators.

28
Proposed Generation FIT rates for
hydro

Capacity p / kWh
<10kW 17.0
10 100kW 12.0
100kW 1MW 8.5
1 - 5MW 4.5

Additional payment for sale of electricity to the

grid where applicable

Thank you for your attention

Any Questions?

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