Performance of vehicles

Pierre Duysinx
LTAS Automotive Engineering
University of Liege
Academic Year 2013-2014

1
Lesson 3: Performance criteria

2
Outline
STEADY STATE PERFORMANCES
Maximum speed
Gradeability and maximum slope
ACCELARATION AND ELASTICITY
Effective mass
Acceleration time and distance

3
References
T. Gillespie. Fundamentals of vehicle Dynamics , 1992,
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
R. Bosch. Automotive Handbook . 5th edition. 2002. Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
J.Y. Wong. Theory of Ground Vehicles . John Wiley & sons.
1993 (2nd edition) 2001 (3rd edition).
W.H. Hucho. Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles . 4th edition.
SAE International. 1998.
M. Eshani, Y. Gao & A. Emadi. Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric
and Fuel Cell Vehicles. Fundamentals, Theory and Design. 2nd
Edition. CRC Press.

4
Max speed and gradeability

5
Vehicle performances
Vehicle performance are dominated by two major
factors:
The maximum power available to overcome the power
dissipated by the road resistance forces
The capability to transmit the tractive force to the ground
(limitation of tire-road friction)

Performance indices are generally sorted into three

categories:
Steady state criteria: max speed, gradeability
Acceleration and braking
Fuel consumption and emissions
6
Study of performances with tractive force
diagrams
The steady state performances can be studied using the tractive
forces / road resistance forces diagrams with respect to the
vehicle speed

Stationary condition ax=0

Equilibrium writes

7
Study of performances with tractive force
diagrams
One generally defines the net force

On also can use the net force diagram to calculate

The maximum speed
The maximum slope
The reserve acceleration available

8
Study of performances with tractive force
diagrams

Max speed of the vehicle

I

II

III Fa

IV

Frlt
vmax v
9
Study of performances with tractive force
diagrams

Max slope that can be

I overcome with a give gear
ratio

II

max
III Fa
mg sin3

mg sin4
max IV

Frlt

Vmax v
10
Study of performances with tractive force
diagrams

Maximum slope in 1st gear

Sliding clutch

maxmax
mg sin1 II Fa

max
mg sin1

Frlt
v 11
Maximum speed
For a given vehicle, tires, and engine, one can calculate the
transmission ratio that gives the greatest maximum speed
Solve equality of tractive power and dissipative power of road
resistance

with

As the power of resistance forces is steadily increasing, the

maximum speed is obtained when using the maximum power of
the power plant

12
Maximum speed
Iterative scheme to solve the third order equation (fixed
point algorithm of Picard)

Once the maximum speed is determined the optimal

transmission ratio can be easily calculated since it occurs for
the nominal rotation speed:

13
 Max speed for given reduction ratio
Rapport plus court
Rapport plus long
Optimal
Prsistance(v)
Pmax
Proues(v)

Optimal
Rapport plus long
Rapport plus court

vmax(court) vmaxmax v
vmax(long)

Max speed is always reduced compared to vmaxmax

14
Max speed for given reduction ratio
Solve equation of equality of tractive and resistance power, but
this time, the plant rotation speed is also unknown.

Numerical solution using a fixed point algorithms (Picard

iteration scheme)

15
Maximum slope
For the maximum slope the vehicle can climb, two criteria must
be checked:

The maximum tractive force available at wheel to balance the

grading force

The maximum force that can be transmitted to the road

because of the limited tire-road friction and the weight transfer

16
 Longitudinal force generation in tires
When braking, the tire
rotation speed is lower than
the equivalent velocity in the
contact patch
Brush model Tread and side walls radial
fibers are sheared because
of the local friction between
the road and the tire
Slip occurs only at the end of
the contact patch
The resultant of the shear
Gillespie Fig 10.6: forces in contact patch is the
Deformation due longitudinal force developed
braking in contact by the tire
patch 17
Tractive force

Blundel. Fig. 5.21

18
Braking force

Blundel. Fig. 5.18

19
Longitudinal force generation in tires
Longitudinal slip (Slip ratio)
SR = (W-W0)/W0 = W/W0 1

If Re is the effective rolling radius of the tire

SR = WRe/V 1

Free rolling SR = 0
Wheel blocked in braking SR = -1
Spinning : SR = +1
Free slipping: SR

The tractive/braking forces can be plotted in terms of the slip

ratio
20
Longitudinal force generation in tires

Milliken. Fig. 2.16 Milliken. Fig. 2.17

21
Longitudinal force generation in tires

Wong Fig 1.16

Wong Fig 1.18
22
Longitudinal force generation in tires

Influence of road condition on the

longitudinal forces

23
Maximum slope

24
Maximum slope
Limitation due to the friction coefficient

Normal forces under the front and rear wheel sets

At low speed (Faero ~0) and constant speed (ax=0)

25
Maximum slope
FOUR-WHEEL DRIVE with electronic power split

Maximum slope

26
Maximum slope
FRONT WHEEL DRIVE

Maximum slope

27
Maximum slope
REAR WHEEL DRIVE

Maximum slope

28
Selection of first gear ration
Maximum slope to be overcome, for instance max = 33%

Tractive force at wheels

Sizing of first gear ration

29
Gradeability

Characteristic curves a
3-gear vehicle
Wong, Fig. 3.29

30
Accelerations and elasticity

31
Acceleration performance
Estimation of acceleration and elasticity is based the second
Newton law

Warning: when accelerating, one is also increasing the rotation

speed of all driveline and transmission components: wheel sets,
transmission shafts, gear boxes and differential, engine

Effective mass to account for the kinetic energy of all

components (translation + rotation)

32
Effective mass
Total kinetic energy of the vehicle and its driveline :

mo t trans
i 1/i0
i0 i2

bo ite0 roues

33
Effective mass
The rotation speed of the driveline components is linked to the
longitudinal speed of the vehicle

The kinetic energy writes

34
Effective mass
One defines an effective mass

The calculation of the effective mass requires the knowledge of

the geometry of all the driveline components

Empirical formula for preliminary design of cars by Wong

35
Velocity as a function of time
We now proceed to time integration of Newton equation.

Time to accelerate form V1 to V2.

36
 Velocity as a function of time

passerTime to accelerate
d'une vitesse fromaV1une
V to vit
V2:
Z V2
dv
tV1 !V2 = mef f
V1 Fnet (v)

Alternatively
ession (5.122) :
Z V2
V dV
tV 1 !V 2 = mef f
V1 Pnet (V )

Genta Fig 4.20 : 1/F as function of time

37
 Velocity as a function of time
Criteria for gear ratio up shift in
order to minimize the
acceleration time
If two curves intersect each
others: shift the gear ratio at
the curve intersection
If there is no intersection, then it
is necessary to push the ratio up
to the maximum rotation speed
The lower limit to the
acceleration time is realized for
an infinite number of gear ratios,
that is for a continuous Variables
Genta Fig 4.20 : 1/F as function of time Transmission (CVT)
38
 Velocity as a function of time

The solution of the differential

equation yields the time t as a
function of the velocity v

The reciprocal function V=g(t)

requires to invert the relation

The gear ratio shifts must be

taken into account

39
Velocity as a function of time

G. Genta Fig 4.21 40

Distance as a function of the speed
The distance from start can be evaluated by a second
integration of the Newton equation

Velocity and distance are linked by the kinematic relation

It comes

41
 Distance as a function of the time
One can eliminate the velocity V
between the two curves t=f(V)
and d=h(V)
On gets the distance as a
function of the time:

42
Shift of gear ratio
Criteria for changing the gear ratio.
Gear ratio changing is a delicate operation that needs being
studied in details:
Gear box changing takes some time
Tractive force is interrupted
The vehicle is coating and slows down
For an expert driver
Small time to change the gear

Reduction of velocity given by the first order estimation

43
Shift of gear ratio
When several gear shifts are necessary, the integration needs to
be carried out by parts
For instance

with

44