ISSN 1392-3730

Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Lithuanian Academy of Sciences

Journal of Civil Engineering

and Management
2004, Vol X, Supplement 1

Vilnius Technika 2004

 EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
Prof Edmundas K. ZAVADSKAS, Lithuanian Academy of Sciences,
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
Editors
Building Materials and Structural Mechanics and Physics, Construction Technology and
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Vienna, Austria
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University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saultekio al. 11,
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versity, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania Prof Romualdas MAIULAITIS, Vilnius Gediminas Techni-
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nology, Student g. 48, LT-3028 Kaunas, Lithuania Lithuania
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University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania nical University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40,
Lithuania
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versity, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
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cal University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Prof Vytautas STANKEVIIUS, Lithuanian Academy of
Lithuania Sciences, Lithuanian Institute of Architecture and Building
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Prof Rimantas KAIANAUSKAS, Lithuanian Academy of Sci-
ences, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saultekio al. Prof Vytautas J. STAUSKIS, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
Prof Gintaris KAKLAUSKAS, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
 3

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39

RESISTANCE OF MASONRY WALL PANELS TO IN-PLANE SHEAR AND

COMPRESSION

Piotr Aliawdin1, Valery Simbirkin2, Vassili Toropov3

1University of Zielona Gra, Poland. E-mail: P.Aliawdin@ib.uz.zgora.pl
2Belarussian Research Institute for Construction (BelNIIS), Minsk, Belarus. E-mail: simbirkin@hotmail.com
3Altair Engineering, Coventry, UK. E-mail: toropov@altair.com

Received 30 Apr 2004; accepted 7 June 2004

Abstract. The paper presents results of large-scale tests carried out on masonry wall panels made of perforated bricks.
The specimens were subjected to in-plane: lateral loading combined with different levels of axial compression; concen-
trated compressive load applied to the wall top at different distances from the wall edge. Relationships between shear
strength and deformability of masonry and compressive stresses perpendicular to the shear plane have been found. An
evaluation of strength of masonry under local compression is given depending on the position of the concentrated load
relative to the wall edge. Analysis of test results and comparison of calculation techniques adopted in different design
codes is performed. Behaviour of the test specimens is modelled using the finite element method.
Keywords: masonry structures, full-scale tests, shear, compression, strength, deformations.

1. Introduction 2. Properties of masonry and masonry materials

By the present time, an extensive theoretical and The following materials were used for producing the
experimental research has been carried out on the test specimens:
behaviour of masonry structures made of solid clay Clay bricks (length 250 mm, width 120 mm, height
bricks, for instance [15]. However, there are a few test 88 mm) with vertical holes. Each brick had 21 holes
results for masonry structures made of perforated bricks whose cross-sections were square-shaped, 20x20 cm
that are widely used in practice and have a number of (volume of holes is 28 % of the gross volume). Brick
advantages. grade M150.
This study presents an experimental and analytical Dry pre-packed mortar mix, grade M100: Portland
research into the behaviour of masonry wall panels made cement of grade 500 180 kg/t, lime 50 kg/t,
of perforated clay bricks. The test specimens were sub- sand 770 kg/t, water-retaining agent Valotsel
jected to in-plane 1) local compressive force, and 2) rack- 45000 0,3 g/t.
ing shear force combined with vertical compression. The strength properties of the brick and mortar were
For each loading type, two test series have been determined experimentally. Their mean values are pre-
devised. In the local compression tests, position of the sented in Table 1.
applied force was changed. In the shear tests, lateral force
was combined with different levels of axial compression. Table 1. Brick and mortar strengths
In the first case, vertical kinematic restraints were in-
stalled on the wall top to prevent in-plane rotation of the Brick strength, MPa
walls. The vertical pressure arising in this case varied
Compressive (b y British Tensile (b y testing b ricks
during the loading process and had the minimum value.
Standard BS 3921 [6], for b ending)
In the second case, the lateral load was combined with appendix D)
the given vertical compression.
31,6 2,3
The loading of the specimens was increased mono-
tonically up to the total failure of the specimens. The Mortar strength, MPa
resistance of the masonry walls to the predominant ac-
tion was evaluated with reference to the strength and Compressive (b y testing Shear (b y testing a masonry
cub es of side 70,7 mm) fragment of three b ricks)
deformability.
9,912,7 0,23

3
4 P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39

Strength and deformative properties of the masonry
under short-term compression were determined by tests
of five prismatic specimens having dimensions
lxhxt = 380490250 mm. On all four vertical sides of
each specimen, displacement transducers were installed
over a gauge length of 200 mm. They measured longitu-
dinal (vertical) and lateral (horizontal) deformations of
the masonry. The strains measured in this way were used
to calculate the deformation modulus and the Poissons
ratio of the masonry.
While testing the specimens, the mortar compres-
sive strength was checked. Its mean value was 9,9 MPa.
The tests showed that the masonry compressive
strength ranged between 8,4 and 11,1 MPa, and its value
averaged over strengths obtained for five specimens was
equal to ult = 9,3 MPa.
Averaged curves for strains, secant deformation
modulus, and Poissons ratio of the masonry are pre-
sented in Fig 1.
)
1 length 1500 mm, height 1500 mm, thickness 120 mm,
0,8
s/s ult
The initial modulus of elasticity of the masonry is
computed according to [7] using the following logarith-
mic stress-strain relation proposed by L. I. Onistchik:
ult
= ln 1 , (1)
E0 ult
where:
is the mean compressive stress in the test speci-
mens;
is the mean experimental value of strains obtained
under stress ;
is the plasticity coefficient depending on the ma-
sonry type.
The value of the masonry initial modulus of elastic-
ity computed in this way is equal to 11 290 MPa.
3. Response to shear
Shear tests were performed on six wall panels that
were produced of the masonry with the chain bond. The
overall dimensions of the specimens were as follows:
with the thickness of mortar joints of 10 to 12 mm. Af-

ter manufacture the specimens were stored under poly-

0,6
ethylene until the mortar has hardened (not less than 3
0,4 days). The tests were carried out at an age of the speci-
longitudinal strain
lateral strain mens 19 to 25 days (after the mortar achieved the com-
0,2
elongation shortening pressive strength of 10 MPa).
0 The test specimens were divided into two series
50 25 0 25 50 75 100 125 (Fig 2). The specimens of the first series (series 1A) were
105 tested for incremental lateral load P, applied to the top
b) of the panel in its plane, combined with minimal vertical
0,6 pressure that was necessary to prevent in-plane rotation
0,5 of the wall. The vertical pressure was produced by spring
0,4 kinematic restraints on the wall top and varied during
s/s ult

0,3
loading so that detachment of the wall bottom from the
floor was not greater than 5 cm.
0,2
Displacement transducers (LVDTs) were installed
0,1 along the wall height to measure lateral deflections dur-
0 ing loading (Fig 2). In addition, displacement transduc-
7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 ers were used to measure translation of the horizontal
E sec , MPa support and detachment caused by a compliantly re-
c) strained rotation of the wall in its plane. Their readings
0,6 were taken into account for calculation of the clear
0,5 lateral deflections by correcting the values obtained by
LVDTs Th1Th5.
0,4
Unlike the first type specimens, specimens of the
s/sult

0,3
series 1B were loaded, in addition to the lateral load P,
0,2 with a vertical uniformly distributed load q equal to
0,1 0,2Fk = 225 kN/m, where Fk is the ultimate failure load
0 in the pure compression case. This load did not vary
0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 during the testing. The load P was applied to four top
Poisson's ratio
rows of bricks, and displacements were measured only
at one level (at a height of 1450 mm from the wall bot-
Fig 1. Dependences of strains , secant deformation modu-
tom).
lus Esec, and Poissons ratio upon stress level for masonry The test showed that specimens of the series 1A
under axial short-term compression collapsed immediately after a zigzag crack has appeared

4
P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39 5

a) Test series 1A (three specimens) a) Series 1A (Pult=104,6 kN)

b) Series 1B (Pult=192,6 kN)

b) Test series 1B (three specimens)

LVDTs

Fig 2. Shear test setup

along the wall diagonal connecting the lateral loading

point and the horizontal support (Fig 3, a). The failure
lateral load was equal to: 120,0 kN for the first speci-
men, 113,8 kN for the second specimen, and 80,0 kN
for the third one. Therefore, the failure lateral load aver-
aged over three these values was Pult = 104,6 kN. At the
ultimate stage, average total value of the compressive
load q was equal to 118 kN.
Experimental graphs showing the deforming process
of the series 1A specimens are presented in Fig 4.
The walls of the series 1B having been tested for
combined shear and compression failed also with an in-
clined crack connecting the lateral loading point and the
horizontal support. However, in this case some vertical
Fig 3. Crack patterns after testing (general views and
local failure at horizontal support)
cracks were observed, and a local failure at the horizon-
tal support was clearer (Fig 3, b). The ultimate failure
lateral load was equal to: 200,0 kN for the first speci-
men, 207,7 kN for the second specimen, and 170,0 kN
for the third one. The failure lateral load averaged over
three the values was Pult = 192,6 kN.

5
6 P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39

a) over, the compressive action on the masonry walls re-

150 sulted in 84 % increase of the load-carrying capacity of
Wall height, cm

the walls under lateral loading.

100
Therefore, the effect of vertical compression leads
to a higher resistance of the masonry walls to shear loads,
P/Pult=0,10 making their rigidity and load-carrying capacity higher.
50 P/Pult=0,29
P/Pult=0,48 Behaviour of the test specimens is modelled on the
P/Pult=0,67
finite element basis using Software Stark_Es of the
0 MicroFE family. The wall panels are modelled with
0 5 10 15 20 25 highly accurate hybrid plane stress elements (mesh 30x30)
Lateral displacement, mm
derived using a Reissner functional [8]. Second order
geometrical effects and unilateral elastic supports are
b)
taken into account. As an example, Fig 6 shows some
0,8 analysis results for the specimens of series 1A.

0,6
a) Deformed scheme
P/ P ult

0,4

h=850 mm
0,2 h=1150 mm
h=1450 mm
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Lateral displacement, mm

Fig 4. Lateral deflections for the series 1A specimens:

a) distribution of displacements along the wall height;
b) loaddisplacement relationships

The lateral load-displacement relationship averaged

over results of three tests of the series 1B is shown in
Fig 5.
1 b) Distribution of vertical normal stresses z along the wall
0,8 length at a level of a half of the wall height
P/P ult

0,6

0,4 0
-0,40
0,2
-0,80
0
z, MPa

0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 -1,20

-1,60
Lateral displacement, mm (h=1450 mm)
-2,00
-2,40
Fig 5. Lateral deflections for the series 1B specimens
-2,80
-3,20
Comparing the graphs presented in Figs 4 and 5 we -3,60
can notice that in-plane shear behaviour of the series 1B -4,00
specimens was more plastic than the behaviour of the 0,00 0,15 0,30 0,45 0,60 0,75 0,90 1,05 1,20 1,35 1,50
series 1A specimens which deformed almost elastically Wall length, m
up to the failure (excepting a displacement leap observed
at the second loading stage) and collapsed in a brittle Fig 6. Finite element analysis results for wall panels of
mode. Indeed, in the series 1A specimens the cracks were series 1A (under P = 104,6 kN)
not observed up to the failure, but cracks in the series
1B specimens appeared under the lateral load equal to The test results presented above enable to draw an
0,3 to 0,4 of the ultimate load. However, the specimens experimental relationship between the shear strength and
of the series 1A had a much lower rigidity than those of compressive stress rate in masonry. This relationship is
the other test series. Their failure occurred at lateral presented in Fig 7.
deflections that were an order of magnitude higher than As we can see in Fig 6, the masonry shear strength
ultimate deflections of the series 1B specimens. More- depends almost linearly upon the compressive stress level.

6
P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39 7

1,4 a) Test series 2A (three specimens)

Shear strength, MPa

1,2
test
1 EC6, eq. 3.3a
EC6, eq. 3.3c
0,8 4
0,6
0,4
masonry strength
0,2
mortar strength
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Compressive stress, MPa

Fig 7. Relationships between masonry shear strength and

compressive stress level

Hence we can propose the following empirical formula

for approximate evaluation of the shear strength of ma-
sonry in a plane stress state for different levels of the
compressive stresses:
ult = ult ,0 + 0,28 z , (2)
where: b) Test series 2B (three specimens)
ult is the masonry shear strength;
z is the mean compressive stress perpendicular to
the shear plane;
ult ,0 is the initial masonry shear strength, under
zero compressive stress.
In equation (2), all magnitudes are in MPa.
Equation (2) is valid for only the cases where the
compressive stress does not exceed 0,2 of the ultimate
compressive strength.
A similar relationship is given in Eurocode 6 [9] to
compute the masonry shear strength depending on the
compressive stress value. In our case, this strength should
be determined using equation 3.3a [9] but its value must
be not higher than a value computed by equation 3.3c
[9]. A graphical representation of the values calculated
by these equations for our cases is given in Fig 7. As
can be seen, equation 3.3a overestimates the shear
strength of masonry, but equation 3.3c provides a rather
high safety margin for the masonry shear strength. Fig 8. Local compression test setup

4. Response to local compression

For local compression tests of masonry walls, six

specimens were produced and stored analogously as de-
scribed in the previous section.
The test specimens were tested to collapse for con-
centrated vertical load P applied incrementally at a dis-
tance 650 mm (series 2A) and 350 mm (series 2B) from
the wall edge, as shown in Fig 8. The bearing area was
1012 = 120 cm2.
Along the loading line on both sides of the speci-
mens, displacement transducers (Tv, Fig 8) were installed
at the middle height over a gauge length of 800 mm to
measure mean vertical strains.
The tests showed that the specimens of both series
had the same failure mode the failure was practically
brittle with formation of a local failure zone under the
bearing and a vertical crack along the loading line (Fig 9). Fig 9. Failure pattern

7
8 P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39

Until the load reached the value P = 150 kN, the
mean vertical strains increased with loading almost iden-
tically for specimens of both series and had a slightly
non-linear kind (Fig 10). However, further loading caused
a deviation of the load-strain curve for series 2B from
the direct line and from the curve shown by the series
2A specimens. After that, under the load 188 to 200 kN
the failure of the series 2B specimens occurred. The mean
value of the failure load for these specimens was
192,7 kN. The series 2A specimens showed a higher load-
bearing capacity equal to 220 to 256 kN with the mean
value of 234,7 kN.
200
2 , kN
Software Stark_Es. Results of the analysis are given in
Fig 11.
The analysis shows that for specimens of the differ-
ent series under the ultimate failure load the maximum
compressive stresses below the loaded area (z) have the
same ratio as the loads applied. However, calculated ten-
sile stresses in the orthogonal direction (x), which have
caused the vertical crack formation in the test specimens,
in the series 2B specimens are 1,25 times greater than in
the series 2A specimens even under a smaller load. This
indicates that in the series 2B specimens local compres-
sion (casing-type) effect is not so significant than in the
other series specimens. This fact is affirmed by the kind
of deformation distribution in the vicinity of the loaded

area in the series 2A specimens the effective area is

150 greater than in the other specimens. From the deformed
shape presented in Fig 11 we can assume that the effec-
100
series 2A
a) Series 2A
series 2B
50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 5
30
x10
Fig 10. Experimental load-strain curves

At the failure moment, the mean value of the mid

height vertical strain was 50 10 5 and 35 10 5 for speci-
mens of the series 2A and 2B respectively. As can be
seen from Fig 1a, such strains correspond to compres-
sive stresses not exceeding a half of the ultimate strength
of masonry in pure axial compression. Thus the failure
of the specimens was local below the loaded area.
The results presented enable to evaluate the effect
of increase of the masonry resistance to concentrated
compressive loads as compared with overall axial com-
pression case. Table 2 presents values of the enhance-
ment factor for concentrated loads obtained experimen-
tally and calculated according to different building codes. b) Series 2B

Table 2. Local compression effect

Enhancement factor for concentrated
compressive loads
Test series
EC6 [9],
test SNiP [10]
PN [11]
2A 2,1 1,5 1,45
2B 1,7 1,5 1,35

As we can see from Table 2, all design codes pro-

vide a rather high safety margin for the compressive
strength of masonry subjected to concentrated loads. In
addition, Russian code [10] defines the same enhance-
ment factor for both the test series and, in contrast to
Eurocode 6 [9] and Polish code [11], does not take into
account changes of the masonry local compressive
strength depending on the wall height.
The ultimate stage of the wall behaviour is mod- Fig 11. Results of finite element analysis (displacement
elled on the basis of the finite element method using scale 200:1)

8
P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39
tive area includes wall parts of 250 mm length for the
series 2A specimens and 200 mm for the series 2B speci-
mens to both sides from the loaded area (but not 120
mm as adopted in code [10] for both our cases). In this
case, the enhancement factor calculated by Eq (19) given
in [10] would be equal to 1,82 and 1,71 for specimens
of the first and the second series respectively. These
values are much closer to the experimental ones than
those calculated according to [10]. Therefore, the ma-
sonry resistance to concentrated compressive loads can
be evaluated sufficiently accurate by the finite element
analysis.
5. Conclusions
1. Large-scale tests carried out on masonry wall
panels subjected to in-plane lateral (shear) loading com-
bined with different levels of axial compression show
that:
Behaviour of masonry wall panels subjected to pure
shear is almost perfectly elastic, the failure occurs
in a brittle mode. Compressive load affects the shear
behaviour of the masonry making it plastic.
Shear capacity of masonry walls increases by about
80 % due to the action of axial compressive load
equal to 20 % of the ultimate compressive strength;
the lateral rigidity of such walls can be of an order
of magnitude higher as compared with the walls un-
der pure shear.
2. Local compression tests of masonry walls show
that resistance of masonry to concentrated compressive
load depends significantly on the distance from the wall
edge to the load position even if this distance 2,5 times
greater than the wall thickness. This fact is not taken
into account in SNiP II-22-81 [10]. A finite element
analysis can be used for strength evaluation for masonry
subjected to concentrated loads.
9
9
Acknowledgement. The authors are pleased to acknowl-
edge the support of INTAS under international project
00-0600.
References
1. Bull, J. W. Computational modelling of masonry, brick-
work and blockwork structures. Saxee-Coburg Publications,
2001. 346 p.
2. Hendry, A. W. Structural masonry. London: Mac-Millan
Education Ltd, 1990. 284 p.
3. Majewski, S.; Szojda, L. Numerical analysis of a masonry
structure. Engineering and construction, 2002, No 10,
p. 578581 (in Polish).
4. Orowicz, R.; Mayszko, L. Masonry structures. Cracks and
their elimination. Olsztyn: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu
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formation modulus of masonry. In: Proceedings of XLV
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Krynica, 1999, p. 133140 (in Polish).
6. BRITISH STANDARD BS 3921: Specifications for clay
bricks. London: British Standards Institution, 2001. 22 p.
7. Sementsov, S. A. On the method of selection of logarith-
mic stress-strain relation using test data. In: Strength and
stability of large-panel structures, Vol 15. Moscow:
Gosstroyizdat, 1962, p. 303309 (in Russian).
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ements and their use in software MicroFE. Residential
Construction, 1998, No 8, p. 1822 (in Russian).
9. prEN 1996-1-1: Redraft 9A. Eurocode 6: Design of ma-
sonry structures Part 1-1: Common rules for reinforced
and unreinforced masonry structures. European Commit-
tee for Standardization, 2001. 123 p.
10. SNiP II-22-81. Masonry and reinforced masonry structures.
Design Code. ( II-22-81. Moscow: Gosstroi USSR,
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11. PN-B-03002:1999. Masonry structures. Design and analy-
sis. PKN, 1999. 67 p. (in Polish).
 11

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118

FE SOFTWARE ATENA APPLICATIONS TO NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS OF RC

BEAMS SUBJECTED TO HIGH TEMPERATURES

Darius Bacinskas1, Gintaris Kaklauskas2, Edgaras Geda3

Dept of Bridges and Special Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saultekio al 11, LT-10233
Vilnius-40, Lithuania. E-mail: 1Darius.Bacinskas@st.vtu.lt, 2Gintaris.Kaklauskas@st.vtu.lt, 3egeda@salmija.lt
Received 15 Apr 2004; accepted 23 Feb 2004

Abstract. Reinforced concrete structures subjected to fire will generally experience complex behaviour. This paper
presents a strategy of numerical simulation of reinforced concrete members exposed to high temperatures and subjected
to external loading. Finite element modelling of full load deflection behaviour of experimental reinforced concrete
beams reported in the literature has been carried out by the FE software ATENA. A constitutive model based on Eurocode
2 specifications has been used in the analysis. Comparison of numerical simulation and test results have shown reason-
able accuracy.
Keywords: reinforced concrete fire design, non-linear finite element analysis, fire tests, fire resistance, constitutive
models of concrete and steel.

1. Introduction behaviour of a member under elevated temperature con-

There are many buildings and civil engineering struc-
tures (tunnels, high-rise buildings, bridges and viaducts,
containment shells, offshore platforms, airport runways
etc.) under construction which are at risk of fire. A few
dramatic accidents in recent years have prompted inves-
tigations in the field of safety of reinforced concrete struc-
tures subjected to fire. Fires in railway Channel Tunnel
(autumn 1996), in the road tunnels of Mont Blanc
(France/Italy 1999), in the television tower of Ostankino
(Moscow, 2000), in the Twin Towers (New York, 2001)
should be mentioned [1]. In all cases, the load-bearing
capacity of structure in the actual fire conditions is of
primary importance for evacuation of persons and things,
as well as for safety of rescue teams.
The analysis of the behaviour of load-bearing mem-
bers under high temperature conditions is very compli-
cated [2, 3]. Various factors influencing the behaviour
of members need to be taken into account, including:
variation of member temperature with time, variation of
temperature over the cross-section and along the mem-
ber, temperature effects on material properties (expan-
sion, creep, reduction in strength and stiffness, spalling,
etc), material non-linearity, external restrains, section
shape, etc. A parametric study of the influence of differ-
ent factors on the behaviour of RC beams and frames is
presented in [4].
Because of the no-linear nature of the problem,
closed-form solutions usually cannot be found and an
iterative approach is required [5]. The non-linear
ditions can be simulated using the finite element method
[6, 7]. Because of increasing interest in the field of struc-
tural fire protection, the number of existing software
capable to analysing the thermal response of materials
under transient heating conditions is quite large [8, 9].
The majority of these programmes was developed in
professional software houses, such as DIANA [10],
ATENA [11], ABAQUS, MSC.MARC, etc. Such
programmes have many advantages including documen-
tation, sophisticated non-linear material models, pre/post-
processing facilities, etc.
This paper presents a strategy of numerical simula-
tion of reinforced concrete members exposed to high
temperatures and subjected to external loading. Finite
element modelling of full load deflection behaviour of
experimental reinforced concrete beams reported in [12]
has been carried out by the FE software ATENA. A con-
stitutive model based on Eurocode 2 specifications for
fire design [13] has been used in the analysis. Compari-
son of numerical simulation and test results has been
carried out.
2. Reported fire tests of RC beams employed in the
numerical analysis
The present analysis employs experimental data [12]
of reinforced concrete beams subjected to external load-
ing and elevated temperatures. A total of 13 specimens
were cast and tested. Except for TSB2-1, the other speci-
mens were heated on three surfaces (the bottom and two

11
12 D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118

lateral surfaces) according to the same heating curve. The present report includes results of modelling three
Specimens TSB1-(0-6) were tested in the FT (force-tem- beams of the TF series, namely TSB2-1, TSB2-4 and
perature) path to obtain failure temperatures under dif- TSB2-6, first exposed to temperatures of 20, 400 and
ferent applied load levels. These specimens were first 600C, respectively, and then subjected to external load-
loaded to a predetermined value, and then heated until ing. The experimental temperature distribution through-
the specimens failed. Specimens TSB2-(1-6) were tested out the section of the beams TSB2-4 and TSB2-6 is
in the TF (temperature-force) path to obtain ultimate shown in Fig 2. The experimental load-deflection dia-
bending moment resistances. These specimens were first grams are presented in Fig 3 with the failure load speci-
heated up to a predetermined temperature, and then fied in Table 1.
loaded at a quicker rate until the specimens failed. As
the loading time was very short compared to its heating
180 400 C temperature
400
time, the thermal duration effect during loading can be C
600 C temperature
600 C
neglected. Thus, the duration of thermal exposure be- 150

Depth of section, mm
tween the FT and TF paths can be considered to be the 120
same.
The specimens were 1300 mm long, 100 mm wide, 90
and 180 mm deep, with a 10 mm concrete cover all round 60
the section.
30
The specimens were cast in two batches of normal
Portland cement (Standard grade China cement), natural 0
river sand and crushed limestone with 15 mm maximum 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
size. The mean compressive cube strength of TSB2 se- T emperature, C
ries is 29,45 MPa.
Low-carbon plain steel bars with diameter 10 mm Fig 2. Experimental temperature distribution within the
and yield stress 270 MPa at room temperature were used section depth
as tensile and compressive reinforcement, while those
with diameter 3,5 mm and yield stress 289 MPa at room
temperature were used as stirrups. The specimen tensile
0.024
steel ratio was 0,95% and the stirrup spacing was 80 20 C 400 C 600 C
mm. The specimen dimensions, detailing and loading po-
0.02
sitions are shown in Fig 1.
The specimens were compacted using a vibrating 0.016
rod and cured in a moist environment at 20C and 100%
P, MN

relative humidity for a period of 7 days after casting, 0.012

and then placed in a natural environment. To reduce the

0.008
difference of the water content between specimens aris-
ing from a long test period, all specimens were tested 0.004
after 60 days.
0
D10 1 D3,5@80 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

f, m

Fig 3. Experimental load-deflection diagrams of beams

TSB2-1, TSB2-4 and TSB2-6
1300 mm D10

1
1-1
D10
Table 1. Failure loads of test beams
10

D3,5@80
Beam Temperature, oC Failure load, kN
180

D10
10

400 400 400 TSB2-1 20 19,46

1200
10 10 TSB2-4 400 14,99
100 TSB2-6 600 5,49

Fig 1. Dimensions, cross-section and loading of test speci-

mens

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D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118 13

3. A Constitutive model applied in the analysis

The reliability of a fire analysis results is strongly

affected by the choice of the constitutive laws of materi-
als and the values of theirs parameters. In the present FE
model the material properties are considered to be tem-
perature-dependent. This section describes constitutive
models for concrete and steel assumed in the numerical
analysis. The constitutive relationships are based on
Eurocode 2 specifications [13, 14].

3.1. Concrete

The constitutive model (material model) describes

the behaviour of heated and loaded concrete in math-
ematical terms. It is based on the stress-strain relation-
ships of heated concrete. The strain components can be
modelled using the superposition theory whereby the to-
Fig 4. Stress-strain relationship of concrete at different
tal strain is considered to be the sum of various strain temperatures
components [3]:
tot = (, , ) + th () + cr (, , t ) + tr (, ) , (1)
fct()
where tot is the total strain, the stress-related strain, cu() c0 ()
th the thermal strain, cr the creep strain, tr the tran- cr() cu()
c()
sient strain, the temperature, t the time, a stress, Ec ()

the stress history.

The superposition theory has been particularly use-
ful in the analysis of the strain components at high tem-
perature and has been found to be applicable experimen-
tally [3]. Each of the terms of Eq 1 is briefly described fc ()
below.
The EC2 model implicitly takes account of the ef-
fect of high-temperature creep. Both the physical loss of Fig 5. Theoretical model of the stress-strain relationship
moisture and shrinkage at high temperature cause a de- of concrete
crease in the coefficient of expansion, but these effects
have not been considered in the present model. The model
Stress-strain behaviour of compressive concrete un-
also does not attempt to model spalling, the concrete
der normal conditions ( = 20 o C ) in ATENA is mod-
cross-section being assumed to remain intact.
elled by the EC2 [14] relationship the ascending branch
of which has the form
3.1.1. Stress-strain relationships in compression and
( ) ( )1 +k(k2)
2
tension
c 20 o C = f c 20 o C (2)
The stress-strain relationships of compressed con-
crete for different temperature levels are shown in Fig 4. where c 20 oC ( ) is the stress of concrete at room
The theoretical model of these relationships is given in
Fig 5. On the compression side, the curve consists of a
( ) ( ( )
temperature, = c 20 oC c 0 20 oC , c 20 oC is the )
parabolic branch followed by a descending curve until strain of concrete at room temperature, c 0 (20 o C ) is the
crushing occurs. On the tension side, the curve consists concrete strain at peak stress at the same condition,
of a bilinear diagram. An initial stiffness of concrete in (
f c 20 o C ) is the characteristic value of compressive
tension is equal to that in compression. At tensile strains
greater than this value of cr the concrete is assumed to strength of concrete at t = 20 oC ,
follow the descending branch of the stress-strain curve.
Once tensile strains exceed cu , the concrete in tension
( ) ( ) ( )
k = 1,1Ec 20 oC c 0 20 o C / f c 20 oC , Ec 20 o C is the ( )
elastic modulus of concrete.
is ignored, although it is still assumed to be capable of
It should be noted that the stress-strain relationship
carrying compression. Once the concrete has crushed, it
for compressive concrete presented in Eurocode 2 for
is assumed to have no residual strength in either com-
fire design of concrete structures [13] is different from
pression or tension.
formula 2. The former relationship is not available on

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14 D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118

the ATENA 2D user interface. However, the shape of Ec () = c ()Ec (20 C ) , (5)
the stress-strain relationship of the compressive concrete
does not have significant influence on the results of the where c ( ) is an empirical factor, for normal strength
analysis. Therefore, Eq (2) has been modified in order concrete taken as:
to model temperature effects. Thus the parameters c () = 1 0,0017 . (6)
( ) fc (20 oC) , c (20 oC) , c0 (20 oC) and
c 20 oC , The behaviour of concrete in tension under fire con-
Ec (20 oC ) from formula (2) corresponding to normal con- ditions is not fully investigated. So far few investiga-
tions have been carried out, mainly aimed at the overall
ditions ( = 20 o C ) were replaced by respective param- and stress-strain behaviour of structures.
eters c () , f c ( ) , c () , c 0 () and Ec () taken As mentioned above, the behaviour of tensile con-
for given temperature . Further the relationships for crete was modelled by a bilinear diagram. The current
f c ( ) , c 0 () and Ec () are briefly discussed. model of tensile concrete is characterised by two main
The variation of the relative compressive strength factors: tensile strength and the ultimate cracking strain.
( )
f c () f c 20 oC of concrete with siliceous and calcare-
The reduction of tensile strength of concrete at high
temperatures is accounted for by the coefficient kt () ,
ous aggregates under increasing temperatures is shown taken as [13]:
in Fig 6. Similar relationship for strain c 0 () is pre-
sented in Fig 7. f ct () = kt () f ct (20 C ) . (7)
In absence of a more accurate information the following
kt () values should be used [13]:
1
Siliceous
t
Calcareous kt () = 1,0 for 20 C 100 C
0.8 t
100
kt () = 1 for 100 C < 600 C (8)
)

500
f c ( ) f c 20 o C

0.6
kt () = 0 for 600 C <
(

0.4 To the authors' knowledge, investigations regarding

the limit strain cu ( ) of tensile concrete are practically
0.2 absent. In reference [16] it is taken as 15 cr ( ) , where
cr () = f ct () / Ec () is the cracking strain of concrete.
0 The same source also notes that the analysis of RC beams
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 at ambient temperature is very sensitive to the assumed
Temperature, C tensile behaviour of concrete.
In ATENA 2D post-peak behaviour of tensile con-
Fig 6. Relative compressive strength of concrete with sili- crete is modelled using principles of fracture mechanics
ceous and calcareous aggregates at elevated temperatures [17]. Fracture energy G f was assumed by modifying a
formula from [11] given for = 20 C :
0.03 G f () = 0,000025 f t () , [MN/m]. (9)
0.025 It should be noted that a sudden drop in tensile
strength with increasing temperatures takes place, lead-
0.02
ing to degradation of tension softening.
c 0 ()

0.015

0.01
3.1.2. Thermal strain

0.005
Thermal strain of concrete during heating is a simple
function of temperature and its theoretical curve is plot-
0 ted in Fig 8. The theoretical curve also includes drying
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
shrinkage, but despite this, the curve is justified for rapid
Temperature, C
heating during fire.
Fig 7. Variation of strain c 0 ( ) corresponding to maxi-
mum stress f c ( ) under increasing temperature 3.1.3. Creep strain

The creep strain depends on concrete, the load, the

A relationship for Ec () is absent in Eurocode 2, temperature and the time. The following expression
is used to describe the creep of ordinary concrete:
therefore it was taken from [15]:

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D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118 15

ing. It is an irreversible process and occurs only during

the first heating. The transient stress is found to be pro-
portional to the thermal expansion and to the ratio
between the compressive stress and strength at 20 C:
( )
tr (, ) = 2,35
(
f c 20o C ) th (11)

where tr (, ) is the transient strain, () f c 20 o C ( )

is the ratio between the compressive stress and compres-
sive strength of the concrete at 20 C, th the thermal
expansion.
Fig 8. Thermal strain of concrete
3.2. Reinforcement

3,04( 20 )
The constitutive model describes the behaviour of
6 () t heated and loaded steel in mathematical terms. Since tran-
cr (, , t ) = 530 10 e 1000 (10)
cu () 3 sient strain does not exist for steel, the model is simpler
than for concrete and is described as the sum of three
where cr (,, t ) is the creep strain, () a stress of terms [13]:
concrete, cu () the ultimate compressive stress of con-
crete (Fig 5), is the temperature of concrete, t the tot = cr (, ) + th () + cr (, , t ) (12)
time interval. where tot is total strain, cr (, ) the stress related
strain, th () the thermal strain, tot the total strain.
3.1.4. Transient strain The strength and deformation properties of reinforc-
ing steel at elevated temperatures shall be obtained from
Transient stress is the hindered part of thermal the stress-strain relationships [13] specified in Fig 9 and
expansion for loaded concrete structures exposed to heat- Table 2.

Table 2. Stress-strain relationships for steel under a high temperature

Range Stress Tangent modulus

Elastic
< sp () s () = E s () s , E s ()
Non-linear
(
s () = f sp () c + (b / a ) a 2 sy () s () 2 ) (
b sy () s () )
sp () s sy () E s () =
(
a a 2 s () sp () 2 )
Plastic s () = f sy () E s () = 0
sy () s st ()
Descending branch () st ()
st () s su () s () = f sy ()1 s
u () st ()
Failure
0
s = su ()
Parameters sp () = f sp () / E s () , sy () = 0,02 , st () = 0,15 , sy () = 0,2

Functions ( )(
a 2 = sy () sp () sy () sp () + c / E s () ),
( )
b 2 = c sy () sp () E s () + c 2 ,

( f sy () f sp ())2
c=
( sy () sp ())E s () 2( f sy () f sp ())

15
 16 D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118

1
hot rolled
cold worked
0.8

Es () / Es (20 C )
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, C

Fig 12. Relative elastic modulus of hot-rolled and cold-

Fig 9. Stress-strain relationship of steel worked steel at elevated temperatures

For a given steel temperature, the stress-strain curves

in Fig 9 are defined by three parameters: 4. Numerical modelling of experimental beams
the slope of the linear elastic range Es () for
4.1. FE package ATENA
reinforcement,
the proportional limit f sp () , ATENA is a commercial finite element software
the maximum stress level f sy () . package developed for non-linear simulation of concrete
Values for each of the three parameters for hot rolled and reinforced concrete structures. Based on advanced
and cold worked steel are given in Fig 1012 [13]. material models it can be used for realistic modelling
the structural response and behaviour.
1.2
ATENA programme consists of solution core and the
hot rolled
cold worked
user interface. The solution core has got capabilities for
1 the 2D and 3D analysis of continuum structures. It has
f sy () / f yk (20 C)

libraries of finite elements, material models and solution

0.8
methods. ATENA User Graphic Interface for 2D analysis
0.6 is a programme, which enables access to the ATENA
solution core. It is limited to 2D graphical modelling
0.4 and covers the state of plane stress, plain strain and ra-
tional symmetry.
0.2
A smeared approach is used to model the material
0 properties, such as cracks. This means that material prop-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 erties defined for a material point are valid within a cer-
Temperature, C tain material volume, which is in this case associated
with the entire finite element. The constitutive model is
Fig 10. Relative maximum stress of hot-rolled and cold-
based on the stiffness and is described by the equation
worked steel at elevated temperatures
of equilibrium in a material point. The concrete models
can include the following effects of concrete behaviour:
1.2
hot rolled non-linear behaviour in compression including harden-
1
cold worked ing and softening, fracture of concrete in tension based
on the non-linear fracture mechanics, biaxial strength
f sp () / f yk (20 C)

0.8 failure criterion, reduction of compressive strength after

cracking, tension stiffening effect, reduction of the shear
0.6
stiffness after cracking (variable shear retention), fixed
0.4 direction crack model. The discrete reinforcement is in
the uniaxial stress state and its constitutive law is a bi-
0.2 linear stress-strain diagram. The material matrix is de-
rived using the non-linear elastic approach. In this ap-
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 proach the elastic constants are derived from a
Temperature, C stress-strain function.
ATENA enables loading of the structure with vari-
Fig 11. Relative proportional limit of hot-rolled and cold-
ous actions: body forces, nodal or linear forces, supports,
worked steel at elevated temperatures
prescribed deformations, temperature, shrinkage, pre-

16
D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118 17

stressing. These loading cases are combined into load
steps, which are solved utilising advanced solution meth-
ods: NewtonRaphson, modified NewtonRaphson or arc-
length. Secant, tangential or elastic material stiffness can
be employed in particular models. Line-search method
with optional parameters accelerates the convergence of
solution, which is controlled by residual-based and en-
ergy-based criteria. This is only a concise survey of
ATENA features. All the described features support the
user by engineering analysis of connections between steel
and concrete and computer simulation of its behaviour.
4.2. FE model of experimental beams
Load-deflection behaviour of the experimental beams
described in Section 2 have been analysed by the finite
element package ATENA. The present report includes
results of modelling the three beams of the TF series, ie
TSB2-1, TSB2-4 and TSB2-6, first exposed to tempera-
tures 20, 400 and 600C, respectively, and then sub-
jected to external loading till failure.
400 and 600 C, respectively. As the temperatures were
increasing from the bottom to the top, the beams have
deflected downwards. The calculated deflections due to
temperature effects only (no loading) are in a good agree-
ment with the tests for the beam TSB2-6, but some dis-
crepancies can be noted for the beam TSB2-4. With in-
creasing load the experimental load-deflection diagrams
(Figs 2, 14) can be roughly approximated by a bilinear
diagram consisting of two lines: the first one describing
pre-yielding and the second post-yielding behaviour. It
can be seen from Fig 14 that the shape of experimental
load-deflection diagrams has been qualitatively captured
in the finite element analysis. Pre-yielding deflections
were accurately modelled for the beam TSB2-1
(t = 20 C), but were underestimated for the beam TSB2-
4 and overestimated for the beam TSB2-6. Agreement
of the ultimate load is within reasonable limits. Deflec-
tion fields and cracking pattern of TSB2-4 beam at load
P = 16 kN are shown in Fig 15.
20 C temperature 400 C temperature 600 C temperature
20 C
20 CAtena 400
400 C
CAtena 600
600 C
CAtena

SBETA material model with parameters given in 0,025

Section 3 was applied for simulating the concrete
behaviour. Reinforcement is modelled by a single straight 0,02
line in a discrete way (bar reinforcement). Material of
reinforcement is represented by the bilinear model.
0,015
The experimental temperature distribution through-
P , MN

out the section of the beams TSB2-4 and TSB2-6 is

shown in Fig 2. In order to assess degrading material 0,01

properties due to high temperature effects, the beams

within the depth were divided into six macroelements. 0,005

These macroelements were discretised by CCIsoQuad

type quadraliteral elements with rigid connections be- 0
0 0,005 0,01 0,015 0,02 0,025 0,03 0,035 0,04 0,045 0,05
tween the macroelements. The temperatures and respec-
f, m
tive material properties in different macroelements were
assessed according to the experimental temperature dia-
grams from Fig 2. Standard Newton-Raphson solution Fig 14. Calculated and experimental load-deflection dia-
method was applied for non-linear analysis of experi- grams
mental beams. FE model of TSB2 series experimental
beams is presented in Fig 13.

Fig 13. FE model of TSB2 series experimental beams

Fig 15. Deflection fields and cracking pattern of TSB2-4

4.3. Analysis results beam at load P=16 kN

In this section, comparison of numerical modelling

with test data has been carried out. The modelled load-
deflection diagrams are presented in Fig 8 along with
the experimental curves. The modelling has included all
the stages of temperature and loading. First, the beams
TSB2-4 and TSB2-6 were subjected to temperature of
5. Concluding remarks
Load-deflection behaviour of reinforced concrete
beams subjected to high temperatures (up to 600C) has
been modelled by the finite element package ATENA.

17
18 D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1118
A constitutive model based on specifications of Eurocode
2 has been used in the analysis. Comparison of the ex-
perimental and modelling results has shown that ATENA
has satisfactorily captured the load-deflection behaviour
of the beams.
6. Acknowledgment
The financial support under Framework 5 project
Cost-effective, sustainable and innovative upgrading
methods for fire safety in existing tunnels (UPTUN,
project No GRD1-2001-40739/UPTUN) provided by the
European Community is gratefully acknowledged.
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sels, Nov 2002. 15 p.
2. Khoury, G. A.; Anderberg, Y.; Both, K.; Felinger, J.;
Majorana, C. E. and Hoj, N. P. Fire Design of Concrete:
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fib Congress Concrete Structures in 21st Century, Osaka,
2002, p. 99118.
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 19

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1,1922

ANALYSIS OF THERMAL STRAIN OF STRUCTURAL STEELS IN VARIABLE

THERMAL FIELD

Zoja Bednarek, Renata Kamocka

The Main School of Fire Service (MSFS) in Warsaw, Str. J. Sowackiego 52/54, 01-629 Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail: sgsp@ sgsp.edu.pl
Received 3 Nov 2003; accepted 8 Apr 2004

Abstract. The strain analysis of steels subjected to a thermal field with a high temperature increase rate is presented.
The results of tests of thermal strain caused by thermal expansion and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion are
presented for the structural steel, class AIII, grade 34GS, tested in a linearly variable temperature field at various heating
rates. The impact of heating rate on thermal strain T = (T) T and coefficient of linear thermal expansion (T) is
discussed.
Keywords: thermal expansion, thermal strain, coefficient of linear thermal expansion, structual steel.

1. Introduction Structural strength under fire conditions and fire

The impact of elevated temperatures on structural
materials (including structural steels) results in a change
of their elastic and plastic behaviour. The intensity of
such phenomena as creep and relaxation also increases
with temperature. As results of our previous studies, such
phenomena have a considerable impact on structural
strength at fire temperatures.
Furthermore, not only an absolute value of tempera-
ture is essential but also temperature distribution with
time and rate of temperature increase are of vital impor-
tance.
Our previous studies [1] concerning the impact of
rapid-heating conditions, like fire, on the properties of
reinforcing steel, also including its thermal strain, have
shown that:
Such properties and the type of rupture are influ-
enced by temperature distribution during the test,
and in particular, by temperature increase rate
dT/d, what was found while testing steels at both
relatively slight and significant temperature increase
rates;
Different grades of steels (including structural steels)
show some kind of inertia, which consists in a par-
tial or full inhibition of some processes leading to
the material rupture due to heating at a significant
rate as compared to the same processes at constant
temperatures or at a slight rate of temperature in-
crease;
Thermal fields characterised by higher temperature
increase rates undoubtedly produce more favourable
effects in terms of the material strength, eg result
in higher critical temperatures (causing rupture).
resistance are calculated on the basis of well established
mechanical and strength characteristics of building ma-
terials.
The nature of structural steels strain, being a result
of simultaneous impact of stresses and time-dependent
thermal field during a fire, is still under examination.
According to a proposal made by RILEM-
COMMITEE 44-PHT, an international committee, total
strain at elevated temperatures can be described by the
following constitutive equation for the material (steel):
= T (T ) + e p (, T ) + (, T , ) , (1)
where T is thermal strain T = (T ) T caused by
thermal expansion of steel,
e p mechanical strain computed ignoring creep
strain as described by Ramberg-Osgood equation as fol-
lows:
1 (T ) (T ) 1
e p = e + p = + 0,002[ ] ,(2)
E (T ) y (T )
is creep strain (dependent on time ) as described by
Dorns theory and Harmothys studies; also being the
subject of our earlier studies conducted at the Applied
Mechanics Department (MSFS) under Z. Bednareks
guidance.
The total strain of steel at elevated temperatures can
be calculated by summing up the thermal strain, the strain
calculated from the Ramberg-Osgood equation and the
creep strain.
This paper presents the results of studies of the first
component of the steel strain model based on equation (1),
ie the thermal strain caused by linear expansion of steel.

19
20 Z. Bednarek, R. Kamocka / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1922

2. Model of thermal expansion of solid bodies There is the following relation between the linear
expansion coefficient and the anharmonicity coefficient:
According to the microscopic description, the ther-
mal expansion of solid bodies can account for an < x > bk 1 . (4)
= = 2
increase of the crystal lattice parameter (interatomic dis- r0 T K r0
tances in a crystal). Some of these phenomena can also
The higher the curve asymmetry, the greater the
account for defects in the crystal lattice mainly vacan-
thermal expansion coefficient.
cies (the lack of atom in the place, which is assigned to
such atom).
As temperature rises, the amplitude of atoms oscil- 3. Testing the impact of temperature on steel strain
lations from their average equilibrium positions increases due to linear thermal expansion
(Fig 1).
Steel is a homogenous and isotropic continuous
. medium, which is subject to thermally activated strain.
A body length at a given temperature can be deter-
mined by means of the following formula:
l(T) = l0 (1 + T + T2). (5)
Ho For isotropic changes (a steel specimen), when ap-
H proximating linearity of changes in length, we can write:
l = l(T) l0 = (T) l T
or (6)
= l/l = (T) T.
7(H) According to Harmothy [36] (ENV 1993-1-2), the
strain of heated steel with temperature can be expressed
by the following formulae:
l
= 1,2 105T + 0,4 108T2 2,416 104
Ho l
H 20 C < T < 750 C, (7a)

-1 -2
62>61 l
Ho = 1,1 102 750 C < T < 860 C, (7b)
H1 l
H2
l
Fig 1. Relation between force, potential energy and inter- = 2 105T + 6,2 103 860 C < T < 1200 C. (7c)
l
atomic distance r: r0, r1, r2 average interatomic dis-
The linear expansion coefficient can be precisely
tances at increasingly elevated temperatures
defined as:

The interatomic distance at temperature 0K is con- 1 dl ( p, T )

stant and equal to r0.
As temperature rises up to T1, the energy of atoms
in the crystal lattice increases resulting in their oscilla-
tions from their average equilibrium position r1 [2].
It can be shown that the average displacement of
the equilibrium position can be expressed as
b k T ,
< x >=
K2
where <x> average distance from r0 , eg <x> = r1 r0;
b anharmonicity coefficient (determines the de-
viation of atom oscillations from harmonicity);
K coefficient of quasi-elastic force acting between
atoms in the crystal lattice
(Fx = Kx + bx2);
T temperature; k Boltzman constant.
Thus, as temperature rises, the average interatomic
distance increases and the solid body expands.
= ( )p, (8)
l0 dT
where p constant pressure.
At constant pressure, coefficient is a temperature-
dependant function.
For practical purposes of making structural analy-
sis, the average based on the reference value of
1,2 105(1/deg) for low-carbon steels is frequently as-
(3)
sumed instead of an actual value of linear expansion
coefficient at a given temperature. There is no avail-
able precise data on the linear expansion coefficient for
structural steels for the needs of a more detailed steel
strain analysis at elevated temperatures, including fire
conditions characterised by a rapid increase in tempera-
ture. When searching through the publications available
to us we have only found the data on American steel
ASTM A36 [7], austenitic steels S350GD, S355 and
S460 [8] and formulae describing the relation between
coefficient and temperature as follows:

20
Z. Bednarek, R. Kamocka / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1922 21

= (0,004T + 12) 106 (1/K) [9, 6], (9) l

b = 1,32 105T + 0,256 108T2 5,95 104,
= (6,1 + 0,0019T) 106 inch/inch per degree [10].(10) l
(11a)
For the needs of further studies on individual com-
ponents of formula (1), which describes the strain of l
c = 1,27 105T + 0,322 108T2 6,65 104,
structural steels at fire temperatures, the behaviour of l
linear expansion coefficient for the steel, class AIII, grade (11b)
34GS, was examined in a linearly variable temperature l
field at different heating rates. d = 1,28 105T + 0,298 108T2 7,79 104,
l
The tests were conducted under anisothermic con- (11c)
ditions (T const) for 4 different temperature increase
l
rates. Fig 2 shows temperature-time distributions. Under e = 1,28 105T + 0,244 108T2 7,85 104.
fire conditions, the rate of temperature increase is l
5 C/min for a steel element covered by a good quality (11d)
fire insulation. For uncovered structures, the rate of tem- The points marked in Fig 3 to determine curves "b,
perature increase can reach 50 C/min. The results of tests c, d and e" are measuring points obtained by the authors
are shown on Figs 3 and 4, below. from their own tests, whereas points on curve "a" were
calculated according to the formula 7a taken from the
references.
Below, we present a comparison of the curve taken
from the references (curve a) with our curves (curves
b, c, d, e in Fig 4) describing the relation between

1,6E-05
Thermal expansion coefficient [1/deg]

1,4E-05

1,2E-05
a

1,0E-05

8,0E-06 b a wg Lie,T.T. [3]

c b dT/d = 5 C/min
6,0E-06 d c dT/d = 10 C/min
e d dT/d = 15 C/min
Fig 2. Relation between temperature and time for speci- 4,0E-06 e dT/d = 20 C/min
mens heated at various temperature increase rates 2,0E-06

0,0E+00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature [C]

Fig 4. Relation between thermal expansion coefficient and

temperature for specimens heated at various temperature
increase rates

thermal expansion coefficient a and temperature that we

obtained by experiments:

a = 4 109T + 1,2 105, (formula 9)

b = 2,51 1011T2 + 2,78 108T + 5,87 106,
Fig 3. Relation between strain and temperature for speci- (12a)
mens heated at various temperature increase rates c = 2,81 1011T2 + 3,04 108T + 5,3 106,
(12b)
Below, we present a comparison of the curve taken d = 3,08 1011T2 + 3,39 108T + 3,9 106,
from ENV 1992-1-2/1995/ (curve a) with our curves (12c)
(curves b, c, d, e in Fig 3) describing the relation e = 3,89 1011T2 + 4,09 108T + 1,95 106.
between strain and temperature that we obtained from (12d)
experiments:
The points marked in Fig 4 to determine curves b,
l c, d and e are measuring points obtained by the authors
a = 1,2 105T + 0,4 108T2 2,416 104,
l in their own tests, whereas points on curve a were
(formula 7a) calculated according to formula (9) taken from the refer-
ences.
21
22 Z. Bednarek, R. Kamocka / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1922
4. Conclusions
The objective of investigations was to determine and
conduct a comparative analysis of thermal strain and ther-
mal expansion coefficient for structural steels at differ-
ent temperature increase rates. As the results of the tests
conducted at different heating rates on specimens made
of structural steel, class AIII, grade 34GS show, the ther-
mal strain of specimens is affected by the temperature
increase rate. The higher the temperature increase rate,
the lower the thermal strain of specimen. The thermal
expansion coefficient also changes in a similar way. The
reason for such a behaviour of steel is its material iner-
tia which consists in a partial or full inhibition of some
processes leading to the material rupture and taking place
in steel due to a significant heating rate, as we have also
shown in our papers [1] and [11].
Linear expansion coefficient (T) rises with tem-
perature. As the regression analysis of the results, ob-
tained by the tests on linear expansion coefficient at a
given heating rate shows, the best correlation degree was
obtained when approximating experimental data with
quadratic polynomials. This paper includes the functions
that describe the relation between coefficient a and tem-
perature at different heating rates (formulae 12a, b, c,
and d).
22
References
1. Bednarek, Z. Influence of thermal conditions on strength
parameters of reinforcing steel exposed to fire. Inynieria
i Budownictwo, 12/93, p. 526528.
2. Staub, F. Metal Science, WNT Katowice 1994.
3. Lewis, K. R. Fire design of steel members, fire engineer-
ing research report 2000/07 ISSN 11735996.
4. Bvar, T. High performance concrete. Design guide lines,
Department of fire safety engineering, Report 5008, Lund,
1998.
5. Burgon, B. Elevated temperature and high strain rate prop-
erties of offshore steels, Steel Construction Institute, Off-
shore Technology Report 2001, 020, Norwich.
6. Alfawakhiri, F.; Sultan, M. A.; MacKinnon, D. H. Fire
Resistance of Loadbearing Steel-Stud Walls Protected with
Gypsum Board: A Review, Fire Technology, Vol 35, No 4,
1999.
7. Skowroski, W. Theory of fire safety of steel structures,
PWN 2001.
8. Outinen, J.; Kaitila, O.; Mkelinen, P. High-temperature
testing of structural steel and modelling of structures at
fire temperatures. Research report TKK-TER-23. Helsinki
University of Technology, 2001.
9. Guy C. Gosselin. Structural fire protection- predictive
methods, Building science inside 1987, Institute for Re-
search in Construction, National Research Council Canada.
10. R.H.R. Tide: Integrity of structural steel after exposure to
fire, Engineering Journal /First Quarter, 1998.
11. Bednarek, Z. Effects of increase of temperature on struc-
tural steel strength parameters as applied to the estimation
of fire safety of concrete construction. Doctor Habilitatis
thesis. Vilnius: Technika, 1996, p. 1208.
 23

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 2329

SLIP OF BULLDOG-TYPE TOOTHED-PLATE CONNECTORS IN STEEL-TIMBER

JOINTS OF OPEN-WEB GIRDERS

Rimantas echaviius
Dept of Metal and Timber Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania. E-mail: mktc@takas.lt
Received 4 June 2003; accepted 3 May 2004

Abstract. Composite steel-timber open-web girders invented by Truss Joint MacMillan company (Canada) provide
some technological and structural advantages. Timber chords and steel diagonals of triangular open-web are connected
by "Bulldog" type single-sided toothed-plate connectors. The article presents the results of research on four real-size
(span 3 m) open-web trussed purlin with "Bulldog"-type connectors. From carried out tests next parameters are
determined: resistance of "Bulldog"-type connectors, slip modulus and statical slip values depending on the angle
between the force and wood fibres directions. It is also received numerical values of the slip modulus and statical slip,
which are substantically greater than given in experimental Eurocode 5. The tests also let to find that redistribution of
forces in steel diagonals of the trussed purlin starts when slip of "Bulldog"-type connectors in steel-to-timber joints
approaches to the limit (2 mm) value.
Keywords: composite structure, steel-timber joint "Bulldog"-type connector, slip, resistance test.

1. Introduction The majority of these results is obtained by investi-

gating separate joints. But there is a lack of data con-
Toothed Bulldog-type plate connectors (DS Bull- cerning the slip of such joints in real steel-timber struc-
dog) are means of mechanical ties used in timber struc- tures where the redestribution of stresses among
tures. The main purpose of them is to increase the tim- individual truss elements becomes clear.
ber bearing area in structural joints and to diminish the The article presents the results of research on four
slip of feathered joints. They could also allow to increase open-web trusses with Bulldog-type connectors [10
considerably the bearing capacity of such joints and to 12]. Not only the strength of such joints and their slip
tie light steel-timber open-web girders (trusses) and but also the stress redestribution among elements of the
frames. This is characteristic of OPEN-WEB trusses truss were determined.
having been produced since 1960 by the joint-stock com-
pany MacMillan; these trusses can be used for span-
ning both small openings (l4,59m) and large (12
120m) ones (Fig 1).
The main advantages of such trusses are their small
weight and rational joint work of timber chords and the
network of metal tubes. The main research on the bear-
ing capacity of toothed Bulldog-type connectors was
performed at Stevin-Laboratorium (Delft University of
Techology, Netherlands), Dannish Construction Research
Institute, Otto-Graf Institute (Stuttgart University, Ger-
many) [15]. During these investigations the strength of
joints was analysed by J.H. Blass, etc [67]. The model
of calculating such joints presented in his work is rec-
ommended by the project of new Eurocode standards [8].
The slip of Bulldog-type plate connectors was investi-
gated by Y. Hirashima [9]. The results are presented in
Fig 2, where slipping of different joining means is com-
pared. Fig 1. Composite steel-timber open-web truss of Truss
Joist MacMillan

23
24 R. echaviius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 2329

Fig 2. Experimental load-slip curves for joints in tension

parallel to the grain: a glued joints (12, 510 mm), b
split ring (100 mm), c double-sided toothed plate ( 62
mm) [15], d dowel ( 14 mm), e bolt ( 14 mm), f
punched plate (0,1E5 mm), nail ( 4,4 mm)

4. A

4. B
3. A

Joint M6

Fig 4. Truss testing scheme: a general view of truss

= testing (SN-1-3); b truss SN-1-1 testing diagram: 1
truss SN-1-1; 2 traverse; 3 hinge; 4 stiff support;
5 jack; 6 dynamometer; 7 steel spreader; 8 timber
pad; X traverse braces; T1-T16 electric strain resis-
Joint M1
3. B
tance gauges; II.1 II.7 0,01 mm accuracy dial gauges
(deflection indicators); In.1In. 6 displacement of ends
of pipe indicators with precision of 0,01 mm

2. The structure of trusses and test scheme

3. C Four steel-timber (3 m span) trusses SN-1-1, SN-1-

Fig3. Structure of SN-1 trusses: adiagram for analysis;
bstructure of M6 joint; cstructure of M1 joint
2, SN-1-3, SN-1-4 have been tested and some joints of
them strengthened by DS Bulldog [13]: all joints in
SN-1 and SN-2; mostly loaded were the joints M1, M5,
M6, M7, M10 and M11 in trusses SN-1-3, SN-4. In the
latter trusses, the less loaded joints M2, M3, M4, M8,
M9 were connected only by bolts M16. All the network

24
R. echaviius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 2329 25

Table 1. Schedule of materials for a SN-1 truss

No Materials and details Characteristic Remarks, standards
1 Wooden element (upper chord) 50120 Fig 4. Test of girder Pinewood, 2nd sort W = 12%+/-2%
diagram:mm, 1 = 3280 mm
2 Wooden element (lower chord) 50120 mm, 1 = 2680 mm Pinewood, 2nd sort W = 12%+/-2%
3 Tube (truss network) d = 45,0 mm, t = 4,0 mm, 1 = 680 mm C235, GOST 10704-76
4 Toothed connector E75M16 DIN 1052 Bulldog [19]
5 Pin M16,1 = 200 mm C235, GOST 1759-70
6 Plate (insertion) a = 68 mm, t = 8 mm, hole 16,5 mm C235, GOST 27772-88
7 Washer a = 68 mm, t = 6 mm, hole 16,5 mm C235, GOST 27772-88
8 Nut M16 C235, GOST 1759-70

Fig 5. General view of testing the open-web truss: atest of truss SN-1-2; b arrangement of test
devices in the truss SN 14

elements of metal tubes are connected at 60 angle with
the upper and lower chords. The tubes at connecting
points are flattened and a hole of 16,2 mm was drilled.
In joints with one network element (M6 and M11), an
insertion was put. The structure of these trusses and the
testing scheme are shown in Figs 3, 4 and Table 1.
The trusses were tested at the laboratory of build-
ing structures of the VGTU. The source of loading was
a hydraulic jack based on a rigid metal frame. The
scheme of truss testing is shown in Fig 4. Strain gauges
(20 mm on metal and 50 mm on wooden basis) were
used only when testing SN-1-1 truss. The vertical strains
of truss supports and lower chords joints as well as slip
strains of joints M1, M5, M6, M11 were measured by
indicators of 0,01 mm precision.
For stability of experimental equipment in the plane
of bending moment, hinge supported horizontal wooden
squared beam connections were provided. It was observed
during testing that the horizontal ties are free and they
do not hinder transferring vertical forces.
3. Test results
It has been determined by testing steel-timber con-
nections [14, 15] that the characteristic value Rck of truss
chord timber compressive strength along fibres is equal
to 38,61 MPa and characteristic volume weight rk = 434
kg/m. Testing trusses lasted for 23 h. During this time
span the strains of on average 21 devices were deter-
mined at every stage of 15 loadings. Loading duration
in separate stages was in the interval of 1020 min de-
pending on the necessity to rearrange either the devices
(when strains were larger than the size of limit strains)
or the equipment of horizontal braces. Testing trusses is
shown in Fig 5.
The unit deformations of the truss SN-1-1 are shown
in Fig 6. The average strains in compressive truss bars
17 and 510 under the loading of 80 kN (c = 86,64
MPa) and in the members in tension 16 and 511 un-
der the loading of 110 kN (c= 121,46 MPa) were close
to those calculated theoretically according to the experi-
mentally defined pipe compressive (Et) and tensioned
bars elasticity models: E c =2,1010 5 MPa, and
Et=2,12105 MPa. But from F=8590kN loading the
growth of strains of compressed pipes and from F=110
kN the strains of tensioned pipes decreased considerably
and later have stopped almost entirely. Thus at the in-
crease of loading the stresses in these bars have not
changed, ie the stresses were redestributed among the
truss elements. This phenomenon can be explained by
the data of Table 2: exactly at this time M-11 ir M-6
joints slip deformations were larger than the allowable 2

25
26 R. echaviius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 2329

Table 2. Characteristics for serviceability limit state of Bulldog-type connectors in steel-to-timber joints
Impact kN Slip modulus according to LST EN 26891 [19], Keser Keu Slip according [14]
No of girder No of joint kN/mm Ktser Ktu
,
connections connections Uy, Uu, s
Fmax F2 Ks K0,6 K0,7 K0,8 Keu Keser
mm mm
M1 90 36,2 23,0 21,0 12,0 11,0 2,8 11,5 1,18 0,43 1,07 13,0 12,15
M2 90 32,2 21,6 22,9 13,8 9,6 3,9 10,8 1,11 0,60 0,85 8,2 9,65
Connections M3 90 31,8 21,0 20,3 11,8 9,2 5,8 10,5 1,08 0,89 0,85 5,5 6,47
B-2 Vid.: 90 33,4 21,9 21,4 12,6 10,0 4,2 10,9 1,12 0,64 0,92 8,9 9,42
M4 0 34,0 26,2 24,0 18,6 15,3 5,7 13,1 1,34 0,93 0,97 6,0 6,19
Connections M5 0 38,0 30,0 24,6 21,6 17,9 5,4 15,0 1,54 0,83 1,17 7,1 6,07
B-1 M6 0 39,5 25,7 25,9 16,2 4,4 12,8 1,31 0,68 0,92 9,0 9,80
Vid.: 0 37,1 27,3 24,8 18,8 16,6 5,2 13,6 1,40 0,81 1,02 7,4 7,35
SN-1-1 M6 60 36,4 29,3 41,8 21,7 16,0 7,7 14,7 1,51 1,18 0,7 4,7 6,7
M11 60 36,4 24,5 38,4 15,3 9,6 6,6 12,2 1,25 1,01 0,5 5,5 11,0
SN-1-2 M6 60 34,2 29,2 39,2 19,4 15,4 11,8 14,6 1,50 1,81 0,4 2,9 7,3
M11 60 34,2 20,7 17,7 10,7 7,3 5,4 10,4 1,07 0,83 1,1 6,3 5,7
SN-1-3 M6 60 37,0 19,2 14,2 7,6 5,7 6,2 9,6 0,98 0,95 1,0 6,0 6,0
M11 60 37,0 19,5 10,2 9,2 8,5 2,8 9,8 1,00 0,43 0,4 5,3 13,2
SN-1-4 M6 60 37,0 26,2 44,0 19,1 11,2 2,5 13,1 1,34 0,38 0,4 5,9 14,8
M11 60 37,0 29,2 48,3 19,3 15,7 9,7 14,6 1,50 1,49 0,4 3,8 9,5
Average 60 36,2 24,7 31,7 15,3 11,2 6,6 12,4 1,27 1,01 0,6 4,9 7,4

Fig6. Kinetics of strain in steel web members of SN-1-1
(Figs3, 4). Tension members: 16 (T-9, T-10) and 511
(T-15, T-16); compression members: 17 (T-11, T-12)
and 510 (T-13, T-14); 1, 2 strain of compression and
tension members, respectively
Fig7. End displacements of web members of SN-1-2 truss
(Figs3, 4): dial gauges In.1 and In.4 for tensile member
16; In.2 and In.5for tensile member 511; In.3 and
In.6for compressive struts 17 and 510, respectively

Fig8. Views of joints M6 (In.1) (a) and M1 (In.3 and In.4) (b) of SN-1-4 truss after failure

26
R. echaviius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 2329 27

mm limit (the total loading F reached 86,6kN and

103,3kN, and F2 for one DS was equal to 24,5kN and
29,3kN, respectively.
It is clearly shown in Fig 7: the joint M6 (In.1) slip
strains were very similar to those of the joint M1 (In. 3
and In. 4). In Fig 8, deformations after failure of joints
M6 (In. 1) and M1 (In. 3 and In. 4) are seen. Maximal
bearing deformations of steel bolts M16 (dv=15,9mm)
reached 0,30,4mm, and their bend 8,5mm (SN-1-4)
and 14,8mm (SN-1-3). In this picture the character of
bolt hole deformations is seen too. The determined after
the failure measurements of bolt holes in upper and bot-
tom chords are presented in Table 3. It shows that the
direction (a) of hole maximal dimensions correlates well Fig9. Variation of slip modulus of Bulldog-type steel-
with the force direction: in the girder SN-1-4 the maxi- timber connectors with relative force (F/Fmax) and angle
mal dimension of 19,0mm of joint M6 is of a=60 () between force and timber grain directions
direction, and M-1is a maximal dimension (19,35mm)
of a=0 direction.

4. The characteristic of DS Bulldog serviceability

limit state

This characteristic is presented in Figs 9, 10 and

Table 2. Here also the results of tests B-1 and B-2 of
metal-wood joints with Bulldog-type connectors are
shown.
In this Table the theoretical moduli of the slip of
such joints were calculated according to European ex-
perimental standards [14]:
Ktser=0,3ds r k=9,76kN/mm,
Ktu= 2Ktser/3 =6,51kN/mm.
K, kN/mm
F/Fmax .
In these formulas, due to a shortage of tests con-
cerning the humidity of timber, the influence of the con-
nection elements thickness and the number of connec-
tors in a joint has not been evaluated, as well as the
influence of the angle between the force and wood fi-
Fig 10. Relationship between carrying capacity of Bull-
bres. It was noted by H. J. Blass [16], too.
dog-type connector in steel-to-timber joints and angle
Our investigations have disclosed that the bearing between force F and grain direction: 1 Ktser theoreti-
capacity of DS Bulldog at the states of security and cal value of slip modulus [14]; 2 slip modulus at ser-
serviceability (failure loading Fmax; force F2, when the viceability limit state (Keser); 3 force (F2) when connec-
strain of the slip connector equals 2,0 mm; magnitude tor slip equals 2mm; 4 maximum force (Fmax); 5 stati-
of slip modulus at reaching the serviceability limits state cal slip in steel-to-timber joints es [14]
Keser, connection static slip ms) depends on the angle (a)
between the force and wood fibres. In Fig 9 we can see
5. Conclusions
that the dependence of slip modulus size on the impact
angle (a) is valid for the whole time span of the connec- 1. The bearing capacity of steel-timber connections
tor strain: from the initial impetus up to failure. with Bulldog-type connectors depends, according to the
Table 2 includes the DS Bulldog static slip aver- state of serviceability limits, on the angle between the
age characteristics determined according to DAN-ENV force and wood fibres.
1995-1-1 [14]; in many cases they are larger (a/v 2. Experimental slip modulus Keser is by 1,121,4
s=7,359,42 depending on a) than in these norms: times larger than that theoretically determined by experi-
3< s <6. mental European standards. Its value depends on the
It has been determined that the slip modulus Keser angle between the force and wood fibres.
is by 1,121,4 times larger than that defined by [14] 3. The static slip value s with Bulldog-type con-
depending on the angle between the force and wood nectors in steel-timber connections is much larger than
fibres.
27
28 R. echaviius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 1521

Table 3. Dimensions of holes in chords of open-web girders after testing

Dimensions of bolt holes in girder upper chords, mm *1

Joint SN-1-1 SN-1-2 SN-1-3 SN-1-4 Average
, *2
No front side front side inner side front side inner side front side inner side dimensions
M-11 0
60 16,1 16,1 16,4 16,2 16,1 15,9 16,2
90
120 18,3 18,8 19,0 17,5 18,5 17,4 18,2
M-10 0 16,8 17,4 17,2 16,8 16,8 16,7 17,0
60 16,9 16,7 16,5 16,1 16,8 16,5 16,6
90 15,8 16,1 16,3 16,2 16,4 16,1 16,2
120 16,4 16,3 16,4 15,9 16,5 16,1 16,3
M-9 0 16,1 16,3 16,8 16,3 17,7 16,7 16,6
60 16,2 17,1 18,5 17,7 17,7 17,3 17,4
90 16,5 16,8 18,5 17,8 18,2 17,5 17,6
120 16,1 16,7 17,8 17,3 17,5 17,0 17,1
M-8 0 16,0 16,3 17,2 16,6 17,0 16,6
60 16,1 16,3 17,4 16,6 16,8 16,5 16,6
90 16,1 16,4 18,0 17,5 17,4 17,1
120 16,6 16,4 18,5 17,8 18,0 17,4 17,4
M-7 0 16,7 17,4 17,1 16,8 17,1 17,1 17,0
60 16,0 16,2 16,0 15,9 16,1 16,3 16,1
90 16,2 16,4 16,3 16,0 16,4 16,0 16,2
120 16,7 16,5 17,5 16,8 16,8 16,4 16,8
M-6 0
60 17,8 18,0 20,1 19,4 20,2 17,8 18,9
90
120 16,0 16,5 16,6 16,4 16,2 16,7 16,4
M-5 0 17,9 18,4 18,5 19,1 18,8 17,7 19,6 18,7
60 16,1 16,6 17,1 16,7 16,1 16,5 17,8 16,8
90 16,0 16,4 16,0 16,1 15,9 16,3 16,6 16,2
120 16,7 17,7 16,0 16,8 16,2 17,5 17,0 16,9
M-4 0 16,4 16,2 16,8 17,3 17,4 17,7 17,3 17,1
60 16,0 16,4 17,2 16,6 16,4 16,6 16,8 16,7
90 16,4 16,1 16,0 16,2 16,3 16,6 16,5 16,3
120 16,0 16,1 16,0 16,5 16,3 16,6 16,5 16,3
M-3 0 16,0 16,3 16,0 16,6 16,7 16,9 17,3 16,6
60 16,0 15,9 16,1 16,4 16,5 16,9 16,3 16,4
90 16,0 16,0 15,9 16,4 16,5 16,8 16,5 16,4
120 16,0 16,0 15,8 16,4 16,4 16,9 16,4 16,3
M-2 0 16,5 16,2 16,5 17,5 17,8 18,0 19,5 17,6
60 16,2 16,2 16,3 16,4 16,6 16,2 16,8 16,4
90 16,0 16,1 16,0 16,4 16,7 16,3 16,3 16,3
120 16,1 16,2 16,1 16,8 16,8 17,8 17,3 16,8
M-1 0 17,7 19,1 18,8 18,2 17,9 19,7 20,0 19,0
60 16,8 17,1 17,2 16,9 16,9 17,2 17,1 17,1
90 16,6 16,5 16,2 16,7 16,0 16,8 16,3 16,4
120 16,0 16,5 16,1 16,4 16,5 17,9 16,9 16,7

*1 dimensions were taken from the inner side of joint

*2 clockwise in the front side

28
R. echaviius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 2329
that given in experimental European standards (Eurocode
5). Its magnitude also depends on the angle between the
force and wood fibres.
4. Redistribution of stresses between the girder web-
members starts when the slip strains in steel-timber con-
nections with Bulldog-type connectors are near the limit
value (2 mm).
References
1. Kuipers, J. and Kurstjens, P. B. J.: Creep and damage re-
search on timber joints. Part one. Rapport 4-86-15-HD-
23. Stevin-Laboratorium. Delft University of Technology,
Netherlands, 1986.
2. Kurstjens, P. B. J. Creep and damage research on timber
joints. Part two. Rapport 25.4-89-15 C HD-24, Stevin-
Laboratorium, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands,
1989.
3. Kurstjens, P. B. J. Creep and damage research on timber
joints. Part three. Rapport 25.4-90-12 C HD-26, Stevin-
Laboratorium, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands,
1990.
4. Kurstjens, P. B. J. and Stolle, P. Creep and damage re-
search on timber joints. Part four. Rapport 25.4-91-06/ C
HD-28, Stevin-Laboratorium, Delft University of Technol-
ogy, Netherlands, 1991.
5. Frech, P. and Kolb, H. Test of Bulldog-type connectors.
Test results H 30471 (Prfung von Bulldog-Holzverbindern
Prfzeugnis H 30471). OttoGraf Institute of Stuttgart
University, 1971 (in German).
6. Blass, J. H.; Ehlbeck, J. and Schlager, M. Characteristic
strength of toothed-plate connector joints. Holz als Roh-
und Werkstoff, 51, 1993, p. 395399.
7. Blass, H. J.; Aune, P.; Choo, B. S.; Grlacher, R.; Griffiths,
D. R.; Hilson, B. O.; Racher, P. and Steck, G. Timber
Engineering. Netherlands: Centrum Hout, 1995.
8. Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures. Part: General rules
and rules for buildings. ENV 199511. Brussels: CEN,
1993. 133 p.
29
29
9. Hirashima, Y. (1990). Lateral resistance of timber connec-
tor joints parallel to grain direction. In: Proceedings of the
International Engineering Conference, Vol 1: 254261,
Tokyo.
10. echaviius, R. Investigation of ring-toothed connectors
in metal-timber girders. Research report of Technical Cen-
tre for Timber Structures (Mokslo tiriamojo darbo ataskaita.
Dantytj sprausteli tyrimai). Vilnius, 1999. 93 p. (in
Lithuanian).
11. liys, M. Application of ring-toothed connectors in metal-
timber girders (Dantytj sprausteli panaudojimas).
Vilnius, 1999. 81 p. (in Lithuanian).
12. Narmontas, D.; echaviius, R.; Kudzys, A. Behaviour of
composite open-web trusses with toothed-plate connectors.
In: Proceedings of the International PhD Symposium in
Civil Engineering, Institute of Structural Engineering Uni-
versity of Agricultural Sciences, Vienna, Oct 57, 2000,
p. 431434.
13. Standard of Germany. DIN 1052, Part 2: Timber struc-
tures design and construction (Deutsche Norm. Holzbau-
werke-Berechnung und Ausfhrung). Beuth Berlin, 1988.
27 p. (in German).
14. Standard of Lithuania. LST EN 28970. Timber structures.
Testing of joints made with mechanical fasteners (Medins
konstrukcijos. Sujungim mechaninms tvirtinimo detalms
bandymas). Requirements for wood density, 2000. 4 p. (in
Lithuanian).
15. Standard of Lithuania. LST EN 26891. Timber structures.
Joints made with mechanical fasteners (Medins konstruk-
cijos. Sujungimai mechaninmis tvirtinimo detalmis).
General principles for the determination of strength and
deformation characteristics, 2000. 6 p. (in Lithuanian).
16. Blass, J. H. Joints of toothed-plate connectors. In: Timber
structures in limit state. Introduction of Eurocode 5. Build-
ings materials and dimensioning basis (Assemblages par
crampons. : Structures en bois aux tats limites). STEP1.
Introduction lEurocode 5. Matriaux et bases de calcul,
Sedibois, Paris, 1996. 517p.
 31

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137

OPTIMUM DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL SHEETING USING

GENETIC ALGORITHMS

Wei Lu1, Pentti Mkelinen2, Jyrki Kesti3, Jukka Lindborg 4

1Steel Structures, Helsinki University of Technology, FIN-02015, Espoo, Finland. E-mail: luwei@cc.hut.fi
2Steel Structures, Helsinki University of Technology, FIN-02015, Espoo, Finland. E-mail: Pentti.Makelainen@hut.fi
3Rautaruukki Oyj, Construction Solutions / R &D, Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: Jyrki.Kesti@rautaruukki.com
4Rautaruukki Oyj, Construction Solutions / R &D, Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: Jukka.Lindborg@rautaruukki.com

Received 1 March 2004; accepted 18 May 2004

Abstract. Cold-formed steel profiled sheeting is widely used for roof, floor system and wall cladding. Due to the variety
of profiles available on the market, finding the optimum shapes is necessary. In this paper, genetic algorithms are
applied to optimise dimensions of cold-formed steel profiled sheeting. The objective of the optimization is to obtain the
optimum dimensions of profiled sheeting that has the minimum weight subjected to the given constraints. Sheathings
are designed in accordance with Eurocode 3, Part 1.3. With this optimization process, a set of easily accessed optimum
sections may be provided for structural steel designers and steel manufacturers.
Keywords: cold-formed steel, profiled sheeting, optimization, genetic algorithm.

the weight of sheathing [11, 12]. In this paper, GA-based

1. Introduction
Because of the high strength to weight ratio and ease
of assembly, the profiled sheeting has been widely used
for roofing, cladding and extended to floor systems in
building constructions. Due to the variety of profiles
available on the market, finding the optimum shapes is
necessary.
Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a general-purpose, de-
rivative-free, stochastic search algorithm [3, 6, 10] and
starts by randomly choosing an initial population that
consists of candidate solutions to the problem at hand.
Each individual in the population is characterised by a
fixed length binary bit string, which is called chromo-
some. These chromosomes are evaluated by means of a
fitness function. Combining the fittest individuals from
the previous population, a new generation of chromo-
somes is created. Evolutionary operators such as selec-
tion, crossover, and mutation are used to create this new
population. Besides, Elitism, which is a method that cop-
ies the best chromosome or a few better chromosomes
to the new population, might be incorporated into the
algorithm to avoid losing the best individual. This pro-
cess continues until the specified level of fitness is
reached.
Normally, the objective for optimization is to
achieve maximum use of material by using appropriat-
ing profiles, for instance, to maximize the resistance of
sheeting subjected to bending stress [7] or to minimise
optimization method is used to obtain the optimum shape
and dimension of roof sheathing that minimise the weight
under the given constraints, such as the geometric, stress
and fabrication constraints. Sheathings are designed in
accordance with Eurocode 3, Part 1.3 [5]. Because of
the many types of sheeting available and the diverse func-
tional requirements and loading conditions that apply,
design is generally based on experimental investigation.
The analytical method can be used mostly for trapezoi-
dal sheeting. The GA-based design procedure is demon-
strated with four design examples. With this optimiza-
tion process, a set of easily accessed optimum sections
may be provided for structural steel designers and steel
manufacturers.
2. Description of optimum design problem
The minimum weight design can be expressed as:
Minimise W = ( Ag / bd ) L , (1)
where W is the sheeting weight; L is the span of the
sheeting; and bd is the notation width of the pitch as
shown in Fig 1. Fig 1 also shows the dimensions of the
sheeting for one fold, in which, bu and bp are notation
widths of the plane elements; hw is the height of the
web; Sw is the slant height of the web; and is the incli-
nation of the web. Except for Sw and bd, all other di-
mensions shown in the figure are design variables.

31
32 W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137

top flange. Similarly to the top flange, the dimensions of

the bottom flange are shown in Fig 6. The design vari-
ables are the width and the height f the stiffeners, x9 and
x10, the position of the stiffeners, x8; the inclination of
the stiffener, sp, and the number of the stiffeners.

Fig 1. Dimension of the cross-section for one fold

The shapes of the stiffeners on the flanges are shown

in Fig 2. The number of the stiffeners on the flange can
be zero, one or two. The stiffeners are assumed to be
symmetric on the top of the flange. When two stiffeners
appear, the sizes of them are the same.
Fig 4. Type of web stiffeners

Fig 2. Types of flange stiffener

The dimensions of the upper flanges are shown in

Fig 3. The design variables are width and depth of the
stiffeners, x2 and x3, the position of the stiffeners, x1;
the inclination of the stiffener, su, and the number of
the stiffeners.

Fig 5. Dimension of web with two stiffeners

Fig 3. Dimensions of the upper flange

According to the number of stiffeners on the web,

three cases can be classified: case (a) without stiffener,
case (b) with one stiffener and case (c) with two stiffen-
ers as shown in Fig 4. In case (c), the size of the stiffen-
ers is assumed to be the same. The dimensions of the
Fig 6. Dimensions of the bottom flange
stiffeners on the web are shown in Fig 5, in which the
design variables are height and width of stiffeners bsw
and ssw1; positions of stiffeners, sw1 and sw2, and the The constraints can be classified into three catego-
number of the stiffeners. ries: the geometrical constraints, the strength constraints
The numbers and the dimensions of stiffeners on and the fabrication constraints. The geometrical limits
the bottom flange may be different from those on the that should be satisfied are taken from Eurocode 3,

32
W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137 33

Part 1.3. These limits are listed in Table 1 as G1 and where i is the normalised geometrical and strength con-
G2. When designing sheeting, the following checks straint and is the normalised fabrication constraint and
should be carried out: bending resistance, shear resis- is defined as (Ls / LStrip 1). Since the number of the
tance, concentrated load resistance (crippling resistance), fold is calculated as dividing the required width of the
interaction of bending and shear and/or crippling, and strip, Lstrip, by length of sheeting of each fold calculated
stiffness of the sheeting. Thus, the strength constraints from the current combination of design variables, thus,
are given in Table 2 as SM1, SM2, SF3, SF4, SF5, SV6 the value of |Ls / Lstrip| is less than one. And the value of
and SMV7. .
, ,
Table 1. Geometrical constraints .
Symbols Constraints descriptions In the above formula, nn1 is the coefficient that
G1 Sw/t 200/sin
G2 bp/t 500 or bu/t 500

i

makes the values of W and (max( 0 , i )) 2 at the


same order and nn2 makes the values of W and 2 at
Table 2. Strength constraints the same order so as to avoid one value dominating the
other. KKi 0 are coefficients and the solution of the
Symbols Constraints descriptions
SM1, SM2 Moment resistance, positive and negative penalty problem can be made arbitrarily close to the
SF3, SF4 Web crippling, end and internal support solution of the original problem by choosing KKi suffi-
SMF5 Combined bending and crippling ciently large [2].
SV6 Web shear Since GA is suitable to find the maximum value of
SMV7 Combined bending and shear an optimization problem, thus, the above-mentioned un-
constrained minimisation problem should be transformed
The fabrication constraint in this analysis is defined into maximisation problem by using the following for-
as to manufacture the profiled sheeting with actual pro- mula [1]:
vided strip width, ie
F = max if < max ,
Ls = Lstrip , (2) F =0 if max , (4)
where Ls is the total length of sheeting calculated by where max is average fitness, ie max = ave() so that
using the cross-section dimensioned with the current com- the individuals with fitness greater than or equal to this
bination of design variables; and Lstrip is the length of value are discarded and with no chance to enter the
the provided strip width. For the purpose of the practi- mating pool. In GA terminology, F is called fitness func-
cal application, the overlap length has been taken into tion, which is used in the reproduction stage.
account in the calculation of Ls (Fig 7). Fig 8 shows how the sheeting design is integrated
into the GA optimization process. GA-based design starts
from randomly generating an initial population that is
composed of candidate solutions to the current problem.
Each individual in the population is a bit string of fixed
length. After decoding, these individuals that represent
the dimensions of the sheeting are sent to the sheet de-
Fig 7. Overlap of two sheathings sign programme, by which the resistances of the sheet-
ing are calculated. After that, the constraints are checked
and if the constraints are violated, the penalty is applied
3. GA-based design and the fitness function is calculated. After the evalua-
tion of the fitness for each individual, a new generation
Since GA is suitable for an unconstrained optimiza-
is created using such operators as selection, crossover
tion problem, the constrained problem can be transformed
and mutation. In order to keep the best individuals in
to an unconstrained problem through a penalty function.
each generation, the elitism may also be used. This pro-
A suitable penalty function must incur a positive for in-
cess is continued until the specified stopping criteria are
feasible points and no penalty for feasible points. In this
satisfied.
analysis, the quadratic penalty function is used, and the
Compared to other search and optimization algo-
corresponding unconstrained problem becomes:
rithms, GA has the following features: GAs search a set
Minimise = W + KK1 nn1 (max(0, i )) 2 of points in parallel, not only at a single point; GAs do
i not require derivative information or other auxiliary
2
(3) knowledge. Only the objective function and correspond-
+ KK 2 nn2 ,
ing fitness affect the search direction; GAs use prob-
ability rules; and GAs provide a number of potential

33
34 W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137

Start Initialising the Randomly generating

parameters the initial population

Sheeting design:
Checking the constraints and Gross section properties
calculating the normalised Effective section properties Decoding
constraints Moment resistance
Shear resistance
Buckling resistance

Applying the penalty for

the violated constraints Fitness evaluation

Output the results Yes Check if the max generation

and stop is reached

No
Apply the GA operators:
selection, crossover and mutation

Fig 8. GA-based sheeting design

stiffener from the nearest corner is set to 10 mm and the
minimum distance between stiffeners is set to 10 mm.
solutions to a given problem. The final solution is left to
user.

4. Examples

Fig 9 shows two-span roof sheathing with applied

loading. The loading includes the permanent load such
as the self-weight of sheeting and insulations, which are
represented as g, and variable loads, in this case, snow
load, which is represented as s. The inclination of the
whole sheeting is assumed to be zero.
The load combination for the ultimate state design
according to Eurcode 1[4] can be calculated as:
q = 1,35 (Gk + w) + 1,5 Qk (5)
in which 1,35 and 1,5 are partial safety factors for dead
load and variable load, respectively, under unfavorable
Fig 9. Loads applied to sheathing
effects; Gk and Qk are characteristic values of dead load
and variable load; and w is the self-weight of the sheet-
ing. Four design examples are demonstrated in this sec-
The yield strength of the steel is 350 N/mm2, the tion according to the GA-based design procedure men-
elastic modulus is 210 000 N/mm2 and the density is 7850 tioned above. The first example is to find the optimum
kg/m3. The characteristic value of permanent load is as- dimensions of the profiled sheeting without any stiffen-
sumed to be 0,5 kN/m2 and that of variable load is 1,8 ers. The other three examples are with stiffeners on the
kN/m2. The thickness of the profile is 0,6 mm. The sup- flanges, with stiffeners on the webs and with no limita-
port length is assumed to be 100 mm. The length of tions, ie the stiffeners can be either on the flanges or on
span is 4 m. In addition, the minimum distance of the the webs, or both or no stiffeners at all.

34
W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137
The GA, which is based on bit representation, two-
point crossover, bit-flip mutation, and tournament selec-
tion with elitism, is used to perform the optimization.
The population size is set to at least twice of the length
of individual string. Such parameters as the crossover
rate and the mutation rate in genetic algorithms are set
to 0,8 and 0,001, respectively. The selection of these
parameters is based on previous research [8].
4.1. Profiles without stiffeners
The dimensions of the profile are shown in Fig 10.
The design variables are the width of the top flange bu,
which is varied from 20 mm to 200 mm; the width of
the bottom flange bp, which is varied from 20 mm to
200 mm; the height of the profile hw, which is varied
from 20 to 170 mm and the inclination of the web ,
which is varied between 45 to 90.
35
L L L L
2: 10 f cave , and case 3: 10 fave cave , in which Lf is
the order of weight of each individual; Lc is the order of
(max(0, i )) 2 or 2 ; L is the order of average
ave
i
weight of individuals in a population and Lcave is the
2
order of average value of (max(0, i )) or 2 in
i
a population.
The effects of these three cases on finding the opti-
mum profile are shown in Table 3. Due to the fixed size
of population, the behaviour of GA may be different from
run to run due to the error of finite sampling [9]. (One
run is terminated when the given generation is reached).
Thus, the optimization for each case is performed in 20
runs and minimum weight in 20 runs is taken as the op-
timum value.
Table 3 also shows the length of sheathing and the
percentage value of the dominant constraints, ie the com-
bination of bending and local crippling. In addition, the
average values of weight in 20 runs are also provided in
the Table.

Table 3. Comparison of case 2 and case 3

Case 2 Case 3
(kk1 = 1000, kk2 = 100) (kk1 = 1000, kk2 = 100)
SMF5 Ls W1 SMF5 Ls W1
[mm] [kg/m2] [mm] [kg/m2]
98,64 1500,54 12,87 99,33 1500,44 14,10
99,12 1500,36 14,21 97,89 1500,44 13,37
Fig 10. Dimensions of the profile without stiffeners 99,40 1500,19 13,19 99,09 1499,70 12,97
99,44 1500,43 13,54 95,28 1500,32 15,11
99,99 1499,98 13,37 100,16 1500,58 13,97
Each individual in the initial population can be 100,18 1499,86 13,58 99,73 1500,01 13,85
formed as concatenating the design variables end by end 90,03 1500,43 15,64 99,20 1499,61 13,75
99,07 1500,50 12,77 95,93 1500,17 14,47
and presenting them as a single string. For each design
99,30 1500,14 13,82 95,76 1499,68 13,47
variable, the binary encoding method is used. The gen- 95,49 1500,23 14,46 99,99 1500,11 13,55
eral formula for decoding design variable is [1]: 91,74 1500,35 14,68 97,31 1500,20 14,32
98,43 1500,27 13,67 98,64 1500,27 13,51
Xd 99,95 1500,15 13,75 99,67 1499,78 13,39
X = X min + ( X max X min ) , (6) 98,77 1500,02 14,30 97,50 1500,20 14,08
2L 99,48 1499,73 13,18 98,53 1500,14 13,82
where X is the decoded value of design variable; Xmax 99,36 1499,77 13,48 99,70 1500,13 13,73
97,80 1500,26 13,58 97,32 1500,04 13,58
and Xmin are the maximum and minimum value for the 98,82 1499,71 13,97 96,17 1499,61 13,55
given design variables; Xd is the decimal integer value 98,61 1499,94 13,33 99,44 1499,88 14,19
of the binary string; L is the string length corresponding 99,31 1500,41 13,94 95,45 1499,68 14,61
to each design variable. Min 12,77 12,97
Ave 13,77 13,87
In the process of calculating the fitness function,
the values of KK1 and KK2 are set in the following way:
perform the optimization with initial value of KK1 = 10 By running the program based on case 1, we found
and KK2 = 10; check the violation constraints afterwards. out that the profile of minimum weight with no viola-
If constraints for the profile with minimum weight are tions of the inequality constraints can be found via in-
violated, the values of KK1 and KK2 are increased, for creasing the value of KK1 gradually. However, we can-
instance, KK1 to 100 and KK2 to 100, until there is no not find the profiles that have the acceptable values of
constraint violation for the profile of minimum weight. strip length via varying the value of KK2. This is due to
In this analysis, the value of KK1 is found as 1000 and the fact the formula of defining nni in case 1 does not
that of KK2 is as 100. include the effect of the order of each individual. Only
The role of nn1 and nn2 in equation (3) is to make the integer part is taken into account. According to the
the weight at the same order as penalty. Three formulas definition of penalty for inequality constraints, the fea-
L L sible individuals are kept with = 0. Therefore, as the
are used to define value of nni, ie case 1: 10 f c , case

35
36 W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137

optimization is preceded, the optimization is concentrated 4.2. Profiles with stiffeners

to find the minimum weight among the individuals with
no constraints violation even the effect of the order is The calculation is classified into three cases: pro-
not considered. However, the value of always appeared files with flange stiffeners, profiles with web stiffeners
in the formula for calculating fitness function. As the and profiles without any limitation. Besides the design
optimization proceeds, those individuals with lower value variables provided in the profiles without stiffeners in
of integer part rather than those with small constraints the previous section, the range of the following variables
violations are kept. are given before running the programme: the heights of
When comparing the optimization results based on the flange stiffeners are varied from 0 mm to 15 mm;
case 2 and case 3, it can be seen from the Table that the widths of the flange stiffeners are varied from 5 mm
both case 2 and case 3 give reasonable results. How- to 15 mm; the inclinations of the flange stiffeners are
ever, the case 2 provides the least weight comparing to varied from 45 to 90 and the length of the web stiffen-
case 3. As far as case 3 is concerned, it is only neces- ers are varied from 0 mm to 30 mm.
sary to calculate the order of the average weight and the The optimum dimensions for the above-mentioned
order of the average constraint. Thus, the calculation three cases are shown in Figs 12, 13, 14, respectively.
speed is improved when more design variables are in- Similarly, these figures also show the other possible pro-
volved. The analysis in this paper is based on case 2. files with different numbers of folds. The corresponding
The final optimum dimensions for the profile with- constraints for these three cases are shown in Table 4.
out any stiffeners in 20 runs are shown in Fig 11. In the
figure, n4-W1337 represents that the number of the (mm)
160 n4-W1125 n5-W1104
fold is 4 and the minimum weight is 13,37 kg/m2. The n6-W1136
weight of the best profile is 12,77 kg/m2 and the number 140
of fold is 6. The constraints for the optimum profiles are 120
shown in Table 4. 100
80
(mm) 60
160 n4-W1337 n5-W 1318 40
140 n6-W1277 n7-W 1564 20
(mm)
120 0
100 0 50 100 150 200
80
60 Fig 12. Optimum dimensions of profiles with flange
stiffeners
40
20
(mm)
0
(mm)
0 50 100 150 160 n4-W1130 n5-W 1081
n6-W1166 n7-W 1188
140
Fig 11. Optimum dimensions of the profile without stiff- 120
eners 100
80
The results in 20 runs can be classified into several 60
groups according to the numbers of folds. The profiles 40
illustrated in Fig 11 are selected as the one with least 20 (mm)
weight in each group. By doing so, it is possible to pro- 0
vide more options for the manufacturers or designers 0 50 100 150 200
when the manufacture facilities and practical application
Fig 13. Optimum dimensions of profiles with web
is taken into account. For instance, roof sheeting can be
stiffeners
classified as cold roof, which has outer waterproof skin
with internal insulation if required, and warm roof,
which includes insulation and waterproofing. For warm When comparing the optimum profiles shown in
roof, the main requirement of preventing penetration by Fig 11 to those in Fig 12, it can be seen that the profile
rainwater leads to shallow profiles with a sequence of with stiffeners both on the flanges and on the webs has
wide and narrow corrugations. For warm roof, it nor- the minimum weight. However, the other cases provided
mally has the wider flanges on the top so as to provide here can give the alternatives when the cost, techniques
sufficient support for the insulation. of manufacturing, and the practical applications of the
profiles are taken into account.

36
W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3137 37

Table 4. Values of constraints as percentage of the limits for the optimum profile for various cases
Cases G1 G2 SM1 SM2 SF3 SF4 SMF5 SV6 SMV7 Ls [mm]
NoS 28,3 18,9 63,7 90,6 21,7 33,2 99,1 18,5 85,6 1500,5
FS 42,6 21,8 72,8 65,8 38,6 59,2 100,0 48,4 66,8 1501,3
WS 37,4 13,1 68,7 79,5 28,1 43,1 98,0 21,0 67,5 1500,0
NL 38,9 21,1 62,5 69,8 35,6 54,5 99,4 32,0 58,9 1500,0

(mm) The results of the numerical examples indicate that of

160 n4-W0972 n5-W1032 four types of profiles studied, the profile with stiffeners
140 both on the flanges and on the webs has the minimum
120 weight. However, the other cases provided here can give
100 the alternatives when the cost, techniques of manufac-
turing, and the practical applications of the profiles are
80
taken into account. Besides, in order to provide the stan-
60
dard optimum dimensions under certain loads and for
40
various span lengths for the practical applications, a large
20
(mm) amount of calculations are required
0
0 50 100 150 200
References
Fig 14. Optimum dimensions of the profiles with no
1. Adeli, H. and Cheng, N. T. Integrated genetic algorithm
limitations
for optimization of space structures. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, 1993, Vol 6, No 4, p. 315328.
4.2. Comparison 2. Bazaraa, M. S.; Sherali, H. D. and Shetty, C. M. Nonlin-
ear programming: theory and algorithms. John Wiley &
Fig 15 shows the comparison of the weight of opti- Sons, Inc., 1993, p. 360372.
mized profiles for the case without any limitation for
3. Cogan, B. The evolution of genetic algorithms. Scientific
web and flange stiffeners to some commercial profiles. Computing World, 2001, May/June, p. 2831.
It also shows the ratio of calculated strip width using
4. ENV 1991-1 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on
current dimensions to the provided strip width (1500 mm
structures, Part 1: Basis of design, 1994, p. 4553.
here). It can be seen that optimized profile using GA
5. ENV 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part
shows the lighter weight and more efficient use of mate-
1.3: General rules. Supplementary rules for cold-formed
rials. thin gauge members and sheeting, 1996.
6. Koumousis, V. K. and Georgion, P. G. Genetic algorithms
0,82 0,83 0,68 1 in discrete optimization of steel truss roofs. Journal of
Computing in Civil Engineering, 1994, Vol 8, p. 309325.
7. Lee, C. L; Mioduchowski, A. and Faulkner, M. G. Opti-
mization of corrugated claddings. Journal of Structural En-
gineering, 1995, Vol 121, No 8, p. 11901196.
8. Lu, W. Optimum design of cold-formed steel purlins us-
ing genetic algorithms, Publications, TKK-TER-25, Labo-
ratory of steel structures, Helsinki University of Technol-
ogy, 2003, p. 5979.
9. Michalewicz, Z. Genetic Algorithms + Data Structures =
Evolution Programs, Third, revised and Extended Edition,
Springer, 1999, p. 5793.
10. Mitchell, M. An introduction to genetic algorithms. Cam-
Comercial profiles Opt. profile (NL) bridge (MA) MIT Press, 1998, p. 131.
11. Nagy, Z. V. Evolution of optimum trapezoidal sheeting
Fig 15. Comparisons with commercial profiles profile based on Eurocode, using finite strip method and
genetic algorithm. Proceedings of the third international
conference on coupled instabilities in metal structures,
5. Summary and future perspectives Lisbon, Portgual, 2123 Sept, 2000, p. 643650.
As demonstrated in this paper, the Genetic Algo- 12. Seaburg, P. A. and Salmon, C. G. Minimum weight design
rithm (GA) can be used as an optimization tool to ob- of light gage steel members. Journal of Structural Divi-
sion, 1971, Vol 97, No ST1, p. 203222.
tain the optimum dimensions of the profiled sheeting.

37
 39

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3943

DEKORATYVINIO TANKAUS SILIKATINIO BETONO MIINIO SAND SAVYBI

TAKA DIRBINI KOKYBEI

AlgimantasNaujokaitis
Statybini mediag katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saultekio al. 11,
LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva. El. patas: naujok@st.vtu.lt
teikta 2003 08 28; priimta 2004 04 21

Santrauka. Inagrinta dekoratyvinio tankaus silikatinio betono miinio savybi priklausomyb nuo miinio sand.
Darbo tikslas buvo parodyti, kokios sand savybs turi takos tiksli matmen silikatini dekoratyvini beton savybms.
Nustatyta, jog miinio sutankinimo vienodumui, suformuoto dirbinio matmen tikslumui didiausios takos turi miinio
granuliometrin sudtis. Darbas atliktas naudojant naujo preso kompiuteryje tikslingai sukauptus duomenimis. Tyrimams
gamybinmis slygomis buvo naudoti praktikai neuterti priemaiomis, vidutinio smulkumo ir smulkieji Giraits telkinio
kvarciniai smliai. Parengta nauja miini su daomaisiais pigmentais sudi parinkimo metodika, vertinanti riiklio su
pigmentu savybes. Tyrimo duomenys naudojami tiksli matmen dekoratyvini dirbini gamyboje.
Raktaodiai: sandai, silikatinis betonas, betono sudtis, smlis, grdin sudtis, pigmentai, smlio smulkumas, tiksli
matmen dirbiniai, sutankinimo koeficientas.

1. vadas
Gaminant dekoratyvin silikatin beton visi jo san-
dai dalyvauja cheminse reakcijose ir turi takos visoms
produkto savybms. Pasikeitus vienam i sand, pasikei-
ia ir pagamintos mediagos mechanins bei fizikins sa-
vybs. Tai privalu vertinti, parenkant silikatins mass
sand sudt, ypa daomojo pigmento r ir kiek. ie mediagos daleli kiek.
klausimai buvo sprendiami empirikai, analizuojant at-
skirus sandus dalimis, o vliau sujungiant juos sistem.
Akivaizdu, kad vienodomis gamybos slygomis, kai
sand savybs yra panaios, silikatinio betono kokybi-
niai rodikliai pirmiausia priklauso nuo silikatins cemen-
tuojanios mediagos sudties. Autorius daro prielaid,
kad dekoratyvinis silikatinis betonas bna geriausios ko-
kybs, kai sunaudojamas minimalus kalcitini kalki kie-
kis, galintis, naudojant daomuosius pigmentus, susijungti
su kvarciniu smliu. Idealiu atveju susidariusios cemen-
tuojanios mediagos kiekis priklausys nuo trij veiks-
ni: naujadar sluoksnio storio, kvarcinio smlio lygina-
mojo paviriaus ir pigmento dispersikumo. vertinus tai
parenkami smlio, kalki ir pigmento kiekiai. Reikia ver-
tinti ir norimo suformuoti pusfabrikaio stipr, kuris pri-
klauso nuo lyginamojo slgio formavimo mas, slgi-
mo trukms, riiklio ir kvarcinio smlio granuliometrins
sudties, koloidini daleli kiekio, drgms kiekio ma-
sje. Apskaiiuojami miinio sand kiekiai ir gaminamas
miinys. Smlio, kurio grdeliai yra atriabriauniai, su
nelygiu paviriumi, frakcij sankiba yra didesn, nei ap-
valios formos grdeli. Pusfabrikaio stipris priklauso nuo
slgio vandens mikrokapiliaruose, kuriuos sudaro disper-
sins dalels, susikaupusios tarp vairaus dydio smlio
daleli. Stiprio didinimas galimas didinant mikrokapilia-
r kiek miinio struktroje. Tai pasiekiama, parenkant
smlio grdin sudt, didinant dispersini ir riamosios
Pusfabrikaio stipris dar priklauso nuo tarpmoleku-
lini traukos jg, atsirandani vairaus dydio daleli
susilietimo vietose, kai atstumas tarp daleli maesnis u
j skersmen [1]. Labai keiiasi kalkini daleli dydis ir
kiekis masje. Be to, spalvotus dirbinius pridedama
smulkiadispersinio pigmento, kuris chemikai veikia mi-
in. Kaip teigiama [2], daleli lyginamasis pavirius yra
18 90034 600cm2/g. Kalki daleli skersmuo:
d=6103/( Sp), mkm, (1)
Ca(OH)2 tankis; Splyginamasis pavirius, cm2/g.
Dalels skersmuo gali bti nuo 1,5mkm iki
210mkm. Taigi gali susidaryti pakankamai daug kontak-
t [2, 3]. Negalima pamirti, kad dalels linkusios koa-
guliuoti. Gesintj kalki masje yra rezerv riamajai
mediagai atsirasti [4].
Smlio grdeliai danai yra atriabriauniai, tokie yra
ir nagrinjamos technologijos atveju. Atrs kampai pa-
didina pusfabrikaio stipr, taiau priklauso nuo disper-
sikumo ir elektrostatins sankibos [4].
Diskutuojama dl tanki plon vandens plveli, pre-
suojant suriani dispersines daleles [5,6]. Taiau tokios

39
 40 A.Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3943
plvels daniausiai yra tik intarpai tarp daleli. Iskirtin
viet, kaip manoma, turi koloidins mediagos, kuri
dalels gali sudaryti tiltelius, jungianius stambesnes
daleles, esanias didesniu atstumu nei molekulini jg
veikimo laukas [7].
Sutankintas pusfabrikatis sudaro pakankamai akyt
mediag, kurioje yra daug mikro- ir makrokapiliar, ne-
visikai upildyt vandeniu. Susidar tarp daleli van-
dens meniskai, turintys pakankamai laisvosios energijos,
sukelia tempimus, taiau kartu stiprina pusfabrikat [7,8].
Maesnis pigment priedas turi teigiamos takos kal-
cio hidrosilikat susidarymui, pagerja gamini stipru-
mas ir j eksploatacins savybs [9]. Nustatyta, kad pig-
ment daomj geb lemia j smulkumas ir juose
esanios daomosios mediagos kiekis. Esant didesnms
i rodikli reikmms intensyvesn ir pigment daomoji
geba [10]. Paymtina iskirtin suodi taka silikatinio
akmens savybms, ypa vandens geriamumui. ie pig-
mentai yra hidrofobiki, yra didelis lyginamasis pavir-
ius, taiau vandens geriamumas taip pat didelis. Mano-
ma, kad prie pigmento daleli susidaro mikroporos dl
didelio hidrofobiko paviriaus blogo slyio su silikati-
nio akmens hidrosilikatais [11].
Ianalizavus mintas teorijas, reikia pabrti, jog
spalvotas silikatinis miinys, i kurio formuojami gami-
niai, yra sudarytas i gamtinio grdinio smlio, disper-
sikos riamosios mediagos, taip pat ir gesintj kalki
bei pigment, susidedani i gausybs smulki daleli,
o smlyje yra labai ma kvarco grdeli bei molio mi-
neral. Miinyje yra ir vandens bei oro burbulli, kuri
nepakanka upildyti formavimo metu susidariusioms tu-
tumoms. Sutankinant silikatin miin veikia vairios j-
gos, didinanios jo stipr: tai mechaninis grdeli sulipi-
mas, molekuliniai sukibimo ryiai vandens plveli
kapiliaruose ir tarpkoloidini daleli sveika. Ypa di-
del reikm turi vanduo, sujungdamas koloidines ma-
sias daleles su stambesniais smlio grdeliais. Sukibimo
0 Chemin jo sudtis: SiO 282,691,48 %, Al 2O33,2
10
Pilnutins liekanos ant siet, %
B
20
A
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0,075 0,125 0,25 0,5 1 2
Siet akui dydis, mm
1 pav. Smlio grdin sudtis: AGiraits telkinio smlis;
Bsijotas, geros grdins sudties smlis
Fig 1. Sieve graphical analysis of sand: Asand from
the Giraits deposit; Bsand riddle, granular structure of
high quality
jg dydis priklauso nuo sand savybi: smlio granu-
liometrins sudties, grdeli formos ir dydio, sumalto
smlio kiekio, kalki dispersikumo ir hidratacijos laips-
nio, priemai sudties ir kiekio, pigment kiekio ir sa-
vybi, vandens kiekio. Technologiniai preso ypatumai irgi
svarbs geram pusgaminio sutankinimui, nes privalu kuo
geriau upildyti laisv tr tarp smlio grdeli, kad juos
vienas nuo kito skirt ploniausi riamosios mediagos
sluoksniai. Toks sutankinimas leidia gauti tank ir stip-
r silikatin beton.
Darbo tikslas itirti atskir sand tak tiksli mat-
men dekoratyvini silikatini beton ir plyt gamybai.
Atsiradus alyje naujai technologinei rangai, yra gali-
myb gaminti didesnio santykinio tankio tiksli matme-
n vairios formos ir dydio gaminius. Iki iol naudoja-
mais technologiniais renginiais negalima buvo tiksliau
reguliuoti dirbini matmen. Suformuoti pusfabrikaiai
deformuojasi dl vairi veiksni, taiau gaminant tiks-
li matmen dirbinius btina pagaminti kiek manoma
stipresn pusgamin, maiausiai paeidiam kitose tech-
nologinse operacijose. Naujai iki iol alyje nenaudotai
technologinei presavimo rangai, kai naudojami vietiniai
sandai, technologini tyrim nra atlikta. Reikjo inag-
rinti iuos technologinius parametrus: formavimo mii-
nio sudties tak; dvipus slgim pusgamin; smulkio-
sios sand dalies kiek formavimo masje, miinio
lyginamojo paviriaus tak, vandens kiek. Pagrindinis
tyrimo tikslasparinkti miin, norint gauti kokybikus
dirbinius.
2.Tyrim metodika
Tyrimams buvo naudotas dvipusio slgio hidraulinis
automatikai valdomas KSP 402 presas, kurio valdymo
sistema leidia fiksuoti atskir operacij atlikim ir
technologinius parametrus, raant juos valdymo
sistemos atmint.
Naudotas kvarcinis smlis i Giraits telkinio.
4,19 %, CaO2,84,5 %. Grdin sudtis pateikiama
1pav. Sijojimas atliekamas pagal standarto EN 1015-1
reikalavimus. Dalis smlio buvo pilta malant kalkes, j
vadinsime maltu smliu. Smlio smulkumas buvo nustato-
mas AT-5 prietaisu. Kalcitins negesintosios antros ries
kalks Naujojo kalcito gamybos, j aktyvumas 65
85 %, MgO1,21,5 %. J savybs tirtos pagal GOST
9179 metodik. Spalv suteikiantis pigmentas Bayer
firmos920, tankis 4,1g/cm3, Fe2O3 yra 8587 %.
4 Silikatinio betono miiniai buvo ruoiami naudojant
sausas mediagas, dozuojami pagal mas. Bandiniai
formuoti natralaus dydio (25128,8cm). Miinio
sudties, slgio dydiui presavimo formoje, dirbinio
sutankinimui, granuliometrins sudties ir drgnio takai
nustatyti bandiniai nebuvo kietinami. Tyrimai atlikti
suformavus bandinius. Dalis j buvo kietinami ir
nustatomas galutinis gniudomasis bei lenkiamasis j
stipris, tankis ir vandens gris.
40
A.Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3943 41

3.Tyrim rezultatai
0,008

Aktyvaus CaO kiekis (q), kg

Pagrindiniai dekoratyvini silikatini dirbini tiks- 0,007
0,006 q = f.S
lumo technologiniai parametrai yra presavimo bdas, pre- 0,005
savimo slgio dydis ir formavimo miinio sudtis. Presa- 0,004
0,003
vimo slgio dyd tiriamoje technologijoje galima keisti 0,002
nepriklausomai nuo kit technologini parametr: forma- 0,001
0
vimo miinio suslegiamumo, demferuojanio veiksnio, mi-
inio sudties. Miinio granuliometrin sudtis buvo

20

0
0
0
0
0
10
20
20
35
45
pasirinkta gera ir natrali karjerin. Ji yra svarbi dirbi-
2
nio suformavimui, deformavimuisi nuo fizikini ir kit Smlinio komponento lyginamasis pavirius, m /kg
veiksni, todl buvo sudaryta naujos sudties jo parinki-
mo principin metodika. Silomas miinio sudties pa- 2pav. Minimalus aktyvaus CaO kiekis miinyje priklauso-
rinkimo metodas. Riiklio kiekis P3 apskaiiuojamas taip: mai nuo smlio smulkumo

P3= q1 S1 P4/ A + q2 S2 P1/ A, (2) Fig 2. Minimal amount of CaO in the mix depending on
fine grained sand
P = P1+ P2+ P5, (3)
P2 = P3+ P4, (4)
Smlio tutymtumas ir lyginamasis pavirius
P5=[K11 (P1S1+ P4S2)+ K21(P3AS3)]/K5S4; (5)
Sand voids and specific surface
ia
P 1m3 sutankinto sauso formavimo miinio mas, kg; Grdeli Smlio Vidutinis Lyginamasis
P1 smlio mas 1m3 sutankintame sausame forma- skersmuo, tutymtu- grdeli pavirius,
vimo miinyje, kg; mm mas, % skersmuo, m2/kg
P2 riiklio mas 1m3 sutankintame sausame forma- mm
vimo miinyje, kg;
2,01,0 35,7 1,4 4,65
P3 kalki mas 1m3 sutankintame sausame formavimo
miinyje, kg; 1,00,5 38,7 0,82 7,95
P4 malto smlio mas 1 m3 sutankintame sausame
formavimo miinyje, kg; 0,50,25 39,5 0,15 10,75
P5 pigment mas 1m 3 sutankintame sausame 0,250,125 40,6 0,26 27,6
formavimo miinyje, kg; 0,1250,075 45,5 0,11 154,6
q1 optimali CaO mas, sunaudojama 1m2 maltam
smliui padengti, kg; 0,0750,038 49,5 0,04 223,0
q2 optimali CaO mas, sunaudojama 1m2 nemaltam
smliui padengti, kg;
Sudarant silikatin mas kalks sveriamos ne pagal
S1 malto smlio lyginamasis pavirius, m2/kg;
bendr mas, o pagal aktyviosios dalies mas, kuri
S2 nemalto smlio lyginamasis pavirius, m2/kg;
dalyvaus cheminje reakcijoje. Be to, vertinama
S3 kalki lyginamasis pavirius, m2/kg;
kvarcinio (malto ir nemalto) smlio ir pigmento savybs.
S4 pigment lyginamasis pavirius, m2/kg;
Esant tam paiam kalki aktyvumui, pagal silom
A kalki aktyvumas, vieneto dalimis;
sudties parinkimo metodik faktinis kalki kiekis
K11 koeficientas, vertinantis nemalto smlio daleli
priklauso nuo j kokybs. Naudojant vieiai idegtas
paviri;
didelio aktyvumo kalkes su minimaliu priemai kiekiu,
K21 koeficientas, vertinantis malto smlio daleli
j mas sumaja. Jei kalks turi daug neidegusio
paviri;
kalkakmenio ir priemai ir buvo ilgai laikytos ore, j
K5 koeficientas, vertinantis pigment savybes;
mas padidja. Pakeitus nenutrkstamai veikianius
q reikms, nustatomos pagal 2 pav. reikmes.
dozatorius periodinio-porcijinio svrimo dozatorius,
buvo galima gerokai tiksliau pasverti kalkes ir silikatin
1, 2 pav. ir lentelje pateikiami duomenys silikati-
riamj mediag. Sumajo kalki snaudos 1000 vnt.
nio betono sudiai parinkti pagal kalki aktyviosios da-
spalvotj plyt reikiamai stiprumo markei gauti. Realiai
lies mas ir smlins dalies dispersikum. Kiti duome-
tai pasiekiama tik naudojant elektronin svrimo valdikl.
nys apie sandus imami pagal savybi tyrimo reikmes.
Slegiant tik preso puasonu i vienos puss, slgis
Pigment savybi koeficient (K11, K21) reikms verti-
silikatins mass pripildytoje presformoje pasiskirsto
namos pagal gamintojo deklaracijas.
netolygiai [12]. Miinys susitankina prie formos sieneli,
o vidinje dalyje ir prieingoje puasono pusje mas
susitankina maiausiai.

41
42 A.Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3943

Slegiant i abiej dirbinio pusi dviem slgimo dyd
reguliuojaniais puasonais, dirbinio tankis skerspjvyje
suvienodja (2 pav).
3 paveiksle pateiktas slgio dydio pasiskirstymas
sutankintame silikatiniame betone. Hidraulinis presas
slegia pradioje apatin mass dal, o po 0,5 s sijungia
ir virutinis puasonas. 3 pav. a) pateikta geresn smlio
Miinio aktyvumo didinimas ekonomikai yra
nenaudingas, nes sunaudojami dideli riamosios media-
gos kiekiai ir pablogja galutinio produkto atsparumas
atmosferiniams veiksniams. Todl praktikai pakanka 5,3
6,2 % miinio aktyvumo.

Pusfabrikaio stipris, MPa

grdin sudtis, todl gaunamas tankiausias daleli 0,35
isidstymas, o pusfabrikaio stipris bna vienodesnis 0,3
2
negu 3 pav. b), kur smlio grdin sudtis artima 0,25 1
natraliai. Miinio struktr sudaro visi sandai, ji 0,2
priklauso nuo i sand isidstymo ir uimamo trio. 0,15
Svarbiausi element parametrai yra tris ir stambij 0,1
daleli vidutinis skersmuo, turintis takos riamosios 0 5 10 15 20 25
mediagos kiekiui. Vienod stambij daleli didesnis Miinio aktyvumas, %
kiekis didina sistemos tutymtum, o ioms tutymms
upildyti sunaudojama daugiau riamosios mediagos.
4 pav. Miinio sudties taka pusfabrikaio stipriui: 1
apskaiiuotos pagal (3) ir (4) formules; 2apskaiiuota
a) b)
pagal nepakeist silikatins mass paruoimo schem
0,265 0,266 0,245 0,244 Fig 4. Influence of mix composition on the strength of
0,268 0,265 h = 88 mm 0,266 0,252 half-finished product: 1composition according to for-
mulae 3 and 4; 2composition under the application of
0,273 0,271 0,279 0,271 non-modified silica paste preparation scheme

a= 250 mm a = 250 mm Silikatinio dekoratyvinio miinio sutankinimas tiesio-

giai priklauso nuo smlio grdins sudties (5 pav).
3 pav. Silikatinio (nesukietinto) betono stipris gniudant,
MPa (slgis formoje 18,6 MPa): a)geros grdins
sudties smlis; b)smlio grdin sudtis nra pakankamai 2,3
gera (Giraits telkinio smlis sijotas per 20 mm akuts siet)
Sutankinimo koeficientas

2,1
Fig 3. Silicate concrete compressive strength: agood 1
granular structure sand; bsand granular structure is not 1,9
good enough (Giraits bed sand sifted through the 20 mm 2
stitch bolter) 1,7
3
1,5
Tutymtumui sumainti reikia smulkesni disper-
sini daleli. Koloidins dalels, maesns kaip 0,1mkm, 1,3
yra labai svarbios [12]. Padidja kontakt tarp stambi
0,5 1.0 1,5 2 2,5
daleli kiekis. Pigmentai dekoratyviniame silikatiniame
Smlio stambio modulis, Ms
miinyje atlieka klijuojanios mediagos vaidmen ir
padidina pusfabrikaio stipr. Buvo naudotas vairios
sudties kalki ir smlio miinys. Ruoiant tok miin 5 pav. Smlio grdins sudties taka silikatins mass su
imamas vienodas pigmento kiekis ir keiiamas tik kalki pigmentu sutankinimui. Aktyvumas: 1 %7,40 %; 2 %
kiek permalant miin. Ruoiamas miinys, kurio 5,30 %; 3 %2,50 %
aktyvumas nuo 5 % iki 18 %. Dispersikumas apytikriai Fig 5. Influence of grain composition of sand on the com-
vienodas. Maiyta permalimoirtrynimo bdu, o paction of silica paste with pigment. Activity: 1 %
antrajame variante pasverti komponentai sumaiyti 7,40 %; 2 %5,30 %; 3 %2,50 %
priverstiniame maiytuve. 4 pav. matyti, jog sand sudtis
pusfabrikaio stipriui nra labai svarbu, bet sumaiymo Kuo daugiau miinyje yra vairi frakcijos daleli,
bdas yra reikmingas. Sveriant sandus automatikai tuo lengviau jis sutankinamas, tuo didesnis gaunamas
reguliuojamomis svarstyklmis, gaunami pakankamai pusfabrikaio stipris. Kalki ir pigmento smulkiadisper-
tiksls j kiekiai, todl praktikoje pasirenkami priverstinio ss dalels kartu su vandeniu upildo poras tarp
tipo maiytuvai, utikrinantys vienod sand pasiskirs- stambesni grdeli, padidja kontakt kiekis tarp miinio
tym miinyje. Miinio dali permalimas gamybos daleli, susidaro mikrokapiliarai, inaudojamos vandens
slygomis yra sudtingas, tam reikia dideli energijos fizikins savybs didesniam pusfabrikaio gniudomajam
snaud. stipriui gauti. Silikatins mass formavimo drgnis turi

42
A.Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3943
bti proporcingas io miinio lyginamajam paviriui. Jis
nustatomas ne pagal smlio frakcijos kiek, o pagal smul-
kij daleli mas ir j bendrj lyginamj paviri 1.
(5 pav).
Miinio drgn charakterizuoja maksimalus jo
drgnio imlumas. Matome, kad kreivs 1, 2 ir 3 yra
vienodo pobdio, didjant miinio drgniui pusfabrikaio
stipris taip pat didja. Reguliuojamas mass presavimo
bdas leidia pasiekti pakankam pusfabrikaio mechanin
gniudomj stipr, esant 4,55,3 % formavimo mass
drgniui. Visais atvejais pusgaminio stiprio pagrindas yra
dispersins dalies kiekis, kurio suriimo procese dalyvauja
vanduo, esantis mikrokapiliaruose. Sutankintas miinys
su daomaisiais pigmentais yra stipresnis.
4. Ivados
1.Btina suderinti dekoratyvinio tankaus silikatinio
betono sudtini dali savybes, norint pagaminti geros
kokybs dirbinius.
2.Parenkant miinio sudt, riamosios mediagos
ir kalki kiekis apskaiiuojamas ne pagal bendr kalki
mas, o tik pagal aktyviosios dalies mas, susiejant j su
kit miinio sand savybmis.
3.Optimalus pigment kiekis, su riamja mediaga
maiant mineralin pigment, kuris suteikia pageidaujamo
intensyvumo spalv, parenkamas pagal kalki ir kit
dispersini daleli kiek. Tai sudaro galimyb taupyti
pigmentus (j sunaudojama perpus arba net kelis kartus
maiau), pagerinti dirbini kokyb.Pusfabrikaio stiprio
vienodumas dirbinio tryje gaunamas slegiant paruot
silikatin mas vienodu slgiu pagrindinms ploktumoms
prieingomis kryptimis.
4.Silikatinio betono pusfabrikaio matmen tikslu-
mui ir stipriui didiausios takos turi du pagrindiniai
veiksniai: silikatins mass suspaudimo bdas ir dispersi-
kosios dalies kiekis.
5.Gaminant didelio matmen tikslumo spalvotus
silikatinius dirbinius rekomenduojama naudoti minimalaus
tutymtumo atriabriaunius smlius, j kiekius apskai-
iuojant pagal silom metodik, tankinant dvipusio
slgio presuose.
43
Literatra
Pohl,G.Lime burning and quality (Kalk brenen und
Kalkqualitat). TJZ, 1993. No 9/10. 63 p. (in German).
2. Durable concrete structures. Concrete Report, No 5, (S).
Swedish Concrete Association, 1999. 56 p.
3. Dvorkin,L.I.Projecting of concrete composition with
given characteristics (
). Rovno: PDTU, 1999, p. 121
125 (in Russian).
4. Chavkin,L.M.Production of silicate concrete with given
characteristics of cementing substance. In: VNII Strom,
No 66 (46). oscow: VNIIStrom, 1998. 42 p. (in Rus-
sian).
5. Walker,S.;Bloem,D. I.Effects of aggregate size on prop-
erties of concrete.Journal of American Concrete Institute,
Vol 57, No 3, 1992, p. 215221.
6. Hiese,W. Collection of works (Baustoffkentnis Dsseldorf),
1995, p. 452462 (in German).
7. Chavkin,L.M.Colouring of silica bricks. Building mate-
rials ( ), No 7. Moscow, 1998,
p. 1517 (in Russian).
8. Weiss,R.Burnt lime production and characteristics
(Physikalisch-chemische Untersuchung ber den Zustand
des Brannkalkes). Zement-Kalk-Gips, No 10, 1999. 86p.
(in German).
9. Karsten, R. Constructional chemistry 9 (Bauchemie 9). Aufl.,
Verlag C. F. Mller. Karlsruhe, 1999. 16 p. (in German).
10. Rade,D.Research of inorganic pigments and their use for
the production of coloured silica articles (Einige
Untersuchungen ber dieVerwendung von Anorganischen
Baupigmenten zur Herschtellung von Farbkalksandstein).
II JSD KB, Hannower, 1975. 62 p. (in German).
11. Hanssen, V. Inorganic pigments for the production of silica
bricks, Areas of application (Anorganische Bayer-Pigmente
zur Einfarbung on Kalksandsteinen). Sparte AC Anw-
endungstechnik 10/96. Leverkusen P, Bayer AG, 1999. 27 p.
(in German).
12. Larrend, F. The Influence of aggregate on the compressive
strength of normal and high-strength concrete. ACI Materi-
als Journal, Vol 94, No 5, 1997, p. 417426.
43
 45

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 4550

THE APPLICATION OF THE MODERN METHOD OF EMBANKMENT

COMPACTION CONTROL

Maria Jolanta Sulewska

Biaystok Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering, 15-351 Biaystok,
45E Wiejska Str., Poland. E-mail: sulewska@pb.bialystok.pl
Received 3 Sept 2003; accepted 17 May 2004

Abstract. Light drop-weight tester is a device for field tests and it is used for quick control of bearing capacity and
compaction quality of built-in soils in different types of embankments. It is a modern device which is commonly used
in Germany and now in Poland. The examples of calibration of the light drop-weight tester in laboratory and in-situ,
and its application in real embankment are presented.
Keywords: embankments, compaction control, light drop-weight tester, dynamic modulus of soil deformation.

1. Introduction
index Io= E2/E1 (where E1 and E2 primary and second-
Increase of demands concerning the quality of dif- ary moduli of soil deformation tested with VSS plate) or
ferent types of earth structures has been observed re- secondary modulus of deformation E2 [8].
cently. Special stress is also put on the short duration of
construction. That is why the interest in quick methods
of control of ground compaction has increased recently.
Application of quick and not complicated method of cur-
rent control is especially important. Falling-weight
deflectometers FWD of different structure and param-
eters are used in many countries for control tests of
achieved compaction of subsoil and made ground [1 4].
Falling-weight deflectometers mounted on automo-
tive vehicles has been introduced recently in highway
engineering. They are used for measurement of bearing
capacity of road surface based on deflection bowl [3].
Force impulse in the range of 7 kN to 250 kN is trans-
mitted on the surface of tested medium through thrust
plate of radius 300 mm. A scheme of measurement of
deflection bowl on road surface using FWD is presented
in Fig 1.
On the theoretical basis of considered problem [5,
6] it is assumed that loading of soil with the lightweight
Fig 1. Scheme of measurement of bowl of deflections on
dynamic deflectometer can be treated as a problem of
road surface using FWD [3]
short duration quasi-statical pressure of the plate on the
elastic half-space.
This paper describes a light drop-weight tester used These types of tests are labour-consuming and long-
in Germany [4, 7] and Czech Republic [2]. There are lasting and they cannot be conducted in all field condi-
also companies in Poland which apply this device. tions.
The measure of quality of controlled compaction of Light drop-weight tester has many advantages com-
soil built in embankments is the value of soil degree of paring with traditional control tests. These are:
compaction Is= d/ds (where d dry density of solid elimination of heavy equipment, which is used as
particles, ds maximum dry density of solid particles counterweight in the method of tentative static loads
tested with Proctor method) or the value of deformation with VSS plate,

45
46 M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 4550
possibility to conduct the tests in case of limited
surface and difficult access, eg dykes, backfills of
narrow excavations,
small dimensions (1,5 m high) and light weight
(20 kg),
short time for a test (about 3 min) enables to make
many tests and to densify tested points and find
weak areas,
possibility to obtain results immediately shortens the
duration of construction and does not cause shut-
downs during earth works.
The paper presents examples of calibrations of the
light drop-weight tester which were made prior to its
application in compaction control of real embankments.
Correlations between dynamic modulus of soil deforma-
tion ED and other geotechnical parameters (IS, E1, E2),
which are normally tested for evaluation of compaction
quality, were determined on the basis of our own labo-
ratory examinations of medium sand. Dependency
ED=f(IS) was determined basing on examinations of all-
in aggregate on the test field.
2. The description of the test method
2.1. Light drop-weight tester
The light drop-weight tester consists of steel thrust
plate (1) diameter of 300 mm with holders (2) and the
detector for settlement measurement (3). Guide bar (4)
with shock absorber (5) and 10 kg weight (6) hanging in
snap fastener (7) is placed on the thrust plate. Detector
is connected with the electronic settlement meter (8). The
settlement meter shows and registers deflection of sub-
soil under the thrust plate after each of three impacts
and then the average deflection out of the three mea-
surements, the value of dynamic modulus of soil defor-
mation ED and the time of acceleration uD/v (where
uD deflection of soil under the thrust plate, v the
deflection rate). The diagram of the light drop-weight
tester is presented in Fig 2.
Fig 2. Diagram of light drop-weight tester with electronic
settlement meter
46
The test is based on producing force impulse of short
duration (amplitude 7,07 kN) through the weight impact
dropping along guide bar from the height (h) on the shock
absorber. The impulse is transmitted by the thrust plate
to the surface of tested soil and it causes deformation of
soil under the plate. The value of dynamic modulus of
soil deformation is a result of this test [4]. It is calcu-
lated from the following equation:
r D 22.5
E D = 1,5 = , (1)
uD uD
where r diameter of the thrust plate, r = 300 mm;
D amplitude of dynamic stress under the thrust plate,
D = 0,1 MPa; u D average settlement of the
thrust plate calculated from the results of 3 impacts
made after three initial impacts, mm.
2.2. Application of light drop-weight tester
This tester is used for quick examination of dynamic
modulus of deformation. The modulus is used for evalu-
ation of bearing capacity and indirectly - for control of
compaction quality of subsoil, soil-surfaced roads, lay-
ers of embankments or backfills built from mineral soils,
soils improved with lime or from waste materials. Light
drop-weight tester can be used [4, 7] under the follow-
ing conditions:
under the measurement range 15ED80 MPa,
for mineral coarse-grained soil with content of grains
d63mm not exceeding 15 % (and soil with up to
30% of crushed stone) and fine-grained non-cohe-
sive and cohesive soil in semisolid or low plastic
state,
when thickness of tested uniform soil layer is in the
range of 0,3 to 0,5 m [9, 10].
2.3. The way of conducting the test
The thrust plate is set up on the even surface and
additionally it is adjusted by shifting and rotating. The
surface of coarse grain soil can be even up with the layer
of dry fine sand thickness of few millimeters. Then the
guide bar is set up on the thrust plate and the deflection
meter is connected. The weight is lifted to the height (h)
and then dropped on the shock absorber and gripped
when it rebounds. Three initial hits should be made in
order to get a good contact between the plate and soil.
Three test hits are made after turning on the meter.
2.4. Interpretation of test results
Quality control of compaction of soil layers con-
sists in comparison of tested value of degree of compac-
tion Is (or Io or E2) with the minimum required standard
value which for road embankments is Is 0,921,03
(Io=2,52,2 and E2 30120 MPa) depending on cat-
egory of traffic and the depth of the tested soil layer [8].
M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 4550
The above parameters can be determined indirectly
on the base of developed correlation with dynamic de-
formation modulus for the given soil built in embank-
ment.
The general correlations or dependencies determined
for many types of soil or for particular groups of soil
would be the most useful.
3. Example of calibration of light drop-weight tester
The aim of the test was to determine the dependen-
cies between dynamic modulus of deformation ED and
degree of compaction Is or primary E1 and secondary E2
deformation modulus for medium-grained sand, accord-
ing to [10]. The sieve-analysis curve is presented in Fig 3.
Fig 3. Medium sand sieve-analysis curve
The test was performed on laboratory setup on the
model subsoil from medium-grained sand. Soil water con-
tent was in the range of 3,5 to 6,7 %. The investigated
soil layer thickness a1=0,3 m or a2=0,5 m was placed
on a sublayer thickness 0,30,4 m of Is1,0 and it was
evenly compacted with plate compactor.
Degree of compaction was calculated by the equa-
tion
d ,
Is = (2)
ds
where d dry density of solid particles, ds maxi-
mum dry density of solid particles, tested using method
I (normal Proctors method) according to [11].
Dry density of solid particles was calculated by the
equation:
100 , (3)
d =
100 + w
where bulk density of soil tested with sand volume-
ter according to [12], w water content tested by dry-
ing according to [11].
47
47
The tests of dynamic modulus of soil deformation
were conducted using light drop-weight tester type ZFG
01 according to [4].
Primary and secondary moduli of soil deformation
were determined by means of thrust plate with static load
(VSS) according to [8].
The dynamic modulus of deformation was calculated
by equation (1).
The values of primary and secondary moduli of
deformation were calculated by the equation:
22,5 ,
E1 or E2 = D = (4)
u u
where the range of stress in which modulus E1
and E2 were calculated, u measured settlement of
the thrust plate for 2 and 1 , mm, correspondingly,
u = u2 u1 , = 2 1 = 0,125 0,050 = 0,075MPa .
A set of variables (Is, ED, E1, E2) was obtained as a
result of examinations of modelled soil. The set consisted
of n = 30 results: n1 = 14 for a1 = 0,3 m and n2 = 16 for
a2 = 0,5 m. Statistical analysis of the set of variables
(Table 1) was made with computer program Statgraphics
[13].
Verification of hypothesis of equal average values
in groups (using the method of variance analysis with
singular classification based on the least significant dif-
ferences) was conducted in order to determine whether
the thickness of tested soil layer influences the value of
dynamic modulus of deformation. The level of signifi-
cance was = 0,798. This conclusion confirmed also the
test of homogenous groups. In order to justify the con-
clusion by the variance analysis, two assumptions were
checked [13]: normality of characteristic distribution in
groups using Kolmogorov Smirnovs test of goodness
of fit and homogeneity of variance in groups using
Chochrans test and Bartletts test.
The above analysis allowed formulating the follow-
ing conclusion: the thickness of soil layer (in the range
0,3 m to 0,5 m) does not influence the value of dynamic
modulus of soil deformation ED.
Then correlations between variables in the set of all
measurements were determined. The best fitted models
of regression between two variables were chosen using
simple regression analysis [13, 14].
Table 2 presents matrix of linear correlation coeffi-
cients for tested variables.
Analysis of correlation matrix shows significant de-
pendencies between dynamic modulus of deformation and
statical moduli of deformation as well as the relation-
ship between degree of compaction.
The dependencies: ED=f(Is) and ED=f(E1), ED=f(E2)
are presented in Figs 4 and 5.
4. Control of soil compaction using light drop-weight
tester according to German instructions
In German recommendations regarding road earth
works [15, 16] light drop-weight tester is allowed to be
48 M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 4550

Table 1. Statistical parameters of variables (Is, ED, E1, E2)

Geotechnical Number Minimum Maximum Average Standard Coefficient Skewness Kurtosis

parameter of obser- value value value deviation of variation ratio
vations
Is [] 15 0,907 0,993 0,962 0,024 2,5 1,02 0,17
ED [MPa] 30 11,0 38,8 29,0 7,1 24,6 0,96 0,10
E1 [MPa] 15 11,2 39,5 28,0 8,1 29,1 0,72 0,21
E2 [MPa] 15 38,1 112,5 91,8 22,9 25,0 1,47 1,03

Table 2. Matrix of linear correlation coefficients for tested vari-

ables

Is ED E1 E2
Is 1,000
ED 0,920 1,000
E1 0,951 0,926 1,000
E2 0,954 0,911 0,902 1,000

used for control of embankments compaction (as an in-

dependent or additional test to static plate load). It is
recommended to determine limit values of moduli ED in
comparison with secondary moduli of deformation E2
tested in the given soil condition. In the case of lack of
own correlation dependencies, the values in Table 3 can
be used for orientation [16].

Table 3. Values of secondary modulus of deformation E2

Fig 4. Dependency ED = f(Is) for medium grained sand:
(according to [17]) and dynamic modulus of deformation ED
ED = 270,51Is-231,34; r = 0,920; Syx = 2,85 MPa, r-corre-
[16]
lation ratio; Syx standard estimation error; (1), (2)
ranges of confidence limits for regression line and pre- E2 [MPa] 120 100 80 45
dicted values calculated for probability 95 % ED [MPa] 60 50 40 25

Comparative examinations has been conducted for

Fig 5. Dependency ED = f(E1) and ED = f(E2) for medium
grained sand: (1) ED = 6,32+0,81E1; r = 0,926; Syx= 2,74
MPa, (2) ED = 2,98+0,28E2; r = 0,911; Syx = 3,00 MPa
many years in order to develop correlation dependencies
for different groups of mineral and anthropogenic soils
and in order to determine obligatory limit values of
modulus ED in comparison with minimum required val-
ues of modulus E2.
Weingart [18] suggested to consider the following
observations:
a) the value of time of acceleration uD/v ratio, where
uD settlement of thrust under impact, v speed of
settlement, gives additional information on soil com-
paction,
b) at proper compaction (when E2/E1 2,5 [15]) the
condition 2,2 E2/E D 2,6 should be satisfied;
at not sufficient compaction (when E2/E 1 > 2,5)
it is observed that E2/ED< 2,2.
On the base of examinations of road load-bearing
layers Weingart proposed the following limit values and
additional conditions (they do not refer to fine-grained
soils sensitive to water) (Table 4).

48
M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 4550 49

Table 4. Values of secondary modulus of deformation E2 de-

pending on the value of dynamic modulus of deformation ED
[18]

E2 150 120 100 80 60 45 Additional

[MPa] conditions:
ED 70 55 45 40 30 25 E2/E1<2,2,
[MPa] uD/v<3,5ms

5. Example of light drop-weight tester application on

the building site

Light drop-weight tester was used to control the

quality of compaction of layers built in road embank-
ments (parking platforms) of considerable area and the
thickness up to 5 m. The embankments were built of
glacial sand-gravel mix from local deposit.
The embankments were formed with layers com-
pacted using vibrating tamping rollers and smooth roll-
ers. Control of soil compaction was conducted currently
for each compacted layer of thickness of 0,300,50 m.
The test points were located in square grid, side length
about 25 m.
The tests of dynamic modulus of soil deformation
were conducted using light drop-weight tester type ZFG
01 according to [4].
Comparative tests in 28 points were made in order
to calibrate the light drop-weight tester for the most com-
monly built-in soils. The following geotechnical param-
eters were determined according to [11]:
maximum dry density of solid particles ds and op-
timum water content wopt (using I Proctors method)
(ds= 1,9222,179 g/cm3, wopt= 6,711,1 %),
bulk density of soil , using sand volumeter
( = 1,9952,311 g/cm3),
water content w, using drying method (w = 2,47,4 %),
degree of compaction Is (Is=0,901,05).
Soils were qualified as sand-gravel mix (Po) accord-
ing to [11].
Chi-square test and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (at
significance level = 0,05) were conducted at the be-
ginning and it was accepted that tested variables had a
distribution consistent with normal distribution. Then,
based on analysis of matrix coefficients of linear corre-
lation of variables and stepwise regression analysis, it
was found that soil water content (in the tested range)
did not influence significantly the value of modulus ED.
The best fitted model was found based on the
method of simple regression. The dependency ED=f(IS)
and the confidence limits of regression line (1) and pre-
dicted values (2) for probability 95% are shown in Fig 6.
The values of dynamic modulus of deformation de-
pend on soil compaction they increase with increase
of the value of compaction degree.
The developed correlation curve was used to cur-
rent control of compaction quality of built-in soil layers.
Fig 6. Dependency E D = f(I s ) for sand-gravel mix:
1/ED=0,1760,156Is; r=0,778; Syx=0,004
It was decided to accept the following limiting values of
modulus ED:
when Is< 0,97 EDmin < 40 MPa,
when 0,97 Is< 1,00 40 EDmin< 50 MPa,
when 1,00 Is< 1,03 50 EDmin< 65 MPa,
when Is 1,03 EDmin 65 MPa.
6. Conclusions
Preliminary examinations (calibration of the device)
were made prior to application of the light drop-weight
tester in field for compaction quality control of embank-
ments. Correlations ED=f(IS) and ED=f(E1), ED=f(E2)
were determined for medium sand, and correlation
ED=f(IS) was determined for all-in aggregate.
Examinations performed by the author showed that
there exist dependencies between values of dynamic
modulus of soil deformation and values of soil degree of
compaction and values of moduli of deformation E1 or
E2. These correlations can be used during compaction
control of embankments under construction. The light
drop-weight tester can be applied for quick current con-
trol of the quality and uniformity of compaction. This
may considerably promote earth works.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by State Committee for
Scientific Research, project number W/IIB/9/01.
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odksztacenia gruntu niespoistego wyznaczone metod
dynamiczn). PhD thesis, Bialystok Technical University,
Bialystok, 1993. 161p. (in Polish).
11. PN-88/B-04481 Building Soils. Laboratory Tests (Grunty
budowlane. Badania laboratoryjne). Polish Standardization
Committee, Warsaw, 1988. 63 p. (in Polish).
12. BN-77/8931-12 Determination of Soil Degree of Compac-
tion (Oznaczanie wskanika zagszczenia). Polish Standard-
ization Committee, Warsaw, 1977. 5 p. (in Polish).
13. Podgorski, J. Statistics with Computer. Statgraphics ver-
sion 5&6 (Statystyka z komputerem. Statgraphics wersja
5&6). Warsaw, 1995. 300 p. (in Polish).
14. Draper, N. R. and Smith, H. Applied Regression Analysis
(Analiza regresji stosowana). Warsaw: Polish Scientific
Publishers, 1973. 459 p. (in Polish).
15. Additional Technical Requirements and Instructions for
Earth Works in Road Constructions (Zustzliche Technische
Vertragsbedingungen und Richtlinien fr Erdarbeiten im
Straenbau) ZTVE-StB 94, Road and Transportation Re-
search Association, Kln, 1994/ 1997. 108 p. (in German).
16. Additional Technical Requirements and Instructions for
Excavations in Road Constructions (Zustzliche Tech-
nische Vetragsbedingungen und Richtlinien fr Aufgrabun-
gen in Verkehrsflchen) ZTVA-StB 97, Road and Trans-
portation Research Association, Kln, 1997. 120 p. (in
German).
17. DIN 18134 Building Ground. Tests and Test Methods. Load
with plate (Baugrund. Versuche und Versuchsgerte.
Plattendruckversuch), German Standardization Institute,
Berlin, 1993. 9 p. (in German).
18. Weingart, W. Controll of Road Layers without Binder Using
Light Drop-Weight Tester. In: Transactions in Mineral
Materials in Road Construction (Tagungsband Minerall-
stoffe in Strassenbau), No 6. Kln: 1993. p. 5053 (in
German).
 51

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5155

SAUGOS IR SVEIKATOS PROBLEMOS IR PERSPEKTYVOS STATYBVIETSE

Ritoldas ukys
Darbo ir gaisrins saugos katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saultekio al. 11,
LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva. El. patas: Ritis@st.vtu.lt
teikta 2004 04 26; priimta 2004 05 19

Santrauka. Lietuvai tapus Europos Sjungos nare svarbu nustatyti integracijos pasekmes socialinms, ekonominms,
kinms ir kitoms sritims. Viena i prioritetini srii yra darbuotoj sauga ir sveikata. Statyba pagal savo darb
specifik (danai keiiasi darbo pobdis ir vieta, atliekami su rizika susij darbai, dirbama vairiomis klimato slygomis)
yra viena i pavojingiausi iuo poiriu kio srii. Tyrimo tikslas kaip galima tiksliau nustatyti kokybinius ir
kiekybinius poveikius, kuriuos patiria Lietuvos statybos mons, gyvendindamos ES Tarybos direktyv 92/57/EEB Dl
minimali saugos ir sveikatos reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybos aiktelse. Tyrimui taikyti statistiniai-
analiziniai, apklausos, analizs, analogij, finansinis ataskait apibendrinim ir kiti mokslinio tyrimo metodai. Nustatytos
moni ilaidos, ilaidos valstybiniame lygmenyje, teigiamas direktyvos poveikis, parengtos rekomendacijos.
Raktaodiai: integracija, darbuotoj sauga ir sveikata, ES Tarybos direktyva 92/57/EEB, finansins ilaidos, statyba.

1. vadas
Lietuvai tapus Europos Sjungos nare svarbu
nustatyti integracijos pasekmes socialinms, ekono-
minms, kinms ir kitoms sritims. Viena i prioritetini
srii yra darbuotoj sauga ir sveikata. Statyba pagal savo
darb specifik (danai keiiasi darbo pobdis ir vieta,
atliekama daug su rizika susijusi darb, dirbama
vairiomis klimato slygomis) yra viena i pavojingiausi
iuo poiriu kio srii [14].
Lietuvos statybos mons turi vadovautis ES Tarybos
direktyvos 92/57/EEB Dl minimali saugos ir sveikatos
reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybos
aiktelse nuostatomis. Direktyva nustato minimalius
saugos ir sveikatos laikinj ar kilnojamj statybos
aikteli rengimo reikalavimus, susijusi su darbuotoj
sauga ir sveikata. Joje nustatyti minimals ir privalomi
reikalavimai, kurie turi bti gyvendinti steigiamose ar
esamose statybvietse. Tai reikalavimai, keliami
statybviei pastatams, darbo ir buitinms patalpoms,
apvietimui, durims ir vartams, klimo mechanizmams,
transporto priemonms, ems darb mainoms, kitiems
renginiams, keliams ir kt.
Nagrinjamos Direktyvos nuostatos yra svarbios ir
reikalingos didinant statybos moni konkurencingum bei
utikrinant darbuotoj saug ir sveikatos apsaug staty-
bose. Svarbu inoti visapusik io teiss akto poveik
Lietuvos kiui. Lietuvoje atlikta nemaa darbuotoj saug
ir sveikatos apsaug reglamentuojani teiss akt,
parengt pagal ES direktyv reikalavimus, pasekmi
tyrim [514]. Juose nustatyti teigiami ir neigiami
poveikiai Lietuvos kiui, pateiktos rekomendacijos
darbuotoj saugai ir sveikatos apsaugai gerinti.
ES Tarybos direktyvos 92/57/EEB Dl minimali
saugos ir sveikatos reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnoja-
mosiose statybos aiktelse gyvendinimo pasekmi
tyrimo rezultatai ir rekomendacijos pads statybos
monms gyvendinti Lietuvos teiss akt, reglamen-
tuojani saug ir sveikatos apsaug darbe, reikalavimus.
Tai pagerins darbo slygas monse, sumains profesini
lig skaii bei pads monms laiku ir geriau pasirengti
integracijai Europos Sjungos rink.
Atliekant Direktyvos 92/57/EEB gyvendinimo
pasekmi tyrim dalyvavo Lietuvos statybinink asocia-
cijos bei jos moni darbuotojai. Buvo bendradarbiaujama
su suinteresuotomis gyvendinti Direktyv institucijomis
Socialins apsaugos ir darbo ministerija, Valstybine darbo
inspekcija, Valstybiniu visuomens sveikatos centru,
Statybos darbuotoj profsjunga, auktj mokykl
profilinmis katedromis.
2. Tyrimo tikslas, udaviniai ir metodika
Tyrimo tikslas kaip galima tiksliau nustatyti koky-
binius ir kiekybinius poveikius, kuriuos patiria Lietuvos
statybos mons ir valstybs institucijos, gyvendindamos
ES Tarybos direktyv 92/57/EEB Dl minimali saugos
ir sveikatos reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose
statybos aiktelse.

51
52 R. ukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5155

Atliekant tyrimus siekta: veikiani statybos moni padaugjo apie 16 %. Respub-

vertinti dabartin situacij (darbuotoj saugos ir likoje vyrauja smulkios ir vidutins statybos mons,
sveikatos bkl statybos monse); kurios sudaro daugiau kaip 99 % vis statybos moni.
nustatyti teigiam Direktyvos poveik; Duomenys apie nelaimingus atsitikimus darbe
nustatyti ilaidas statybos monms ir vieajam statybose, kuriems 19972002 m. buvo surayti N-1
(valstybiniam) sektoriui; formos aktai, pateikiami lentelje.
parengti rekomendacijas statybos monms, valstybs
ir visuomens institucijoms. Nelaimingi atsitikimai darbe statybose
Tyrimas atliktas vadovaujantis Europos komiteto Accidents at work in construction
prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybs parengta Regu-
liuojani teiss akt poveikio vertinimo metodika. Nelaimingi atsitikimai darbe
Metai
lengvi sunks mirtini i viso
Tyrimui buvo taikomi statistinis-analizinis, apklausos, 1997 429 34 13 476
analizs, analogij, finansinis ataskait apibendrinim 1998 486 36 13 535
moksliniai metodai. Vertinant ES Tarybos direktyvos 1999 401 27 19 447
92/57/EEB reikalavimus bei j gyvendinimo poveik 2000 302 26 14 342
statybos monms ir valstybinms institucijoms buvo 2001 291 34 23 348
atlikta anonimin apklausa pagal parengtas apklausos 2002 343 35 23 401
anketas. Jos skirtos statybos monms, valstybinms bei
visuomeninms institucijoms ir savarankikiesiems dar- 19972002 m. nelaiming atsitikim darbe skaiius
buotojams. Anketose pateikti klausimai, siekiant isiai- (iskyrus mirtinus ir sunkius atvejus) statybos monse
kinti Direktyvos nuostat takos, utikrinant darbuotoj sumajo. Taiau 2003 m. statistika veria nerimauti
saug ir sveikatos apsaug statybos monse, vertinimus. nelaiming atsitikim darbe statybos monse skaiius
Pagrindinis tikslas, atliekant apklaus, yra gauti tyri- padidjo.
njamos visumos (generalins aibs) charakteristikas.
Tam pasirinktas atrankinis stebjimas, kaip neitisinio 3.2. Apklausos, atliktos monse, rezultatai ir j analiz
stebjimo dalinis variantas, t. y. kai tiriami tik analizuo-
jamos dalies vienetai. Tyrimui taikytas vienas i atsi- Atlikus moni apklausos rezultat analiz nustatyta:
tiktins atrankos metod blokin atranka. i atranka Apie 68 % vis apklaust statybos moni Direktyvai
leidia su santykinai maomis imtimis gauti prasmingus gyvendinti reikia finansins, 59 % konsultacins
rezultatus. Tai aktualu esant didelms generalinms (mokymo), 54 % informacins, 40 % statymins
aibms ir visikai tinka tyrimo tikslui. paramos (r. 1 pav.).
Atliekant moni apklaus svarbu nustatyti atrankos
imt, kad apklausos rezultatai bt pakankamai patikimi.
Reikiama imtis nustatyta remiantis ribins paklaidos 70
apskaiiavimu. Taikyta atranka be pasikartojim ir
reikiama apklausos imtis apskaiiuota pagal formul: 60
50
N t 2 02 , (1)
n=
x N + t 2 02 40
n atrankos imtis, N moni skaiius, t patikimumo 30
koeficientas, x ribin atrankos paklaida, 2 variacinio 20
poymio dispersija.
inant generalin aib (t. y. veikiani statybos 10
moni skaii Respublikoje) ir imant didiausi atrankos 0
paklaid 5 %, o variacinio poymio maksimali Reikalinga parama
dispersij 0,5, kai patikimumo koeficientas t = 2,5,
gauta moni atrankos imtis (n) apklausai atlikti, pagal Finansin Konsultacin Informacin statymin
kuri gautos pakankamai tikslios visos tyrinjamos
visumos charakteristikos. Buvo atliktas gaut duomen 1 pav. Direktyvai gyvendinti reikalingos paramos
tyrimas ir analiz. procentinis pasiskirstymas
Fig 1. Percent distribution of support needed to imple-
3. Tyrimo rezultatai ment the directive
3.1. Dabartin situacija
Apklausa parod, kad dauguma statybos moni
Statistikos departamento duomenimis, 2003-01-01 susidurs su problemomis utikrinant darbuotoj
buvo 2877 registruotos veikianios statybos mons, i saug ir sveikatos apsaug pagal ES reikalavimus.
j 1126 individualios. Palyginti su 2001 m., registruot
52
R. ukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5155 53

Pagrindins i j yra rizikos vertinimas, darbuotoj 70

aprpinimas asmeninmis apsauginmis priemon-
mis, j mokymas ir informavimas (r. 2 pav.). 60
Apibendrinus apklausos rezultatus paaikjo, kad 50
68 % statybos moni ios Direktyvos reikalavim
40
vykdymas sukels skirtingas problemas. Didels
problemos kils 9 %, vidutins 27 % statybos moni. 30
31 % statybos moni problem neturs.
20

50 10

45 0
Teigiamas poveikis
40
35 Pagers darbo slygos
30 Sumas profesini lig skaiius
25 Sumas nelaiming atsitikim skaiius
20 Pagers darbo rezultatai
15 Pagers darbo kultra
10 Pagers darb kokyb

5
3 pav. Direktyvos teigiam poveiki pasekmi procentin
0 priklausomyb
Didels Vidutins Nedaug Nra
problemos problemos problem problem Fig 3. Percent dependence of directives positive conse-
quences
Rizikos vertinimas

Darbuotoj aprpinimas apsauginmis priemonmis
Darbuotoj medicinin apira 3.4. Direktyvos 92/57/EEB gyvendinimo ilaidos
Saugos instrukcij rengimas Direktyvos gyvendinimo ilaidos nustatytos apklau-
M okymas ir informavimas sos ir statistiniu-analiziniu metodais. Tyrimo rezultatai
rodo, kad 86 % statybos moni bendros ilaidos
2 pav. Svarbiausi problem, kylani statybos monms Direktyvos reikalavimams gyvendinti yra reikmingos.
utikrinant darbuotoj saug ir sveikatos apsaug, procen- Didels jos yra 18 % moni, vidutins 44 % ir 24 %
tinis pasiskirstymas pagal j dyd maos. Bendras ilaid procentinis pasiskirstymas
Fig 2. Percent distribution by size of main problems, faced
pateiktas 4 pav.
by construction companies while securing workers health
and safety

3.3. Direktyvos gyvendinimo nauda (teigiamas
poveikis)

Visos mons Direktyvos gyvendinimo pasekmes

vertina teigiamai ir mano, kad tai pagerins darbuotoj
saug ir sveikatos apsaug statybvietse, turs teigiamos
takos darbo rezultatams ir darbo kultrai. Teigiam
Direktyvos poveikio pasekmi procentin priklausomyb
pateikta 3 pav.
io teiss akto gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas:
turi teigiamos takos valstybs institucij ir visuome-
ns bei verslo atstov tarpusavio supratimui ir ben-
dradarbiavimui sprendiant strateginius klausimus;
suteikia visuomenei daugiau informacijos apie valsty-
bs institucij veikl ir jos rezultatus;
padeda monms prisitaikyti prie ES ir Lietuvos 4 pav. Bendras ilaid procentinis pasiskirstymas
teiss akt reikalavim; Fig 4. Total percentage of expenser
sudaro slygas saugos darbe gerinimui ir profesini
lig majimui.
53
54 R. ukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5155
Duomen apie nelaimingus atsitikimus statybos
monse analiz rodo, kad pagrindins j prieastys yra
normini akt reikalavim nevykdymas.
Direktyvos gyvendinimo ilaidos susideda i vien-
kartini ir einamj ilaid. Visas Direktyvos gyven-
dinimo ilaidas priskyrus statybos savikainai, ji padidja
1,21 % pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuostat gyvendinimo
metais, o vlesniais sumaja vienkartini ilaid dydiu
ir sudaro 1,01 %. Statybos darb kaina iuo atveju iauga
atitinkamai 1,12 % ir 0,93 %. Visomis Direktyvos
gyvendinimo ilaidomis sumainus statybos moni peln,
jis sumaja 14,76 % pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuostat
gyvendinimo metais, o vlesniais 12,26 %. Direktyvos
reikalavim gyvendinimo statybos monse ilaidos
didiausios takos turi smulki statybos moni preki
savikainos didjimui. Pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuostat
gyvendinimo metais ji padidja 2,12 %, vlesniais
2,01 %. Statybos investicijos pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuos-
tat gyvendinimo metais padidt 8,5 %. Atsivelgdamos
savo finansines galimybes, rinkos bkl ir konkurencij
mons turi numatyti taikomas ekonomines priemones.
4. Pagrindins tyrimo ivados ir rekomendacijos
1. Parengiamiesiems darbams, kad pradt gyven-
dinti Direktyvos reikalavimus, statybos monms buvo
skirta 18 mn. Taiau daug statybos moni iuos
reikalavimus vykdo nepatenkinamai:
apie 15 % moni vadov nra susipain su
Direktyvos reikalavimais;
apie 65 % moni neatliekamas rizikos vertinimas;
apie 30 % statybviei dl sunkios statybos moni
ekonomins bkls per ltai pertvarkomos;
87 % savarankikj darbuotoj nra susipain su
Direktyvos reikalavimais;
Valstybin darbo inspekcija neinformuojama apie
statybos darb pradi. Nepaskirti projekto ir saugos
bei sveikatos apsaugos darbe priemoni gyvendi-
nimo koordinatoriai, saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
priemoni statybvietse planai;
ne visose statybvietse yra tinkamos buitins slygos;
tredalio statybos moni darbuotojai neaprpinti
visomis reikalingomis asmeninmis apsauginmis
priemonmis.
2. Visos statybos mons, valstybins ir visuome-
nins institucijos bei ekspertai Direktyvos nuostatas
vertina teigiamai:
gyvendinus Direktyvos nuostatas statybvietse,
pagers sauga ir sveikatos apsaugos darbe statybos
mons greiiau ir lengviau eis bendr Europos
rink;
gyvendinus Direktyvos nuostatas statybos monse,
sumat nelaiming atsitikim darbe. Investicijos
saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos darbe gerinim, laikan-
tis Direktyvos nuostat reikalavim, sugrt, nes
maiau reikt imok dl darbuotoj sveikatos
paeidim ir maiau bt dl darbuotoj nedarbin-
gumo nepagamintos produkcijos. Per metus bt
sutaupoma apie 1 mln Lt.
3. Pagrindins Direktyvos reikalavim nevykdymo
prieastys yra nepatenkinamas rpinimasis saugos ir
sveikatos apsaugos darbe priemonmis, rizikos veiksni
nevertinimas, didels Direktyvos reikalavim gyven-
dinimo ilaidos, sumajusios statybos darb apimtys,
rekomendacij ir metodik, kaip taikyti Direktyvos
nuostatas, stoka.
4. 68 % moni Direktyvos reikalavim vykdymas
sukelia problem. Daugiausia problem kelia:
rizikos vertinimas 91 %;
statybos organizavimo ir technologijos projektuose
nurodyti saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos priemons ir
reikalavimai 73 %;
saugi darboviei statybvietse rengimas 77 %.
5. Kad gyvendint direktyvos nuostatas, monms
reikalinga parama. Dauguma j nort finansins bei
konsultacins (mokymo) paramos.
6. Apie 27 % apklaust moni manoma, kad
valstybs institucijos nepakankamai bendradarbiauja su
monmis, todl trksta informacijos, kaip praktikoje
diegti Direktyvos nuostatas. 36 % moni manoma, kad
kryptinga valstybs finansin-ekonomin politika padt
gyvendinti Direktyvos nuostatas, ir silo statybos
darbams sumainti pridtins verts mokest.
7. Pirmaisiais Direktyvos gyvendinimo metais
ilaidos alies (kio) mastu yra apie 50 mln. Lt.
8. gyvendinant Direktyv daugiausia problem turi
smulkios mons. Dauguma nauj moni yra smulkios,
darbdaviai nevertina saugaus darbo svarbos, takos
darbuotoj sveikatai, ekonominiams rodikliams ir produk-
cijos kokybei. Be to, jiems trksta ini apie saugos ir
sveikatos apsaugos reikalavimus teiss aktuose.
9. Smulkioms monms trksta l, kad galt
rpintis darbo slygomis. Darbdaviai nepatenkinamai
organizuoja darbuotoj saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
tarnyb, komitet veikl, nevertinami rizikos veiksniai.
Norint LR statybos monse gyvendinti Direktyvos
reikalavimus, reikia gyvendinti ias priemones:
sudaryti galimybes suinteresuotoms monms
susipainti su rengiamais saug ir sveikatos apsaug
reglamentuojani teiss akt projektais, kad jos i
anksto galt tinkamai pasirengti teiss akt nuostat
gyvendinimui;
efektyvesnei Direktyvos diegimo kontrolei btina
VDI biudet padidinti 2 %;
atsivelgdamos savo finansines galimybes, rinkos
bkl, konkurencij, mons turi numatyti ekonomi-
nes priemones Direktyvai gyvendinti. Tai galt
bti:
pelno sumainimas Direktyvos diegimo ilaid
dydiu;
ilaid priskyrimas savikainai ir statybos kainos
didjimas;
tarpinis variantas, t. y. pelno mainimas ir savi-
kainos didinimas;
54
R. ukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5155
dalies sumos, sukauptos Socialinio draudimo
fonde (tai yra nelaiming atsitikim darbe ir
profesini lig draudimo los) skyrimas
(proporcingai statybos daliai visame kyje)
Direktyvai gyvendinti, nes ios los taip pat
skirtos nelaiming atsitikim ir profesini lig
prevencijai;
Direktyvoje numatytiems socialiniams reikalavimams
gyvendinti statybos mons turi sudaryti priemoni
planus, numatyti j gyvendinimo terminus ir tam
skirti reikiam l;
statybos monms daugiau dmesio skirti bendra-
darbiavimui su mokslo institucijomis diegiant
Direktyvos nuostat taikym. Tokio bendradarbia-
vimo formos galt bti teminiai moksliniai-prak-
tiniai seminarai, neakivaizdins diskusijos, tiksliniai
moksliniai tyrimai ir pan.;
pagal mokymo, kvalifikacijos klimo ir atestavimo
nuostatus bei teorinio mokymo programas tikslinga
diegti nuotolin mokym. Tai sumaint ilaidas
mokymo procesui organizuoti ir vykdyti;
daugiau dmesio skirti visuomens informavimui
apie darbuotoj saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos bkl.
Televizija ir radijas tam turi skirti informacin
valandl;
sukurti informacijos pateikimo sistem apie darbuo-
toj saug ir sveikatos apsaug statybvietse.
Literatra
1. Facts 18. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
2001: http://agency.osha.eu.int
2. Didier Duper Accidents at work in the EU 19981999
EUROSTAT Statistics in Focus: http://agency.osha.eu.int
3. Summary of investigation Working conditions in Euro-
pean Union and in countries candidates accomplished
in year 2001 by European fond of living and working
conditions development (Europos gyvenimo ir darbo slyg
gerinimo fondo 2001 m. atlikto tyrimo Darbo slygos
Europos Sjungoje ir alyse kandidatse rezium):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
4. Yearly report of Lithuanian national work safety inspec-
torate (Lietuvos valstybins darbo inspekcijos metin
ataskaita 20012002): http://vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
5. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 86/188/
EEC About workers protection against risks, concerning
noise influence at work implementation (ES Direktyvos
86/188/EEB Dl darbuotoj apsaugos nuo rizikos,
susijusios su triukmo poveikiu darbe, reikalavim
gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
6. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 89/654/
EEC About minimal health and safety requirements for
workplace implementation (ES Direktyvos 89/654/EEB
Dl minimali darbovietei taikom saugos ir sveikatos
55
55
reikalavim gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
7. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 98/24/EC
About workers health and safety protection at work, con-
cerning chemical factors implementation (ES Direktyvos
98/24/EB Dl darbuotoj saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
nuo pavoj darbe, susijusi su cheminiais veiksniais,
gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
8. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 93/103/
EC establishing minimal health and safety requirements in
fishing boats, implementation (EB Direktyvos 93/103/EB,
nustatanios minimalius saugos ir sveikatos reikalavimus
vejybos laivuose, gyvendinimo poveikio vertinimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
9. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 92/57/EEC
About minimal health and safety requirements in tempo-
rary and transportable construction sites implementation
(ES Direktyvos 92/57/EEB Dl minimali saugos ir
sveikatos reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose
statybvietse gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
10. Regulating effects of implementation of standard law cer-
tificates Lithuanian hygiene norm HN 321998 Working
with video terminals. Health and safety requirements par-
tial evaluation (Norminio teiss akto Lietuvos higienos
norma HN 321998 Darbas su video terminalais. Saugos
ir sveikatos reikalavimai gyvendinimo dalinis reguliuo-
janio poveikio vertinimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
11. Regulating effects of implementation of law certificates
Rules of workers protection against biological materials
partial evaluation (Teiss akto Darbuotoj apsaugos nuo
biologini mediag nuostatai gyvendinimo reguliuo-
janio poveikio dalinis vertinimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
12. Regulating effects of implementation of workers health
and safety law certificates Rules of using health and safety
signs at workplace partial evaluation (Darbuotoj saugos
ir sveikatos teiss akto Saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
enkl naudojimo darbovietse nuostatai reguliuojanio
poveikio dalinis vertinimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
13. Regulating effects of implementation of law certificates
Safety rules for workers working in potentially explosive
environment partial evaluation (Teiss akto Darbuotoj,
dirbani potencialiai sprogioje aplinkoje, saugos nuostatai
reguliuojanio poveikio dalinis vertinimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
14. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 89/655/
EEC About health and safety minimal requirements for
working equipment and replacing directives 95/63/EEC
implementation (ES Direktyvos 89/655/EEB Dl
minimali darbo rengimams taikom darbuotoj saugos
ir sveikatos reikalavim ir j pakeiianios Direktyvos 95/
63/EEB gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas): http://osha.vdi.lt
(in Lithuanian).
 57

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5763

TRAUM PREVENCIJOS ILAID STATYBOJE OPTIMIZAVIMAS

Sigut Vakrinien1, Petras yras2, Ritoldas ukys3

1 Matematins statistikos katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saultekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius-40,
Lietuva. El. patas: sigute@micro.lt 2, 3 Darbo ir gaisrins saugos katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos
universitetas, Saultekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva. El. patas: Petras.Cyras@st.vtu.lt, Ritis@st.vtu.lt
teikta 2004 04 26; priimta 2004 05 26

Santrauka. Duomen apie nelaimingus atsitikimus statybos monse analiz rodo, kad pagrindins j prieastys yra
normini akt reikalavim nevykdymas, netinkamai organizuotas darbas, tai, kad nesinaudojama saugos priemonmis,
netinkamai organizuota darbo vieta, nepakankamai rpinamasi darbuotoj apmokymu. Darbdaviui svarbu inoti, kaip
optimaliai paskirstyti las, skirtas nelaiming atsitikim prevencijai. Tai leist (vidutinikai arba su tam tikra tikimybe)
sumainti nelaiming atsitikim skaii ir kartu sumainti socialinio draudimo imokas.
Nagrinjamas stochastinio programavimo udavinys, kuris modeliuoja l, skirt nelaiming atsitikim darbe statyboje
prevencijai, optimalaus paskirstymo problem. Kad su norimu patikimumu gautume optimali l, skirt nelaiming
atsitikim darbe statyboje prevencijai, paskirstymo strategij, reikia isprsti separabelinio programavimo udavin, kurio
leistin plan sritis nra ikilioji. Nustatyta io udavinio Lagrano daugikli prasm nagrinjamai problemai bei globaliojo
ekstremumo iskyrimo taisykl. Sprendiant pavyzdius gautos gana tikslios ir patikimos funkcins priklausomybs tarp
udavinio sprendinio ir jo parametr. Tai leidia optimizuoti l, skirt nelaiming atsitikim darbe statyboje, panaudojim
ir parodo tiktino ivengt traum skaiiaus priklausomyb nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens ir l, skirt nelaiming
atsitikim darbe statyboje prevencijai, variacijos.
Raktaodiai: nelaimingi atsitikimai, prevencija, optimalus l paskirstymas, stochastinis programavimas, Lagrano
funkcija, Kuno-Takerio slygos, pasikliautinumo lygmuo, l variacija.

1. vadas Straipsnyje nagrinjamas stochastinio programavimo

Duomen apie nelaimingus atsitikimus statybos mo-
nse analiz rodo, kad pagrindins j prieastys yra
normini akt reikalavim nevykdymas, netinkamai orga-
nizuotas darbas, tai, kad nesinaudojama saugos priemo-
nmis, netinkamai organizuota darbo vieta, nepakanka-
mai rpinamasi mokymu. Darbdaviui svarbu inoti, kaip
optimaliai paskirstyti las, skirtas nelaiming atsitikim
prevencijai. Tai leist (vidutinikai arba su tam tikra tiki-
mybe) sumainti nelaiming atsitikim skaii ir kartu
sumainti socialinio draudimo imokas [18].
Praktikai daniausiai nemanoma visikai gyven-
dinti vis traum prevencijos priemoni, siekiant visi-
kai paalinti traumatizmo prieastis. Prevencijos priemo-
ni kainos danai labai didels, o vis nelaimingo
atsitikimo aplinkybi numatyti i anksto negalime, nes
jo prieastis kartais bna pats darbuotojas. Darbdaviui
svarbu inoti, kurios traum prevencijos priemons yra
efektyviausios, kaip optimaliai paskirstyti traum preven-
cijai skirtas las. inojimas, kiek traum tokiu bdu bus
ivengta (vidutinikai arba su tam tikra tikimybe) leist
palyginti ilaidas traum prevencijai su nelaiming atsi-
tikim atvejais imokam kompensacij suma [912].
udavinys, kuris modeliuoja l, skirt nelaiming atsi-
tikim statyboje prevencijai, optimalaus paskirstymo pro-
blem. Kad su norimu patikimumu gautume optimali
l, skirt nelaiming atsitikim darbe statyboje preven-
cijai, paskirstymo strategij, reikia isprsti separabeli-
nio programavimo udavin, kurio leistin plan sritis n-
ra ikilioji. Straipsnyje nustatyta io udavinio Lagrano
daugikli prasm nagrinjamai problemai bei globaliojo
ekstremumo iskyrimo taisykl. Sprendiant pavyzdius
gautos gana tikslios ir patikimos funkcins priklausomy-
bs tarp udavinio sprendinio ir jo parametr. Tai lei-
dia optimizuoti l, skirt nelaiming atsitikim darbe
statyboje, panaudojim ir parodo tiktino ivengt trau-
m skaiiaus priklausomyb nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens
ir l, skirt nelaiming atsitikim darbe statyboje pre-
vencijai, variacijos.
Skaiius traum, kurios vyks, jei vienos ar kitos
traum prevencijos priemons nevykdysime, yra atsitik-
tinis dydis, kurio pasiskirstymo dsnis ir parametrai gali
bti vertinti, remiantis duomen apie jau vykusias trau-
mas ir j prieastis statistine analize. iame darbe daro-
ma prielaida, kad ie dydiai yra pasiskirst pagal Pua-
sono dsn.

57
58 S. Vakrinien, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5763
Straipsnyje [13] optimalaus l, skirt darb sau-
gos priemonms, paskirstymo problema sprendiama
taikant stochastin programavim. Optimaliajam kriteri-
jui parinkti silomas matricinis loimas su atsitiktiniais
elementais, kurie rodo skaii traum, vykstani dl
vienoki ar kitoki saugos priemoni nebuvimo ir dar-
buotoj klaid. Los, reikalingos kiekvienai traum prie-
asiai visikai paalinti, bendruoju atveju taip pat yra
atsitiktiniai dydiai. Todl modifikuotas tiesinio progra-
mavimo udavinys minto matricinio loimo optimaliai
strategijai gauti, nagrinjamas straipsnyje [14], tampa sto-
chastinio programavimo udaviniu, kuriam surandamas
ekvivalentinis separabelinio programavimo udavinys.
Straipsnyje [15] nagrinjamas stochastinio progra-
mavimo udavinio atvejis, kai traum prevencijos prie-
moni kainos determinuotos.
io darbo tikslas yra bendresnio stochastinio pro-
gramavimo udavinio sprendinio savybi tyrimas.
Kadangi tenka sprsti separabelinio programavimo
udavin, kuris nra ikilojo programavimo udavinys, at-
siranda globalinio ekstremumo atpainimo problema, nes
artutiniais metodais gauti ekstremumai gali bti lokalieji.
Naudojant Lagrano funkcij ir Kuno-Takerio slygas
darbe rastos btinosios ir pakankamosios slygos globa-
liajam ekstremumui nustatyti.
Nagrinjamo udavinio Lagrano daugikliai turi la-
bai konkrei prasm vieni i j yra piniginio vieneto
arba konkreios prevencins priemons naudingumo
veriai (ivengt traum skaiiaus prasme), kiti atsi-
tiktini udavinio komponeni dispersij nenaudingu-
mo veriai (ta paia prasme).
Gauti sryiai tarp optimalios l traum prevenci-
jai skirtos skirstymo strategijos ir Lagrano daugikli,
tiktinai ivengto traum skaiiaus ir Lagrano daugikli
bei j priklausomyb nuo udavinio parametr. Min-
tieji sryiai sprendiant pavyzdius leido gauti gana tiks-
lias ir pakankamai patikimas funkcines priklausomybes
tarp optimali udavinio kintamj reikmi ir udavi-
nio parametr. Detaliau itirta optimalios traum preven-
cijos strategijos ir tiktino ivengt traum skaiiaus (jei
i strategij taikysime) priklausomyb nuo pasikliautinu-
mo lygmens ir traum prevencijos kain variacijos.
2. Matricinis loimas
vairi traumatizmo veiksni paalinim vadinsime
1-ja, 2-ja, ....., i-tja, ....., m-tja traum prevencijos
priemonmis.
Tarkime, kad b i yra vidutinis (per laiko vienet)
dl i-tosios prieasties, priklausanios nuo darbdavi,
vykusi traum skaiius, kuriuo, visikai gyvendinus
i-tj prevencijos priemon, galima sumainti bendr trau-
m skaii.
Asmenines, nuo darbuotoj priklausanias, traum
prieastis, tokias kaip technologinio proceso reikalavim
nesilaikymas, nesinaudojimas saugos priemonmis, neblai-
vumas ir kt., vadinsime 1-uoju, 2-uoju, ...., j-uoju, ...,
n-uoju darbo drausms paeidimais.
Tegul d ij yra j-tojo darbo drausms paeidimo
nulemto vidutinio traum, kuri galima ivengti visikai
paalinus i-tj prieast, priklausani nuo darbdavio,
skaiiaus dalis. Pavyzdiui, pakankama prieira gali tam
tikru dydiu sumainti skaii traum, susijusi su tech-
nologinio proceso paeidimais, arba saugos priemonmis
nesinaudojama danai dl to, kad j trksta.
Dydiai a ij = b i + d ij , i = 1,2, , m, j = 1,2,, n,
yra matricinio loimo matricos a ij elementai:
a11 a 12 ... a1n
a 21 a 22 ... a 2n
. (1)
... ... ... ...
a m1 a m 2 ... a mn
Matricinio loimo a ij pirmojo lojo (t. y. darb-
davio) optimali grynoji strategija (t. y. vienos konkreios
prevencijos priemons pasirinkimas) arba miri (t. y. da-
linis keli konkrei prevencijos priemoni vykdymas)
strategija garantuoja, kad nepriklausomai nuo darbuoto-
j padaryt paeidim bus ivengta vidutinikai V0 trau-
m (per laiko vienet). ia V0 yra matricinio loimo ver-
t.
Tvirtinimas, kad bus ivengta vidutinikai V0 trau-
m, remiasi prielaida, kad, sumainus dal traumas
nulmusi prieasi, proporcingai sumas i prieas-
i sukeliam traum skaiius.
Jeigu matricinis loimas a ij turi balno tak, t. y.
turi stulpel j = k, atitinkant atvej, kai darbuotojai pa-
eidim nedaro ( d ik = 0), paymkime a ik = a i = b i . Ta-
da optimali grynoji strategija rodo efektyviausi traum
prevencijos priemon, taiau i priemon gali bti per
daug brangi. Todl turime inoti, kokia yra kiekvienos
traumatizmo prieasties paalinimo kaina.
Tarkime, c i yra vidutinis kiekis l, reikaling
i-tajai traum prieasiai visikai paalinti (i = 1,2,,
m). Kai turima C l, optimal j paskirstym gautume
isprend tiesinio programavimo udavin:
max W
m
a i xi W,
i =1
m
c i xi C, (2)
i =1
0 xi 1, i = 1,2, ..., m.
Jeigu io udavinio optimalus planas yra ( x10 , x20 ,,
0
xm ) ir W 0 optimali tikslo funkcijos reikm, kiekvie-
nai prevencijos priemonei skirdami xi0 100 % vis jai
visikai vykdyti reikaling l nepriklausomai nuo
darbuotoj elgesio galsime ivengti vidutinikai ne
maiau kaip W 0 traum.
58
S. Vakrinien, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5763 59

odis vidutinikai reikia, kad ivengt traum m

skaiius gali bti ir maesnis u skaii W 0 (didesnis y 2 = a i xi2 , (4)
i =1
taip pat). Net jeigu dydiai a ij (per laiko vienet,
pavyzdiui, per metus, vykstani traum, susijusi su m 2
i-tja prieastimi i darbdavio puss, ir j-tuoju darbuotojo z 2 = i xi2 ,
padarytu paeidimu, vidutinis skaiius) gaunami remiantis i =1
daugelio met statistiniais duomenimis apie traumas ir y 0, z 0,
j prieastis, j negalima laikyti visikai determinuotais.
Todl toliau nagrinjamas rekomenduojam matematini 0 xi 1, i = 1, 2, ..., m.
metod ir gaut rezultat patikimumas.
Jeigu vidutiniai kvadratiniai nuokrypiai i ,
i = 1, 2, ..., m, nra inomi, udavin galima sprsti
3. Stochastinio programavimo udavinys pasirenkant vairias atsitiktini dydi ci variacijos
i
Tarkime, kad prevencijos priemonms visikai koeficient vi = reikmes.
ai
vykdyti reikalingi l kiekiai ci , i = 1, 2, ..., m yra Optimali tikslo funkcijos reikm W 1 yra skaiius
nepriklausomieji normuotieji atsitiktiniai dydiai, kuri traum, kuri su tikimybe, ne maesne kaip p ,
2

vidurkiai c i , i = 1, 2, ..., m, ir vidutiniai kvadratiniai ivengsime, jeigu turimas las C traum prevencijai
nuokrypiai i , i = 1, 2, ..., m. paskirstysime pagal separabelinio udavinio sprendin:

( )
2
Kad su tam tikra tikimybe p galtume teigti, jog,
X = x11, x12 , ..., x1m . (5)
optimaliai pasirinkus prevencijos priemoni finansavimo
strategij, ivengt traum skaiius bus ne maesnis u Sprendinio komponent x1i rodo, koks procentas
konkret dyd ir kad l sumos C pakaks iam vis jai reikaling l turi bti skiriamas i-tajai
prevencijos planui vykdyti, reikia sprsti stochastinio prevencijos priemonei.
programavimo udavin: iame darbe, tirdami optimalios traum prevencijos
priemoni finansavimo strategijos priklausomyb nuo
max W
patikimumo p ir prevencijos priemoni kain variacijos,
m laikysime, kad visi variacijos koeficientai vienodi:
P ai xi W p, (3) v1 = v2 = = vm = v.
i =1
Tuomet i = vci .
m
P ci xi C p,
i =1 4. Lagrano daugikliai

0 xi 1, i = 1, 2, ..., m. Separabelinio programavimo udavinio leistin plan

sritis nra ikilioji, todl artutiniais metodais gautas
ia ai yra atsitiktinis dydis traum, susijusi su sprendinys gali bti lokaliojo maksimumo takas. i
i-tja prieastimi i darbdavio puss, skaiius per laiko problema gali bti isprsta naudojant Lagrano funkcij:
vienet. Traum skaii per laiko vienet galima laikyti
Puasono atsitiktiniu dydiu, nes prog vykti traumoms m
yra daug, taiau jos (ypa sunkios ir mirtinos) vyksta L(W , x1, x2 , ..., x m , y, z ) = W 1 a i xi u p y W
i =1
gana retai. Taigi darome prielaid, kad atsitiktiniai dydiai
ai , i = 1, 2, ..., m, yra nepriklausomi ir pasiskirst pagal m m
2 c i xi u p z + C 1 y 2 a i xi2
Puasono dsn su vidurkiais a i . i =1 i =1
Straipsnyje [14] rodoma, jog tuomet stochastinio
m m
programavimo udaviniui bus ekvivalentikas is 2 z 2 v 2 ci2 xi2 (1 xi )i ,
separabelinio programavimo udavinys, kuriame yra nauji i 1 i =1
neneigiami kintamieji y ir z:
urayt minimizavimo udaviniui:
max W ,
min(W )
m
a i xi u p y W , m
i =1 a i xi u p y W ,
i =1
m
c i xi + uq z C , m
i =1 c i xi u p z C 0,
i =1

59
60 S. Vakrinien, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5763

m W = 2 C + i . (8)
y 2 a i xi2 = 0, (7) xi =1
i =1
Gautos iraikos bei sryiai tarp Lagrano daugikli
m
z 2 v 2 ci2 xi2 = 0, up 2 z 2 z
i =1 1 = , 2 = , 2 = 2 (9)
2y up 1 y
1 xi 0, i = 1, 2, ..., m, rodo, kokio pobdio priklausomyb galt bti tarp
ivengt traum skaiiaus W ir variacijos v bei kvantilio
y 0, z 0, u p (arba pasikliautinumo lygmens p).

xi 0, i = 1, 2, ..., m.
5. Stochastinio udavinio sprendinio priklausomyb
Kiekvienas Lagrano daugiklis turi konkrei
nuo udavinio parametr
prasm:
1 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsius las traum Taikant programins rangos SAS/OR netiesinio
prevencijai, padids ivengt traum skaiius, jei optimizavimo procedr NLP buvo isprstas didelis
pirmojo apribojimo laisvasis narys padids vienetu; skaiius pavyzdi, kuriuose parametrai p, v, ai, ci ir C
2 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsius las traum buvo keiiami. Remiantis i pavyzdi sprendiniais
prevencijai, padids ivengt traum skaiius, jei maiausij kvadrat metodu buvo gauti funkciniai
skirstoma suma C padids vienu piniginiu vienetu; sryiai:
1 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsius las traum
m m m m
prevencijai, sumas ivengt traum skaiius, jei ai ci ; C p; p ai ; ci p; v 2 ci2 ;
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
m
W = F (10)
atsitiktinio dydio ai xi dispersija padids vienetu; m
a C
i =1 i
2 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsius las traum i =1
prevencijai, sumas ivengt traum skaiius, jei
m m m m
m ai ci ; C p ; p ai ; ci p; v 2 ci2;
atsitiktinio dydio ci xi dispersija padids vienetu; i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 (11)
i =1 xi = G
m
I rodo, kokio traum skaiiaus ivengsime, jei a C; a c , i = 1, 2 , ...,m
i-toji traum prevencijos priemon bus pakankamai i i i
i =1
finansuojama, t. y. kai optimalus xi = 1.
Naudodami Kuno-Takerio slygas iam netiesinio kurie leidia kintamuosius W ir xi rasti su vidutinmis
programavimo udaviniui su neneigiamais kintamaisiais paklaidomis 1,8 ir 0,17 bei determinacijos koeficientais
gauname ivadas: atitinkamai 0,83 ir 0,70. Konkreiam udaviniui, kai ai
1) sprendinyje Lagrano daugikliai 1 ir 2 yra ir ci fiksuoti, analogiki funkciniai sryiai yra tikslesni
teigiami, o daugikliai 1 ir 2 neigiami; (vidutins paklaidos 1,09 ir 0,10) ir patikimesni
2) globalusis ekstremumas gaunamas tada ir tik tada, (determinacijos koeficientai 0,98 ir 0,90).

kai 1 = 1 (didiausia galimoji reikm), o 1 ir 2

6. Rezultat analiz
reikms minimalios;
3) optimalusis xi ireikiamas formule: Lentelje ir grafikuose pateikti duomenys iliustruoja
optimalios traum prevencijos strategijos bei traum
2 ci ai skaiiaus, kurio ivengsime (su tikimybe p) j naudodami,
xi = , kai 0 < xi < 1 ,
2(1ai + 2 v 2ci2 ) priklausomyb nuo prevencijos kain variacijos v ir
i = 1, 2, ..., m; pasikliautinumo lygmens p. Jiems gauti buvo naudojami
minti funkciniai sryiai konkreiam udaviniui tuo
ai atveju, kai turime 50 % vis traum prevencijai reikiam
4) optimalusis xi = 0, kai 2 ;
ci l. Analizuodami iuos grafikus galime padaryti kelet
5) kai optimalusis xi = 1, tai ivad. Lentels, kurioje pateikta traum prevencijos
strategijos priklausomyb nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens
i = ai 2 ci + 2( 1 ai + 2 v 2 ci2 ; p, duomenys rodo, kad, nordami gauti didesn patiki-
6) optimali tikslo funkcijos reikm (didiausias su mum p, traum prevencijai turtume tolygiai paskirstyti
pasikliautinumo lygmeniu p tiktinas skaiius traum, las. Esant maai prevencijos priemoni kainos variacijai
kuri bus galima ivengti) ireikiama formule: (1 %), i tendencija irykja pradedant pasikliautinumo
lygmeniu p = 0,7, o kai variacija v didel jau nuo
p = 0,6. Kit duomen analiz pateikiama grafikuose.

60
S. Vakrinien, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5763 61

Traum prevencijos strategijos priklausomyb nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens p

Subjection of injury prevention strategy to confidence level p
Pasikliautinumo

Kai prevencijos priemoni kain variacija V=0,01 Kai prevencijos priemoni kain variacija V=0,4
lygmuo p

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X1 X2 X3 X4 X5

0,50 1 0 0,468 1 0 1 0 0,325 1 0

0,53 1 0 0,454 1 0 1 0 0,311 1 0
0,55 1 0 0,442 1 0 1 0 0,298 1 0
0,58 1 0 0,431 1 0 1 0 0,288 1 0
0,60 1 0 0,422 1 0 1 0 0,278 1 0
0,63 1 0 0,413 1 0 1 0 0,270 1 0,007
0,65 1 0 0,407 1 0 1 0 0,263 1 0,037
0,68 1 0 0,401 1 0,005 1 0 0,257 1 0,066
0,70 1 0 0,396 1 0,033 1 0 0,252 1 0,094
0,73 1 0 0,391 1 0,060 1 0,005 0,248 0,974 0,121
0,75 1 0 0,388 1 0,086 1 0,037 0,245 0,942 0,147
0,78 1 0 0,385 1 0,111 1 0,071 0,242 0,907 0,172
0,80 1 0 0,383 1 0,136 1 0,107 0,240 0,869 0,197
0,83 1 0,012 0,381 0,966 0,159 1 0,143 0,238 0,828 0,220
0,85 1 0,049 0,380 0,922 0,183 1 0,181 0,237 0,785 0,243
0,88 1 0,082 0,379 0,876 0,205 0,987 0,219 0,236 0,739 0,266
0,90 1 0,128 0,379 0,828 0,227 0,906 0,259 0,236 0,691 0,288
0,93 0,957 0,168 0,379 0,778 0,249 0,822 0,299 0,236 0,641 0,310
0,95 0,872 0,209 0,379 0,726 0,270 0,737 0,340 0,236 0,589 0,331
0,98 0,785 0,2508 0,379 0,672 0,291 0,650 0,382 0,237 0,535 0,352

xi
Xi 1,2
1,2
1
1

0,8 0,8

0,6 0,6

0,4 0,4

0,2 0,2

0 V
0 V
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

2 pav. Traum prevencijos strategijos priklausomyb nuo

1 pav. Traum prevencijos strategijos priklausomyb nuo
prevencijos priemoni kainos variacijos, kai p = 0,9
prevencijos priemoni kainos variacijos, kai p = 0,8
Fig 2. Subjection of injury prevention strategy to varia-
Fig 1. Subjection of injury prevention strategy to varia-
tion of prevention measures costs, if p = 0,9
tion of prevention measures costs, if p = 0,8

4 ir 5 pav. grafikai rodo, kad tiktinas ivengt

13 pav. grafikai rodo, kad, didjant prevencijos
traum skaiius maja tiek didjant pasikliautinumo
priemoni kain variacijai, optimalus l traum
lygmeniui p, tiek ir didjant prevencijos priemoni kainos
prevencijai paskirstymas tampa tolygesnis, ypa kai
variacijai v, o juo labiau didjant abiem iems para-
norime gauti didel pasikliautinumo lygmen p. Visais
metrams. Priklausomyb nuo patikimumo p stipresn; su
atvejais reikminga tik tokia variacija, kuri yra ne
tikimybe p = 0,99 galime tiktis perpus maesnio ivengt
maesn kaip 10 %.
traum skaiiaus negu su tikimybe p = 0,7 (tuo atveju,

61
62 S. Vakrinien, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 5763

xi W
0,8
16
0,7
14
0,6
12
0,5
10
0,4
8
0,3
6
0,2
4
0,1
2
V
0
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 p
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
V=0,001 V=0,2 V=0,4

3 pav. Traum prevencijos strategijos priklausomyb nuo 5 pav. Ivengt traum skaiiaus priklausomyb nuo
prevencijos priemoni kainos variacijos, kai p = 0,999 pasikliautinumo lygmens p, kai traum prevencijos kain
Fig 3. Subjection of injury prevention strategy to varia- variacija V skirtinga
tion of prevention measures costs, if p = 0,999 Fig 5. Subjection of number of avoided injury to confi-
dence level p if variation of injury prevention costs V dif-
W
fers
16
14
Skaiiams ai padidjus 10 ar net 100 kart,
tikimybs p ir variacijos v taka optimaliai traum
12 prevencijos strategijai ilieka. Taiau tam, kad prioritetai
10 pasikeist, turi bti vis didesns p ir v reikms. Todl
siloma metodika ir optimalumo principas gerai tinka ne
8 tik sunki ir mirtin traum (kuri bna nedaug), bet ir
6 nesunki traum (kuri bna daug) prevencijai planuoti.
4
2 Literatra

0 V 1. yras, P.; ukys, R.; Jakutis, A.; Nainys, V. Investigation

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
p=0,6 p=0,8
4 pav. Ivengt traum skaiiaus priklausomyb nuo
traum prevencijos kain variacijos, kai pasikliautinumo
lygmuo p skirtingas
Fig 4. Subjection of number of avoided injury to varia-
tion of injury prevention costs if the confidence level p
differs
kai variacija didel, t. y. v = 0,4). Variacijos koeficientas
reikmingas tiktai bdamas didesnis kaip 20 %.
Straipsnyje [15], kuriame analogikos problemos
sprendiamos esant determinuotoms traum prevencijos
kainoms, pastebtas faktas, jog tuo atveju, kai skaiiai
ai yra dideli, optimali traum prevencijos strategija
keiiasi tik esant labai dideliam patikimumui p (arti
vieneto). is teiginys nra teisingas atsitiktini kain
atveju.
0,6 of European Union directives, about workers health and
safety protection at work, influence on Lithuanian economy.
Health Sciences (Sveikatos mokslai), No 7 (30), 2002, p. 6
p=0,99 10 (in Lithuanian).
2. ukys, R.; yras, P.; Jakutis, A.; Pasa, A. R. Investigat-
ing consequences of directives 92/57/EEC Implementa-
tion of minimum safety and health requirements at tempo-
rary or mobile constructions sites, implementation
(Direktyvos 92/57/EEB Dl minimali saugos ir sveikatos
reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybos
aiktelse gyvendinimo pasekmi tyrimas). In: National
health councils yearly report (Nacionalins sveikatos
tarybos metinis praneimas), 2003, p. 2932 (in Lithuanian).
3. yras, P.; Juozulynas, A.; Nainys, V.; ukys, R. Strategy
of occupational health and safety in years 20042006.
Health Sciences (Sveikatos mokslai), No 8 (31), p. 1823
(in Lithuanian).
4. yras, P.; Jakutis, A.; Rutkauskas, A. V.; ukys, R. Imple-
menting directives about health and safety at work in
Lithuania: analysing expenses. Technological and economic
development of economy (kio technologinis ir ekonominis
vystymas), 2003, Vol 9, No 2, p. 6066 (in Lithuanian).

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5. yras, P.; Rutkauskas, A.; ukys, R.; Jakutis, A.; Nainys, V.
Investigating consequences of European Union directives
Concerning the minimum safety and health requirements
for the workplace 89/654/EEC implementation (ES Tarybos
direktyvos 89/654/EEB Dl minimali darbovietei taikom
saugos ir sveikatos reikalavim gyvendinimo pasekmi
tyrimas), 2000. 44 p. (in Lithuanian).
6. yras, P.; ukys, R.; Jakutis, A.; Pasa, A. R. Investigat-
ing consequences of EU Council Directives Implementa-
tion of minimum safety and health requirements at tempo-
rary or mobile constructions sites (eight separate direc-
tive, as described and Directives 89/391/EEC 16 clause, 1
part) implementation (1992 m. birelio 24 d. ES Tarybos
Direktyvos 92/57/EEB Dl minimali saugos ir sveikatos
reikalavim laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybvietse
(atuntoji atskiroji direktyva, kaip apibrta Direktyvos
89/391/EEB 16 straipsnio 1 dalyje) gyvendinimo pasekmi
tyrimas), 2001. 46 p. (in Lithuanian).
7. yras, P.; ukys, R.; Jakutis, A. Estimating social and eco-
nomical consequences of accidents and occupational dis-
eases at work, and preparing prevention measures and rec-
ommendations for economical work areas (Profesini lig
ir nelaiming atsitikim darbe ekonomini ir socialini
pasekmi nustatymas ir prevencini priemoni bei reko-
mendacij ekonomins veiklos sritims parengimas), 2003.
47 p. (in Lithuanian).
8. yras, P.; ukys, R.; Nainys, V. Occupational health and
safety programs for years 2004/2006-project preparation
according to European Communitys occupational health and
safety strategy for years 2002/2006 (Profesins saugos ir
sveikatos programos 20042006 m. projekto parengimas
63
63
pagal Europos Bendrij profesins saugos ir sveikatos
strategij 20022006 m), 2003. 40 p. (in Lithuanian).
9. Charalambos, D. Stochastic nonlinear minimax dynamic
games with noisy measurements. In: IEEE Transactions
on Automatic Control, Vol 48, No 2, 2003, p. 261267.
10. Qinru Qiu, Qing, Wu, Massoud Pedram. Stochastic mod-
elling of a power-managed system - construction and op-
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sign of integrated circuits and systems, Vol 20, No 10,
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11. Dempster, M. A. H.; Pedron, N. H.; Medova, E. A., Scott,
J. E.; Sembos, A. Planning logistics operations in the oil
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2000, p. 12711289.
12. McKnight, J. G. R. Why did employee health insurance
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(Lietuvos matematikos rinkinys), 2003, Vol 42, No 16,
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p. 6871 (in Lithuanian).
 65

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 6570

IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEMS POLYHARMONIC

OSCILLATIONS

Viktorija Volkova
Dnepropetrovsk National University of Railway Transport named after Academician Lazarjan, 2 Lazarjan St,
Dnepropetrovsk, UA-49010 Ukraine. E-mail: drvev@pisem.net
Received 2 Apr 2004; accepted 16 June 2004

Abstract. An analytical investigation of oscillations is a necessity of construction of mathematical model. The data of
technical drawings, descriptions and other documentation about frame and values of parameters might be used for this
purpose. However, in some cases this information can be insufficient. The methods of systems identification are effec-
tive.
Keywords: identification, phase trajectories, polyharmonic oscillations, non-linear dynamic systems.

1. Introduction 2. Application of the phase diagrams to investigation

The qualitative investigation of a dynamic system
behaviour is reduced to the analysis of behaviour of tra-
jectories in a phase space. Fundamentals of the qualita-
tive theory of dynamic processes were built by Poincar.
The exclusive role in development of qualitative method
of testing dynamic systems belongs to Andronov A. A.
[1], Leontovich E. A., Gordon I. I. Primary goal of the
classic theory of qualitative investigation is the defini-
tion of dynamic properties of systems without obtaining
the precise analytical solution. The phase trajectories on
a plane ( y, y& ) were widely used for this purpose.
Lets note that the phase space of dynamic systems
is multidimensional. Other choice of phase plane param-
eters is also possible. For the first time, an attempt to
apply phase trajectories on planes ( y, &y&) and ( y& , &y&) to
the investigation of dynamic systems was made in the
monograph [2]. As follows from the obtained results, the
phase trajectories on a plane ( y, &y&) can be effectively
used for identification of dynamic systems. In the mono-
graph [3] the results of qualitative investigation of oscil-
lations of conservative systems having non-linear dissi-
pative and elastic characteristics of different types are
shown.
The purpose of this paper is the analysis of dynamic
behaviour of asymmetrical systems with the piecewise
linear elastic characteristic, obtained of time processes
and phase trajectories ( y, &y&) and ( y& , &y&) for different
oscillatory regimes.
of oscillatory processes
The phase trajectories on a plane ( y, &y&) is of great-
est interest. It is connected with the fact that the power
relations on it are interpreted most visually. Besides, the
relation &y&( y ) is back symmetrical relative an axis y to
the diagrams of elastic properties change. For example,
in Fig 1 the diagrams of change of the elastic character-
istic and accelerations for a system with backlash are
presented. The phase trajectories &y&( y ) allow to estab-
lish the type and level of system non-linearity.
It is known that accelerations of points are more
sensitive to deviations of oscillations from harmonic. We
compare linear system to non-linear symmetric system
with double-well potential (buckling). It should be noted
that the oscillograms of these systems at some regimes
of oscillations at the excitement frequency are similar,
but accelelograms are different. So, accelelogram of lin-
ear system looks like a harmonic process, and asymmetri-
cal system with double-well potential like sawtooth
type [2].
The major difficulty of formation of phase trajecto-
ries &y& ( y ) and &y& ( y& ) consists in the necessity to exclude
parameter of time t from the appropriate dependencies.
It is not always possible to perform this operation ana-
lytically. The majority of measuring devices register the
changes of displacements, velocities and accelerations of
investigated systems points in time. Sanitary and techno-
logical norms bring restrictions in values of these pa-
rameters. Accepting consistently appropriate pairs of
parameter values y (t ) and y (t ) or y (t ) and y& (t ) , it is
possible to obtain phase characteristic data (Fig 2).

65
66 V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 6570

&y&
R (y)

y y

Fig 1. Change of elastic properties and acceleration for system with backlash

&y&

y
&y&

t Fig 2. Formation of phase trajectory

3. Differential equation of forced oscillations of

systems with the asymmetrical piecewise linear
characteristic
The differential equation of forced oscillations has
a view
y + y& + R ( y ) = F (t ) ,
where y is generalised co-ordinate, R ( y ) is elastic char-
acteristic, is friction coefficient; F (t ) function of
an outer excitement.
Let us focus our consideration on a case of an asym-
metrical biharmonic excitement. We assume that the char-
acteristic of an outer polyharmonic excitement has the
following form
F (t ) = F1 cos (1 t ) + Fm cos (m t ), m = 1, 2, 3K. (2)
It is known that the characteristic of an outer ex-
citement is a periodic function of time t only in case of
multiple frequencies, ie m = 1 , = 0, 1, 2, 3, K . It
should be noted that the appearance of stationary oscil-
lations is possible only under a periodic excitation. There-
fore we shall study the cases of multiple frequencies.
By values = 0 and = 1 the formula (2) describes
a harmonic excitement with frequency and amplitudes
F 1 and F1 + Fm respectively.
Let's assume that the elastic characteristic is asym-
metrical and changes under the law
(1) 1 y , y 0 ;
R (y) = (3)
2 y , y > 0.
It is known [4, 5], that the natural frequency of dy-
namic systems with the bilinear elastic characteristic does
not depend on initial conditions. It equals
21 2
0 = , (4)
1 + 2
where 1 = 1 and 2 = 2 .
Despite this fact, the installation of sub- and
ultraharmonic is possible. These oscillations are reshaped
on the basis of free oscillations of a system, which are
supported by an outer driving force (Fig 3).
As against symmetrical systems with piecewise lin-
ear elastic characteristics, stable conditions sub- (0 2 )

66
V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 6570 67

3
AMPLITUDE, M

/ 2 /3

FREQUENCY, RAD/S

Fig 3. An amplitude-frequency characteristic of forced oscillations of an asymmetrical system with the piecewise linear elastic
1 2
characteristic. = 0,1 s , 1 = 10,8 s 1, 2 = 40,8 s 1 , F1 = 0,15 m s , F2 = 0,15 ms , = 3
2

and ultraharmonic (2 0 ; 40 ) of oscillations on even
harmonics here will be realised.
4. Technique of hybrid modelling
The hybrid computing complexes (HCC) present the
synthesis of analog and numerical computers. They pos-
sess the speed of the analog and the precision of the
numerical computers at the large volume of memory.
HCC gives the posibility to observe visually the com-
puting process during the investigations by means of os-
cillographs, self-recorders, etc [6]. Besides, it is possible
to change the parameters of the investigated system in
the process of computing. The investigation of the forced
oscillation systems with buckling was carried out on the
HCC produced on the base of the IBM PC and analog
computer ACC-31 with the signal generator of special
shape. The maximum output signal constitutes 10 V at
the frequency range 0,00110 KHz. The double-trace
oscillograph C1-99 was used for visual observation of
the computing process electric signals from the major
amplifier outputs. The results of the non-linear differen-
tial equation system integration were transmitted by
means of the interface devices on IBM PC.
The standard mathematical securing is used for the
analogtodigital converter functioning. The information,
put into IBM PC, is stored in the hard disk in text file
form. The spectral characteristics of the oscillating pro-
cesses are obtained by means of the standard programme
of the fast Fourier transformation. The standard graphic
programme complex is used for the graphic formation of
the dynamic processes. The usage of HCC is described
further after the definite example.
5. Analysis of results
As contrasted to the system with the linear elastic
characteristic, the studied system has a large number of
resonance frequency ranges. The oscillations on frequency
of a excitement, and also oscillation on either higher or
lower frequencies developed.
The following parameters of a dynamic system (1)
are adopted: = 0,1 s 1 ; 1 = 10,8 s 1 ; 2 = 40,8 s 1 ;
F1 = 0,15 m s 2 ; F2 = 0,15 ms 2 ; = 3 .
Let us compare the dynamic behaviour of the sys-
tem under study (1) with ones of the following systems
&y& + y& + R ( y ) = F1 cos(1 t ), (5.a)
&y& + y& + R ( y ) = Fm cos(m t ). (5.b)
The amplitude-frequency characteristic of an equa-
tion (1) is shown in Fig 3. Here two resonance zones
related to resonances for each of harmonics of an outer
excitement are sharply expressed. The skeleton curve of

67
68 V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 6570

the given system is a straight line on frequency
0 = 4,33 rad s . Their comparison with amplitude-fre-
quency characteristics for systems (4.a) and (4.b) in the
range of a main resonance (Fig 3) demonstrates rather
close coincidence of oscillation parameters with reso-
nance-inducing harmonic. In the range of the second reso-
nance an insignificant extension of frequency range and
amplitude increase for the system (4.b) are observed.
The characteristics of subharmonic resonance of the
order 2 for systems (1) and (4.a) are similar, while
insignificant expanding of frequency range of a
subharmonic oscillation on frequency 3 for a case of
a biharmonic excitement is observed (Fig 3).
Thus it is possible to conclude that the amplitude-
frequency characteristic can be obtained for some ranges
with an adequate accuracy in analysis of systems with
simpler structure of an outer excitement.
The existence of two harmonics of an outer excite-
ment results in changes in the structure of periodic re-
gimes. These changes basically are inherent in the fre-
quency range below the main resonance and lead, first
of all, to the change of the orders of sub-ultraharmonic
tones being manifested.
In the interval between the main and the second fre-
quency ranges of a system (1), the resonance oscilla-
tions of order ( + 1) are sharply manifested. Let's
note that in the given range the oscillations on frequency
become unstable, and here a pair of subharmonic oscil-
lations of frequency of order appears. One of them
is resonant and another is non-resonant. Oscillation am-
plitude on a harmonic ( + 1) increases rapidly, and
even exceeds oscillation amplitude of fundamental fre-
quency . Despite the large steepness of the conform-
ing segments of amplitude-frequency characteristics, the
investigation of these types of oscillations by numerical
methods is difficult [7].
Presence of isolated frequency ranges, manifestation
of additional sub- and ultraharmonic oscillations are con-
nected with the fact that the natural frequency of essen-
tially non-linear systems depends on the parameters of a
rather large number of harmonics which are parts of the
solution [8].
The steady branches of an amplitude-frequency char-
acteristic of a system (1) can be divided into five fre-
quency ranges. The time processes, spectral characteris-
tics and phase trajectories on planes ( y, y& ) , ( y, &y&) and
( y& , &y&) for each one have been obtained.
Range I ( = 0 3 rad s ) is a domain of superposi-
tion of ultraharmonic oscillations of order on oscil-
lations of a fundamental tone, both at increasing and
decreasing the basic excitement frequencyv (Fig 4).
Range II ( = 3 7rad s ) is characterised by the
stall of resonant oscillations on the fundamental tone.

a) b)

Fig 4. Time processes, spectral characteristics and phase trajectories of a symmetrical system with the piecewise linear elastic
characteristic. Range I: a) monoharmonic excitement; b) biharmonic excitement

68
V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 6570
Range III ( = 7 11rad s ) demonstrates subharmo-
nic oscillations of orders 2 . It is worth noting that
the oscillations on even harmonics are steady due to the
asymmetrical system. The amplitudes of a resonant sub-
harmonic oscillation are commensurable with the ampli-
tudes of resonance oscillations of a fundamental tone.
Range IV ( = 11 14 rad s ) is a domain of sub-
harmonic oscillations of order 3 , both at increasing
and decreasing frequency of an excitement (Fig 5).
Range V ( > 14 rad s ) is an after-resonance do-
main, where the only "small" oscillations are realizable.
In Figs 4a, 5a and the time processes, spectral char-
acteristics and related phase trajectories for a system (4a)
for the same frequencies of the lowest harmonic are
shown.
The analysis of relations of dynamic parameters
presented in Figs 4, 5 allows to mark the following. The
influence of sub- and super-harmonic oscillations results
in change of time processes (t , &y&) . It has poly-harmonic
nature. Sub- and super-harmonics cause the appearance
of additional closed loops on phase trajectories.
The spectral content of the solution can vary in car-
dinal way with changing a frequency of an outer excite-
ment. It follows from the analysis of given amplitude-
frequency characteristics and spectral characteristics of
a few time processes. The biharmonic outer excitement
promotes such changes of the spectral content. By vary-
ing the dependencies of outer excitement change, it is
possible either to achieve the required frequency ranges
or to exclude the undesirable ones. It creates the basis
a)
Fig 5. Time processes, spectral characteristics and phase trajectories of a symmetrical system with the piecewise linear
elastic characteristic. Range IV: a) monoharmonic excitement; b) biharmonic excitement
69
69
for designing structural elements, for which the regular
dynamic regimes can be specified initially.
6. Conclusions
The analysis of results obtained allows to make a
conclusion that the systems with non-linear elastic char-
acteristics are rather sensitive to the dependence on an
outer excitement change. Therefore the widely used as-
sumptions about the monoharmonic dependence of an
outer excitement change in studies of actual mechanical
systems are not always correct. Thus rather small devia-
tions of the outer excitement form from monoharmonic
does not make considerable effect within wide ranges of
frequencies (resonances of frequencies and 3 ) but
can result in qualitative changes in other ranges The de-
velopment of qualitative methods of investigation of dy-
namic systems suggested by the authors is an effective
means of analysis and identification of dynamic systems.
Simultaneous use of all three types of signals. registered
in time, namely displacement, velocity and acceleration
allows to expand considerably the opportunities of tradi-
tional methods of investigation.
Unlike the existing asymptotic and stochastic meth-
ods [9, 10] of identification of dynamic systems, the
use of the suggested technique is not connected with the
use of a significant amount of computing procedures, and
also has a number of advantages when investigating the
explosive oscillations.
b)
70 V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 6570

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 71

ISSN 13923730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178

DAUGIAKRITERINS NEKILNOJAMOJO TURTO ELEKTRONINS PREKYBOS

SISTEMOS TAIKYMO YPATUMAI

Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Artras Kaklauskas, Saulius Raslanas, Mindaugas Krutinis

Statybos technologijos ir vadybos katedra, Statybos ekonomikos ir nekilnojamojo turto vadybos katedra, Vilniaus
Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saultekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva.
E-patas: property@st.vtu.lt
teikta 2003 11 27; priimta 2004 05 06

Santrauka. Viena i pagrindini internetini informacini sistem problem yra ta, jog jose sunku rasti reikiam gamin
ar paslaug. Internete siloma tkstaniai to paties gaminio ar paslaugos ri. Juos vartotojas paprastai nori palyginti
su kitais panaiais gaminiais ar paslaugomis. Analogik pasilym palyginim galima atlikti iais bdais, tai gamini
paieka hipertekstiniuose dokumentuose pagal tarpininkus, alternatyvi gamini paieka duomen bazse, alternatyvi
gamini paieka ir sugretinimas lentelse, alternatyvi gamini ir paslaug paieka vairiose elektronins prekybos
svetainse, paieka ir daugiakriterini sprendim primimas. Autoriai sukr internetin daugiakriterin nekilnojamojo
turto elektronins prekybos (NTEP) sistem. Pateikta NTEP sistema gali padidinti nekilnojamojo turto vert iais bdais:
i sistema vartotojams gali padti nustatyti savo poreikius, nustatyti j poreikius atitinkant nekilnojamj turt, palyginti
ir vertinti vairius silomus nekilnojamojo turto variantus, padti vartotojams vertinti nekilnojamojo turto naudingum
j sigijus ir pan.
Raktaodiai: internetins informacins sistemos, NTEP sistema, daugiakriterin analiz.

1. vadas aspektus (ekonominius, kokybinius, techninius, teisinius,

Dauguma elektronins prekybos sistem bando rasti
ekonomikiausius sprendimus daugiausia siekdamos tik
ekonomini tiksl [14]. Todl daugelis elektronins pre-
kybos sistem apdoroja ir teikia tik ekonomin informa-
cij bei taiko ekonominius modelius. Taiau nagrinja-
mas alternatyvas danai reikia vertinti ne tik ekonominiu,
bet taip pat ir kokybiniu, techniniu, teisiniu, socialiniu ir
kitokiu atvilgiu [57]. Kuriant silom sistem buvo
stengiamasi ivengti i ir kit sistem trkum.
2. Daugiakriterins nekilnojamojo turto elektronins
prekybos sistemos apraymas
Remiantis informacini, ekspertini, sprendim pa-
ramos ir elektronins prekybos sistem analize buvo su-
kurta daugiakriterin nekilnojamojo turto elektronins pre-
kybos (NTEP) sistema, kurios trumpas apraymas
pateiktas iame straipsnyje [89]. i sistema sudaryta i
duomen bazs bei duomen bazs valdymo sistemos,
modeli bazs bei modeli bazs valdymo sistemos ir
vartotojo interfeiso.
Duomen bazje (http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/
TEORIJA/teorija1.htm) nekilnojamj turt apraant kie-
kybine ir koncepcine formomis, pateikiama vairius jo
socialinius, ekologinius ir pan.) apibdinanti informacija
[10]. Ji gali bti pateikta skaitmenine, tekstine, grafine
forma (schemos, grafikai, diagramos, briniai), tai gali
bti formuls, nuotraukos, garso ar vaizdo raai. Rem-
damasi ia informacija NTEP sistema gali vertinti ne-
kilnojamj turt vairiais aspektais (t.y. rinkos verts,
investicins verts, esamo naudojimo rinkos verts ir kt.
veri nustatymas); ji gali vertinti atskirus kriterijus, tu-
rinius takos vertei (pavyzdiui, nekilnojamojo turto vie-
tos, nusidvjimo, pasilos, paklausos ir pan. vertinimas),
nustatyti optimalaus panaudojimo variant (pavyzdiui,
pirkjas bst renkasi maksimaliai tenkindamas gyveni-
mo btinumo, komfortikumo bei asmeninius poreikius)
(http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/TEORIJA/teorija1.htm).
Kadangi nekilnojamj turt racionalu vertinti vairiais as-
pektais, todl tarp sprendim paramos sistemos modeli
yra toki, kurie sprendim primjui padeda atlikti kom-
pleksin alternatyv analiz ir priimti sprendim. Pavyz-
diui, teigiamas ir neigiamas nagrinjam alternatyv sa-
vybes galima detaliai ianalizuoti remiantis apskaiiuotais
kriterij reikmingumais, j prioritetikumo, naudingumo
laipsnio ir rinkos veri reikmmis.
NTEP sistemos pagrindinis voratinklio svetains
tinklalapis (http://193.219.145.99) turi nuorodas kitus
tinklalapius:

71
72 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178
Teorijos voratinklio tinklalapis (http://
193.219.145.99/PROJ2/TEORIJA/teorija1.htm).
Jame pateikta autori pasilyta teorija, kuria remian-
tis buvo sukurta NTEP sistema.
Darbo su sistema instrukcijos voratinklio tinklalapis
(http://193.219.145.99/proj2/help2.pdf). Remiantis
iomis instrukcijomis gana nesudtinga praktikai
naudotis NTEP sistema.
Sistemos galimybi apraymo voratinklio tinklala-
pis (http://193.219.145.99/proj2/help1.pdf). iame
voratinklio tinklalapyje trumpai apraytos suintere-
suotosios grups, kurios savo praktinje veikloje gali
naudotis NTEP sistema ir sistemos galimybmis.
Komercini pastat voratinklio tinklalapis (http://
193.219.145.99/PROJ2/PARDUOT/parduot.htm).
Vienbui gyvenamj nam voratinklio tinklalapis
(http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/NAMAI/namai.htm).
Sodyb voratinklio tinklalapis (http://193.219.145.99/
PROJ2/SODYBOS2/sodybos2_1.htm).
ios nuorodos irykintos. Norint pasinaudoti nuo-
roda, reikia paspausti irykint viet.
Taip atsiranda daugyb Lietuvos nekilnojamojo tur-
to rinkos dalyvi (pardavjai, tarpininkai, agentai, inves-
tuotojai, vairios organizacijos, mons, bankai, kitos fi-
nans institucijos ir kt. kreditoriai, draudimo kompanijos,
pirkjai, vertintojai, teismai), kurie nori turti isami in-
formacij apie objektus, silomus rinkoje [11]. ios su-
interesuotosios grups savo praktinje veikloje taikyda-
mos NTEP sistem savo tikslus gyvendint operatyviau
ir profesionaliau.
Ateityje tobulinant NTEP sistem numatoma prapls-
ti pagrindins tikslins naudojimo paskirties nekilnoja-
mojo turto duomen baz, sudaryti galimyb atlikti jo
perleidimo operacijas (nuomos, lizingo, dovanojimo, pir-
kimo ir pardavimo), sumokti u j, patikrinti, ar sumo-
kta u j, gauti informacijos apie kliento asmenin s-
skait (patikrinti, ar joje yra reikiama pinig suma), keistis
informacija (skelbim lenta, diskusij forumai, reklama,
laik dut, straipsniai, kita informacija). Kadangi in-
formacija apie silom nekilnojamj turt nuolatos kei-
iasi, todl naujausios informacijos reikia iekoti agen-
tr ir kit suinteresuot grupi tinklalapiuose. Todl
numatoma pateikti nuorodas ir suinteresuot grupi Web
mazgus. Be to, numatoma pateikti informacij apie turto
vertintoj, agentr ir kit asociacij veikl, dti vai-
rius skelbimus, informacij apie padt rinkoje, jos po-
kyius ir prognozes ateiiai, apie leidiamus periodinius
informacinius biuletenius, kit naujausi vartotojams r-
pim informacij.
3. Praktinis pavyzdys
Kad bt lengviau suvokti daugiakriterin nekilno-
jamojo turto analizs esm, pateikiamas jos taikymo pa-
vyzdys [12]. Udavinys nustatyti poilsio sodybos rin-
kos vert, esant lyginamj ir vertinamojo objekto
kiekybiniams, kokybiniams skirtumams, taip pat nustaty-
72
ti vertinamojo objekto ir parduot objekt (lyginamj
objekt) konkurencingum.
2003 m. balandio mnes nekilnojamojo turto rin-
koje buvo siloma parduoti ems sklyp su pastatais
poilsio sodybai kurti. Kliento pageidavimu nekilnoja-
mj turt reikjo vertinti rinkos verte. Tuo metu nekil-
nojamojo turto rinkos aktyvumas didjo, parduot lygi-
namj objekt netrko, todl jie iam vertinimui buvo
parinkti i to paties rajono. iuo atveju apskaiiuota ly-
ginamoji vert lygi rinkos vertei, be to, vertinti visi kri-
terijai, darantys tak ios nekilnojamojo turto ries rin-
kos vertei. Kriterij reikms ir pradiniai reikmingumai
buvo vertinti padedant nekilnojamojo turto ekspertams
ir atsivelgiant turtu suinteresuot asmen nuomon.
3.1. Koncepcinis vertinamojo ir lyginamj nekilno-
jamojo turto objekt apraymas
3.1.1. Pirmosios (vertinamosios) poilsio sodybos kon-
cepcinis apraymas
Vietovs apraymas. Sodyba yra Anomislio kaime,
Toliej seninijoje, Molt rajone (1 pav.). Artimiausias
kaimynas u 500 m iaur nuo sodybos. U 600 m
rytus nuo sodybos yra graus Jaurio eeras. Iki miko
100 m. Privaiuojamieji keliai geri: 4 km ilgio vyrke-
lis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyvenviet
Toliejai yra u 2 km. Moltai u 12 km. Vilnius u
72 km.
1 pav. Vertinamoji poilsin sodyba
ems sklypas. ems sklypo plotas 1 ha. Usta-
tyta pastatais 0,20 ha, visa kita ems kio naudme-
nos ir sodas. Sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, kinis pa-
statas, pirtis, darin, nedidelis tvenkinys ir lapuoi
mikelis. Sodas senas.
Pastat fizins charakteristikos. Visi minti pastatai
yra ikikarins statybos, iskyrus kin pastat. Gyvena-
masis namas vieno aukto, medinis, i rst, apkaltas
aliuote. Bendras plotas 80 m2. Namas buvo gerai pri-
irimas, remontuojamas. Jam reikt rekonstrukcijos
E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178
arba nedidelio remonto. Darin taip pat statyta i rst.
Jo bkl patenkinama (reikt kapitalinio remonto arba
rekonstrukcijos). kinis pastatas isilaiks gerai, todl jam
reikt nedidelio remonto. Pirties bkl gera. Ji buvo re-
konstruota 1992 m.
Patogumai. Elektra yra tik gyvenamajame pastate.
ildoma krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefono nra. Kieme
stovi ulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitut ems sklype nra. Yra ap-
ribojim pagal LR Vyriausybs nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyri dl vandens telkini pakrants apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas 0,05 ha.
ems sklypo padties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lt (rajono centro) 12 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
ts 3 km. Privaiuojama prie ems sklypo nuo gyven-
viets vyrkeliu 3 km. Sklypas yra graioje vietoje.
Galima usiimti kine veikla (alia yra laisvos valstybi-
ns ems), kaimo turizmu. Aplinka neuterta, vieta
rami.
3.1.2. Antrosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo objekto)
koncepcinis apraymas
Vietovs apraymas. Sodyba yra Migiki kaime,
Balnink seninijoje, Molt rajone (2 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas u 100 m nuo sodybos. U 500 m
pietryius nuo sodybos yra Sabalos eeras. Iki miko
300 m. Privaiuojamieji keliai geri: 0,5 km ilgio vyrke-
lis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyvenviet
Girsteitikis yra u 5 km, Moltai u 18 km, Vilnius
u 78 km.
2 pav. Antroji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
ems sklypas. ems sklypo plotas 0,7 ha. U-
statyta pastatais 0,30 ha. Visa kita ems kio naud-
menos ir sodas. ems sklype yra gyvenamasis namas,
kinis pastatas, darin, pirtis. Sodas senas.
Pastat fizins charakteristikos. Gyvenamasis na-
mas ikikarins statybos, vieno aukto, medinis, i rs-
t, apkaltas aliuote. Bendras plotas 80 m2. Namas bu-
vo gerai priirimas ir remontuojamas. Jam reikt
nedidels rekonstrukcijos arba nedidelio remonto. ki-
73
nis pastatas, pirtis, darin ir du garaai buvo nugriauti
ir perstatyti i plyt 1994 m. Todl i pastat bkl
gera (remonto nereikia).
Patogumai. Elektra yra visuose pastatuose. Gyvena-
masis namas ildomas krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefo-
no nra. Kieme stovi ulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitut ems sklype nra. Yra apri-
bojim pagal LR Vyriausybs nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyri dl vandens telkini pakrants apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas 0,04 ha.
ems sklypo padties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lt (rajono centro) 16 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
ts 5 km. Prie ems sklypo nuo gyvenviets priva-
iuojama asfaltu 4,5 km ir vyrkeliu 0,5 km. Sklypas
yra graioje vietoje. Galima vystyti kin veikl (alia
yra laisvos valstybins ems), kaimo turizm. Aplinka
neuterta, vieta rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina 44000Lt.
3.1.3. Treiosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo objekto)
koncepcinis apraymas
Vietovs apraymas. Sodyba yra Juodn kaime,
iuln seninijoje, Molt rajone (3 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas u 100 m vakarus nuo sodybos. U
500 m pietvakarius nuo sodybos yra Virint eeras. Iki
miko 300 m. Privaiuojamieji keliai geri: 1km ilgio
vyrkelis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gy-
venviet Toliejai yra u 4 km. Rajono centras Moltai
yra u 10 km, Vilnius u 70 km.
ems sklypas. ems sklypo plotas 2 ha. Usta-
tyta pastatais 0,20 ha, visa kita ems kio naudme-
nos ir sodas. ems sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, ki-
nis pastatas, darin, sodas.
3 pav. Treioji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
Pastat fizins charakteristikos. Gyvenamasis na-
mas ikikarins statybos, vieno aukto, medinis, i rs-
t, apkaltas aliuote. Bendras plotas 80 m2. Jam reikt
rekonstrukcijos arba remonto. kinis pastatas mrinis.
Remonto nereikia. Darin taip pat mrin, geros bk-
ls, jai reikt nedidelio remonto.
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Patogumai. Elektra yra visuose pastatuose. Gyvena-
masis namas ildomas krosnimi. Yra telefonas. Vanden-
tiekio nra. Kieme stovi ulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitut ems sklype nra. Yra apri-
bojim pagal LR Vyriausybs nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyri dl vandens telkini pakrants apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas 0,07 ha.
ems sklypo padties elementai. Privaiuojama prie
sklypo nuo Molt Utenos pus asfaltu (9 km) ir vyr-
keliu Juodnus (1 km). Atstumas iki Molt (rajono
centro) 10 km. Sklypas graioje vietoje. Galima vystyti
kin veikl (alia yra laisvos valstybins ems), kaimo
turizm. Aplinka neuterta, vieta rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina 40000 Lt.
3.1.4. Ketvirtosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo
objekto) koncepcinis apraymas
Vietovs apraymas. Sodyba yra Antamaki kaime,
Balnink seninijoje, Molt rajone (4 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas u 300 m pietus nuo sodybos. U 700
m vakarus nuo sodybos yra Makio eeras. Iki miko
300 m. Privaiuojamieji keliai geri: 3 km ilgio vyrke-
lis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyvenviet
Balninkai yra u 3 km, Moltai u 20 km, Vilnius
u 80 km.
4 pav. Ketvirtoji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
ems sklypas. ems sklypo plotas 0,5 ha. U-
statyta pastatais 0,10 ha. Visa kita ems kio naud-
menos ir sodas. Sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, kinis
pastatas, darin. Sodas senas.
Pastat fizins charakteristikos. Visi pastatai yra iki-
karins statybos. Gyvenamasis namas vieno aukto, me-
dinis, i rst. Bendras plotas 70 m2. Pastato bkl pa-
tenkinama (jam reikt rekonstrukcijos arba remonto).
kinis pastatas ir darin taip pat mediniai. J bkl pa-
tenkinama (reikt kapitalinio remonto arba rekonstruk-
cijos).
Patogumai. Elektra yra tik gyvenamajame name. il-
doma krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefono nra. Kieme
stovi ulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitut ems sklype nra. Yra apri-
bojim pagal LR Vyriausybs nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyri dl vandens telkini pakrants apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas 0,07 ha.
ems sklypo padties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lt (rajono centro) 20 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
ts 3 km. Privaiuojama prie ems sklypo nuo Mol-
t asfaltu (17 km) ir vyrkeliu (3 km). Sklypas yra
graioje vietoje. Galima vystyti kin veikl (alia yra
laisvos valstybins ems), kaimo turizm. Aplinka ne-
uterta ir rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina 36000 Lt.
3.1.5. Penktosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo
objekto) koncepcinis apraymas
Vietovs apraymas. Sodyba yra Anomisli kaime,
iuln seninijoje, Molt rajone (5 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas u 500 m pietus nuo sodybos. U 300 m
vakarus nuo sodybos yra graus Susiedo eeras. Iki mi-
ko 100 m. Privaiuojamieji keliai geri: 2 km ilgio vyr-
kelis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyven-
viet Juodnai yra u 2 km, Moltai u 10 km, Vilnius
u 70 km.
5 pav. Penktoji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
ems sklypas. ems sklypo plotas 0,6 ha. Usta-
tyta pastatais 0,20 ha, kita em naudmenos ir sodas.
Sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, kinis pastatas, sodas.
Pastat fizins charakteristikos. Visi pastatai yra iki-
karins statybos. Gyvenamasis namas vieno aukto, me-
dinis, i rst. Bendras plotas 65 m2. Pastato bkl gera
(jam reikt rekonstrukcijos arba nedidelio remonto). ki-
nis pastatas taip pat medinis. Jo bkl patenkinama (rei-
kt kapitalinio remonto arba rekonstrukcijos).
Patogumai. Elektra yra tik gyvenamajame name. Jis
ildomas krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefono nra. Kieme
stovi ulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitut ems sklype nra. Yra ap-
ribojim pagal LR Vyriausybs nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyri dl vandens telkini pakrants apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas 0,05 ha.
74
E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178
ems sklypo padties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lt (rajono centro) 10 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
ts 3 km. Privaiuojame prie sklypo nuo Molt asfal-
tu (8 km) ir vyrkeliu (2 km). Sklypas yra graioje
vietoje. Galima vystyti kin veikl (alia yra laisvos vals-
tybins ems), kaimo turizm. Aplinka neuterta, vieta
rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina 38000 Lt.
3.2. Pateikto udavinio sprendimas
3.2.1. Sprendimo primimo matricos sudarymas
Skaiiavimai atlikti pagal aprayt [12] metod. Re-
miantis pateiktu poilsio sodyb koncepciniu apraymu 2.1
poskyryje buvo sudaryta sprendimo primimo matrica (1
lent.). ioje matricoje reikjo nustatyti poilsio sodybos,
esanios Anomislio kaime, Toliej seninijoje, Molt
rajone, rinkos vert ir kompleksikai vertinti vertinamo-
jo ir lyginamj objekt teigiamas ir neigiamas savybes.
Lyginamieji objektai, esantys tame paiame Molt ra-
jone, buvo parduoti 2003 m., ir j pardavimo kainos bu-
vo inomos (1 lent.).
Kriterij sistema sudaryta, atsivelgiant visus gali-
mus kriterijus, apibdinanius vertinamojo ir lyginamj
objekt kokybines ir kiekybines savybes. Kokybini kri-
terij reikms ir reikmingumai nustatyti ekspertiniu b-
du, apklausiant rinkos dalyvius, t.y. vertintojus-eksper-
tus, pirkjus ir pardavjus [910]. Lyginamj objekt
pardavimo kainos yra nepadidintos ir nesumaintos dl
rinkos dalyvi asmenini prieasi ir kit nenumatyt
aplinkybi. Galima teigti, kad visi kriterijai, turintys ta-
kos tiriamo turto ries rinkos vertei, yra numatyti. Ly-
ginamj objekt pardavimo laikas artimas objekto ver-
tinimo momentui, todl laiko pataisos koeficient
nebuvo atsivelgta. Pardavimo kainos kriterijaus reik-
mingumas buvo imtas lygus vis kit rinkos vertei turin-
i takos kriterij reikmingum sumai.
Sprendimo primimo matricoje kiekybini kriterij,
pavyzdiui, lyginamj objekt pardavimo kaina, atstu-
mai iki vertinamojo objekto, pagalbini pastat skaiius,
gyvenamojo pastato bendrasis plotas, matavimo vienetai
buvo nustatyti kiekybiniais dydiais: litais, kilometrais,
hektarais, vienetais, kvadratiniais metrais, o kokybiniai
kriterijai buvo matuojami balais, kurie nustatyti irenkant
konkretaus objekto geriausi reikm, o kitiems objek-
tams suteikiant santykines reikmes.
3.2.2. Pirmo artjimo skaiiavimo rezultatai
Pirmame artjimo cikle vertinamojo objekto pradi-
n vert buvo prilyginta lyginamj objekt pardavimo
kain vidurkiui, t. y. 39500 Lt (1 lent.).
Sudarius kriterij sistem ir nustaius j reikmes
bei reikmingumus, buvo parengta sugrupuota sprendi-
m primimo matrica (1 lent.). Remiantis ia matrica bu-
vo suskaiiuoti kriterij reikmingumai (2lent.):
75
d11 = 39,500 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0, 2;
d12 = 44,00 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0, 2228;
d13 = 40,00 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0, 2025;
d14 = 36,00 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0,1823;
d15 = 38,00 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0,1924.
Kiekvieno kriterijaus gaut bedimensi vertint
reikmi d ij suma visada lygi io kriterijaus reikmin-
gumui, pavyzdiui, poilsio sodybos atstumo iki eero kri-
terijus apskaiiuojamas taip:
n
q3 = d 3 j =0,0341 + 0,0284 + 0,0284 +
j =1
0,0398 + 0,0170 = 0,1477.
Vertinant buvo nustatyta, kad didiausios takos
poilsio sodybos rinkos vertei turi ie veiksniai: jos
nuotolis iki Vilniaus (q2 = 0,1358), atstumas iki eero
(q3 = 0,1477), miko (q4 = 0,1238), gyvenamojo namo
bkl (q9 = 0,1065), vietovs kratovaizdis (q12 = 0,1106).
Vliau buvo apskaiiuotos lyginamuosius ir vertina-
mj objektus apibdinani minimizuojani S j ir
maksimizuojani S+ j vertint normalizuot rodikli
sumos:
S 1 = 0,2000 + 0,0264 + 0,0341 +
0,0113 + 0,0317 + 0,0044 + 0,0049 = 0,3127;
S +1 = 0,0990; S 2 = 0,3409; S + 2 = 0,0941;
S 3 = 0,3098; S + 3 = 0,0970;
S 4 = 0,3148; S + 4 = 0,0710;
S 5 = 0,0284; S + 5 = 0,0760.
iuo atveju S+ j ir S j dydiai ireikia lygina-
maisiais objektais pasiekt tiksl lyg. Bet kuriuo atveju
vis lyginamj objekt plius S+ j ir minus S j su-
mos visada yra atitinkamai lygios visoms maksimizuo-
jani ir minimizuojani kriterij reikmingum sumoms:
S = 0,3127 + 0,34091 + 0,3098 + 0,3148 + 0,0284 = 1,3066;
S + = 0,4371.
Nustatomas kiekvieno lyginamojo ir vertinamojo
objekto santykinis reikmingumas:
Q1 =0,4104; Q2 =0,3798; Q3 =0,4113;
Q4 =0,3803; Q5 =0,4182.
Pirmame artjimo cikle naudingiausiu pagal naudo-
jimo paskirt buvo pripaintas lyginamasis objektas, esan-
tis Anomisli kaime N5 = 100 %, antrasis pagal naudin-
gum lyginamasis objektas, esantis Juodn kaime
N3= 98,37 %, ir treiasis vertinamasis objektas, esantis
Anomisli kaime (2 lent.). Vliau buvo nustatytas lygi-
namj ir vertinamojo objekt efektyvumo lygis E xj . Jis
rodo, kiek procent yra geresnis (blogesnis) vertinama-
sis objektas, palyginti su lyginamaisiais objektais, ir jie
lyginami tarpusavyje.
75
76 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178

1 lentel. Pradiniai duomenys poilsio sodybos daugiakriterinei analizei atlikti

* Kriterijaus Kriterijaus Vertinamoji Lyginamosios poilsio sodybos

Nagrinjami kriterijai matavimo reikmingumas sodyba
vienetas
1 2 3 4 5
Pardavimo kaina (pradin Lt(t) 1,0 X 44,0 40,0 36,0 38,0
vert)
Atstumas nuo poilsio km 0,1358 72 78 70 80 70
sodybos iki Vilniaus
Atstumas nuo poilsio km 0,1477 0,60 0,50 0,50 0,70 0,30
sodybos iki eero
Atstumas nuo poilsio km 0,1238 0,10 0,30 0,30 0,30 0,10
sodybos iki miko
Atstumas nuo poilsio km 0,0951 0,50 0,10 0,10 0,30 0,50
sodybos iki kaimyno
Atstumas nuo poilsio km 0,0215 4,00 8,00 3,00 3,00 1,50
sodybos iki plento
Atstumas nuo poilsio km 0,0389 2,00 5,00 4,00 3,00 2,00
sodybos iki gyvenviets
Gyvenamojo namo bendrasis + m2 0,0461 80,00 80,00 80,00 70,00 65,00
plotas
Gyvenamojo namo bkl + balai 0,1065 0,80 0,80 0,70 0,60 0,70
Pagalbini pastat skaiius + vnt. 0,0179 3 3 2 2 1
ems sklypo plotas + ha 0,0789 1,00 0,70 2,00 0,50 0,60
Vietovs kratovaizdis + balai 0,1106 1,00 1,00 0,60 0,60 0,80
Rajono prestias + balai 0,0120 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
Oro, aplinkos utertumo ir + balai 0,0652 1,00 1,00 0,80 1,00 0,80
triukmo lygis

* + (-) rodo, kad atitinkamai didesn (maesn) kriterijaus reikm labiau atitinka suinteresuotos moni grups interesus.

Pavyzdiui: 3.2.3. Galutiniai rezultatai

E11 = 98,14 % 98,14 % = 0,000 %;
E12 = 98,14 % 90,81 % = 7,33 %;
E13 = 98,14 % 98,37 % = 0,23 %;
E14 = 98,14 % 90,95 % = 7,19 %;
E 21 = 7,33 %; E 22 = 0,000 %; E 23 = 7,56 %;
E 24 = 0,14 %; E 25 = 9,19 %.
Vliau buvo apskaiiuotas vertinamojo objekto nau-
dingumo procento vidutinis nukrypimas k x , nuo kurio ir
priklauso, ar kitu etapu ikart bus nustatoma vertinamojo
objekto rinkos vert, ar bus tik patikslinta pradin vert
ir kartojamas artjimo ciklas. Po pirmojo artjimo verti-
namojo objekto naudingumo procento vidutinis nukry-
pimas k x neatitiko metodo nelygybs kax < 1 %,
gautas toks rezultatas:
kax =6,22>1.
Tuomet buvo patikslinta vertinamojo objekto vert:
V1 = 39 500 (1+6,22/100) = 41 956,48 Lt.
Patikslinus vertinamojo objekto vert, pagal metodo
struktrin schem toliau eina metodo artjimo ciklas.
Kaip matome i 2 lentels, pirmame artjimo cikle
naudingiausias pagal naudojimo paskirt yra lyginamasis
objektas, esantis Anomisli kaime N5 =100%, antrasis
pagal naudingum lyginamasis objektas, esantis Juo-
dn kaime N3 = 98,37%, ir treiasis vertinamasis ob-
jektas, esantis Anomisli kaime (N1 = 98,14%). Kaip
matome i apskaiiuot objekt naudingumo procento,
vertinamosios poilsio sodybos pradin vert x = 39500Lt
yra per maa, dl to is objektas nra vienodai konku-
rencingas rinkoje, palyginti su kitomis sodybomis, kom-
pleksikai vertinus j teigiamas ir neigiamas savybes.
T patvirtina ir nelygyb kax =6,22>1 %.
Remiantis ia nelygybe buvo nustatyta, kad dar ne-
pakankamai tiksliai apskaiiuota vertinamosios poilsio so-
dybos vert.
Todl, remiantis vertinamojo nekilnojamojo turto ob-
jekto rinkos verts skaiiavimo struktrine schema
(pateikta adresu http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/TEORIJA/
teorija1.htm), skaiiavim ciklai buvo tsiami tol, kol ver-
tinamojo objekto naudingumo procento vidutinis nukry-
pimas atitiko nelygyb kax < 1 %.

76
E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178 77

2 lentel. Poilsio sodyb daugiakriterins analizs rezultatai (1 artjimo ciklas, X = 39500)

* Poilsio sodybos (normalizuot vertint kriterij skaitmenins
Nagrinjami kriterijai reikms dij)
1 2 3 4 5
Pardavimo kaina (pradin vert) - 0,2000 0,2228 0,2025 0,1823 0,1924
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki Vilniaus - 0,0264 0,0286 0,0257 0,0294 0,0257
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki eero - 0,0341 0,0284 0,0284 0,0398 0,0170
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki miko - 0,0113 0,0338 0,0338 0,0338 0,0113
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki kaimyno - 0,0317 0,0063 0,0063 0,0190 0,0317
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki plento - 0,0044 0,0088 0,0033 0,0033 0,0017
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki gyvenviets - 0,0049 0,0122 0,0097 0,0073 0,0049
Gyvenamojo namo bendras plotas + 0,0098 0,0098 0,0098 0,0086 0,0080
Gyvenamojo namo bkl + 0,0237 0,0237 0,0207 0,0178 0,0207
Pagalbini pastat skaiius + 0,0049 0,0049 0,0033 0,0033 0,0016
ems sklypo plotas + 0,0164 0,0115 0,0329 0,0082 0,0099
Vietovs kratovaizdis + 0,0277 0,0277 0,0166 0,0166 0,0221
Rajono prestias + 0,0024 0,0024 0,0024 0,0024 0,0024
Oro, aplinkos utertumo ir triukmo lygis + 0,0142 0,0142 0,0113 0,0142 0,0113
Maksimizuojani normalizuot vertinim rodikli suma S+j 0,0990 0,0941 0,0970 0,0710 0,0760
Minimizuojani normalizuot vertinim rodikli suma S-j 0,3127 0,3409 0,3098 0,3148 0,0284
Nekilnojamojo turto objekt reikmingumas Qj 0,4104 0,3798 0,4113 0,3803 0,4182
Nekilnojamojo turto objekt prioritetas 3 5 2 4 1
Nekilnojamojo turto objekt naudingumo procentas Nj 98,14% 90,81% 98,37% 90,95% 100%
Nekilnojamojo turto objekt konkurencingumas kx 6,22% 12,10% 6,78% 11,77% 10,87%
Vertinamojo objekto patikslinta vert Vxp 41956,48

+ (-) rodo, kad atitinkamai didesn (maesn) kriterijaus reikm labiau atitinka suinteresuotos moni grups reikalavimus.

i skaiiavim cikl rezultatas vertinamosios Kaip matome, pirmame cikle vertinamojo objekto
poilsio sodybos Anomisli kaime patikslintos verts naudingumo procento vidutinis nukrypimas neatitiko ne-
kitimas ir rinkos verts nustatymas pateiktas 3 lentelje. lygybs kax < 1 %, bet jau antrajame cikle i nelygyb
buvo patenkinta, o tai reikia, kad vertinamosios sody-
3 lentel. Vertinamojo objekto naudingumo lygio vidutinio bos rinkos vert buvo nustatyta teisingai.
nukrypimo ir patikslintos verts kitimas bei rinkos verts
Paskutiniame antrajame artjimo cikle nustatyta,
nustatymas
kad vertinamojo objekto naudingumas lyginamj objek-
Artjimo Vertinamojo Vertinamojo Vertinamojo t atvilgiu yra N1= 95,22%, lyginamojo objekto, esan-
ciklas objekto objekto objekto rinkos io Anomisli kaime, N5 = 100%, o kito lyginamojo ob-
patikslinta naudingumo vert jekto, esanio Juodn kaime, jis liko nepakits per visus
vert lygio vidutinis V (Lt) artjimo ciklus N3 = 98,30%. Apskaiiuoti objekt nau-
x
Vxp (Lt) nukrypimas dingumo laipsniai rodo, kad vertinamas objektas yra nau-
kx (%) dingesnis 10,70% u lyginamj objekt, esant Magi-
ki kaime, ir 12,44% maiau naudingas u lyginamj
1 39 500 6,22>1
objekt, esant Anomisli kaime. ie skaiiai taip pat ro-
2 41 956,48 0,49<1
41956,48 do, kur objekt labiau apsimoka investuoti pinigus.
(1+0,49:100)=
42 162,95 4. Ivados
42 000 Lt
Daugelis elektronins prekybos sistem apdoroja ir
teikia tik ekonomin informacij, taiko ekonominius mo-
delius. Taiau nagrinjamas alternatyvas danai reikia ver-

77
78 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 7178
tinti ne tik ekonominiu, bet taip pat ir kokybiniu, techni-
niu, teisiniu, socialiniu ir kitokiu atvilgiu.
Remiantis informacini, ekspertini, sprendim pa-
ramos ir elektronins prekybos sistem analize, buvo su-
kurta daugiakriterin nekilnojamojo turto elektronins pre-
kybos (NTEP) sistema. i sistema sudaryta i duomen
bazs bei duomen bazs valdymo sistemos, modeli ba-
zs bei modeli bazs valdymo sistemos ir vartotojo in-
terfeiso.
Duomen bazje nekilnojamj turt apraant kie-
kybine ir koncepcine formomis, pateikiama vairius jo
aspektus (ekonominius, kokybinius, techninius, teisinius,
socialinius, ekologinius ir kt.) apibdinanti informacija.
Remdamasi ia informacija NTEP sistema gali vertinti
nekilnojamj turt vairiais aspektais (t.y. rinkos verts,
mokestins, investicins verts, esamo naudojimo rinkos
verts ir kt. veri nustatymas); ji gali vertinti kriteri-
jus, turinius takos vertei (pavyzdiui, nekilnojamojo tur-
to vietos, nusidvjimo, pasilos, paklausos ir kt. verti-
nimas), nustatyti maksimalaus ir geriausio panaudojimo
variant (pavyzdiui, pirkjas bst renkasi maksimaliai
tenkindamas gyvenimo btinumo, komfortikumo bei as-
meninius poreikius).
Taikant sukurt PEB sistem, nustatyta poilsio so-
dybos, esanios Anomislio kaime, Toliej seninijoje,
Molt rajone, rinkos vert (42 000 Lt) ir kompleksikai
vertintos vertinamojo ir lyginamj objekt teigiamos ir
neigiamos savybs.
Literatra
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78

KRONIKA
PROF. HABIL. DR. RIMGAUDO ABRAIIO MONOGRAFIJOS
TECHNINS KERAMIKOS TECHNOLOGIJA IR SAVYBS
II DALIES RECENZIJA
Atsirandant vis daugiau technins keramikos panau-
dojimo galimybi, pasigendama knyg valstybine kalba
apie mokslinius darbus ir technologij ioje srityje spart
tobuljim. Profesoriaus habilituoto daktaro Rimgaudo
Abraiio 1999m. ileista knyga Technins keramikos
technologijos jau tapo retenybe. Todl jo sumanymas
ileisti nauj knyg yra sveikintinas, tuo labiau, kad tai
pirmoji Lietuvoje didel monografija technins kerami-
kos klausimais.
Rengiant monografij atliktas kruoptus ir sudtin-
gas darbas. Joje ianalizuoti naujausi technins kerami-
kos technologijos laimjimai. Kadangi buvo parengta di-
dels apimties monografija, knygos recenzentas prof.
S.Bokus pasil j ispausdinti dviem knygomis. Pir-
moji knygos dalis, ileista 2002m., buvo gerai vertinta
prof. A.Laukaiio recenzijoje, ispausdintoje Lietuvos
moksl akademijos urnale Energetika (2003, Nr. 1).
Antroji knygos dalis, ivydusi vies 2003m., dar laukia
platesnio vertinimo.
Monografijos antroji dalis pradedama oksidini me-
diag, j savybi ir panaudojimo pristatymu. Apraoma
korundins keramikos jos gamybos technologija, chemi-
nis atsparumas. Pristatoma bioinertin ir bioaktyvi kera-
mika. Sunkiai besilydani mediag pluotins formos
gaminiai tai efektyvi keramini mediag klas. Pir-
majame skyriuje aptariami monokristalai, kompozitai ir
padengimai.
Antrasis knygos skyrius skirtas urano junginiams ir
j panaudojimo problemoms. Uranas su deguonimi su-
daro vairaus oksidacijos laipsnio oksidus, todl jie ap-
raomi plaiau. Nagrinjamos j bvio diagramos bei ter-
minis atsparumas. Apraomas uranilo ryys pagrindin
aukiausio valentinio bvio urano egzistavimo forma.
Plaiai apraoma ir urano-plutonio-deguonies sistema.
Urano jungini gaminiai ir j panaudojimas nagrinja-
mas pradedant nuo j radioaktyvumo, branduoli skili-
mo, baigiant reaktori tipais ir konkreiai Ignalinos AE
branduoliniu reaktoriumi RBMK-1500. Pateikiami reak-
toriaus saugos principai ir skilimo produkt barjerai. Su-
paindinama su ilumos isiskyrimo procesu reaktoriaus
mediagose. Inagrintos maai apraytos branduolinio
kuro gamybos technologijos ir charakteristikos. Pabr-
iami kuro tablei gamybos ypatumai. Nagrinjamas ura-
no oksido milteli sukepimo proceso sryys su produk-
cijos kokybe bei struktrini kuro tablei charakteristik
tobulinimas, siekiant geresnio j panaudojimo. Aprao-
mi renginiai ir mechanini mediag bandym branduo-
liniuose reaktoriuose metodikos.
79
Magnio oksido ir cirkonio dioksido keramikos ana-
lizuojamos treiajame ir ketvirtajame skyriuose. Tai auk-
tatemperatriai oksidai, plaiai taikomi technikoje. Sen-
jant magnio oksido keramikai keiiasi jo struktra, o
cirkonio dioksido stabilizavimo procesas vyksta labai pa-
tikimai. Tai ir leidia isaugoti keramikos struktr. Pa-
teikta isami proceso analiz.
Elektrokeramins mediagos tai titano oksido ar-
ba armini ems metal titanatai. Be to, tai junginiai,
kuri didel dielektrin skvarba. Apraoma kondensato-
rin keramika i titano oksido mediagos, gamybos tech-
nologijoje kartais pasitaikantys vairs poliarizacijos me-
chanizmai, krvio ir srovs susidarymas dielektrikuose.
Plaiai apraomos elektrotechnins porceliano mediagos.
Visa tai pateikta penktajame skyriuje.
Technins keramikos magnetins savybs sukuriamos
ir valdomos gamybos metu, todl ypa svarbu imanyti
i technologij. etajame skyriuje analizuojamos pagrin-
dins polikristalini feroelektrik ir pjezoelektrik savy-
bs, bario titanato keramika ir pjezokeramikos sintez.
Kermet gamyboje taikoma daugyb technologij.
Septintajame skyriuje aptariamos technikoje plaiausiai
taikomos technologijos. Tam taikomos termitins reakci-
jos. Ypa svarbios yra inios apie milteli usiliepsnoji-
mo ir sprogimo savybes. Anksiau ios savybs bdavo
aptariamos tik specialiuosiuose inynuose. ioje monog-
rafijoje autorius atkreipia tai dmes, stengdamasis ap-
saugoti technologus nuo galim pavoj. Pateikiamas ir
keramini milteli toksikumo vertinimas bei j povei-
kis gyvajam organizmui.
Plaiai paplitusi silikat ir aliumosilikat keramika
sudaro didel mediag grup. ios mediagos turi do-
minuojani faz ir dvigubas bei trigubas kristalines su-
dtis. Gamybai naudojamos pigios ir plaiai inomos a-
liavosmolis ir talkas. Sukepimo temperatroje susidaro
kristalins ir skystosios fazi pusiausvyra. Atuntajame
skyriuje nagrinjami ir tirpikliai. Tai tokios mediagos,
kurios idegant gaminius sveikauja su krovos alia-
vomis, sudarydamos lengvai besilydanius junginius. Ap-
velgiamos steatitins, mulitins, mulitins-korundins,
divinins, kordieritins, celzianins, liio, cirkonio, pi-
neli keramikos gamybos technologijos.
Bedeguoni jungini keramikai skirtas devintasis
skyrius. Tai karbidai, nitridai, boridai, silicidai. ie jun-
giniai turi kovalentin cheminio ryio tip, kartais su da-
line jonine dedamja. Tai rodo mechanini savybi sta-
bilum plaiu temperatr intervalu, didel ilumos
laidum. ioms mediagoms taikoma trapij mediag
79
80
konstrukcinio stiprumo skaiiavimo metodika, kuria ver-
tinamas tempim intensyvumo koeficientas.
Unikali savybi technins keramikos gamyba
remiasi naujausia teorija, technologijomis, kryptingai sin-
tetinant mediag, numatant bsim jos struktr. Tokios
struktros dirbini paslaptys atskleistos deimtajame sky-
riuje. Jame raoma apie veiksnius, turinius takos me-
diag savybms, etap tarpusavio ryiams, agregacijos
takai, reguliavimui modifikuojaniais priedais, j parin-
kimui, rekristalizacijos procesams ir greiiams bei gavi-
mo technologiniams metodams. Taip sukuriama ypa stip-
ri cirkonio dioksido keramika. Ji plaiai naudojama
elektronikoje, main gamyboje, aviacijos technikoje, ra-
ket gamyboje.
Kaip kompleksikai panaudoti technin keramik,
aprayta vienuoliktame knygos skyriuje. Nagrinjami ke-
raminiai kuro elementai ir juose vykstantys procesai, ku-
riuose reakcijos chemin energija paveriama elektros
energija. Pristatytos tipini kuro element schemos, j
KRONIKA
privalumai ir trkumai. Inagrinti ir oksidiniai kuro ele-
mentai, j veikimo schemos, praktinis pritaikymas.
Technins keramikos technologijos vis laik tobu-
lja nuolat taikant naujus tyrim metodus gaunami at-
sakymai ir svarbius gamybos vystymo klausimus.
Knygoje yra neymi trkum. Pavyzdiui, techno-
logijos naujoves galbt reikt aprayti kiek plaiau. Kai
kur neivengta ir korektros klaid.
Apskritai prof. R.Abraiio monografijos Techni-
ns keramikos technologija ir savybs antroji dalis yra
informatyvi, lengvai skaitoma, joje apvelgiama daug ios
srities naujovi.
Todl galime teigti, jog sulaukme brandaus ilga-
meio darbo rezultat technins keramikos savybi ir
technologij tema. i knyga bus naudinga mokslinin-
kams mediagotyros, i dalies ir statybos ininerijos
specialistams, ji pravers ir studentams, studijuojantiems
technin keramik.
Prof. habil. dr. Romualdas Maiulaitis
80
 Ia

SANTRAUKOS

P. Aliavdin, V. Simbirkin, V. Toropov. Mrini sien ploktum atsparumas lyiai ir gniudymui // Journal
of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 39.
Pateikti mrini bandini sienui tyrim rezultatai. Bandiniams naudotos efektyvios plytos, apkrauta sienui ploktuma:
horizontalija (onine) koncentruota apkrova, esant skirtingam vertikalios priekrovos lygiui;
sukoncentruota gniudymo jga, pridta vairiais atstumais nuo sienos krato.
Ivestos sienui lyties stiprumo ir deformavimo priklausomybs nuo gniudymo tempi, veikiani statmenai kirpimo
ploktumai. Be to, vertintas mro glemimo stipris priklausomai nuo koncentruotos apkrovos pridjimo vietos sienuts
krato atvilgiu. Atlikta tyrim rezultat analiz, o gauti rezultatai palyginti su rezultatais, gautais, taikant vairi projektavimo
norm metodikas. Atliktas eksperimentini bandini skaitinis modeliavimas taikant baigtini element metod.
Raktaodiai: mrins konstrukcijos, natralaus dydio bandiniai, lytis, gniudymas, stipris, poslinkiai.

D. Bainskas, G. Kaklauskas, E. Geda. Baigtini element programos ATENA pritaikymas aukta temperatra
paveikt gelbetonini sij netiesinei analizei // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika,
2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 1118.
Gaisro paveikt gelbetonini element tempi ir deformacij bvis yra sudtingas. Pateikiama gelbetonini konstrukcij,
paveikt aukta temperatra ir apkraut iorine apkrova, skaitinio modeliavimo strategija. Literatroje aprayt eksperi-
mentini sij apkrovos ir linki diagramos nustatytos, taikant baigtini element program ATENA. Skaitiniam modeliavimui
naudoti Eurocode 2 fiziniai betono ir armatros modeliai. Lyginami skaitins analizs ir eksperimentiniai tyrim rezultatai.
Raktaodiai: gelbetonini konstrukcij projektavimas gaisro atveju, baigtini element netiesin analiz, gaisro bandymai,
atsparumas gaisrui, betono ir armatros mediag modeliai.

Z. Bednarek, R. Kamoka. Statybini plien temperatrini deformacij analiz, veikiant kintamiems tempera-
triniams laukams // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1,
p. 1922.
Pateikta temperatriniu lauku paveikto plieno deformacij, spariai kylant temperatrai, analiz. AIII klass, 34GS marks
statybiniam plienui pateikti temperatrinio pltimosi sukelt temperatrini deformacij bei tiesinio temperatrinio pltimosi
koeficiento eksperimentini tyrim rezultatai. Bandymai atlikti esant tiesiniam temperatros kitimui bei skirtingiems kaitinimo
greiiams. Atlikta kaitinimo greiio takos temperatrinms deformacijoms ir temperatrinio pltimosi koeficientui analiz.
Raktaodiai: temperatrinis pltimasis, temperatrins deformacijos, tiesinio temperatrinio pltimosi koeficientas, statybinis
plienas.

R. echaviius. Spragotini ilgini dantytj Bulldog tipo sprausteli metalo-medio jungi slinktis // Journal
of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 2329.
Kompozitiniai metalo-medio spragotiniai ilginiai, sukurti AB MacMillan (Kanada), pasiymi daugeliu technologini ir
konstrukcini privalum. Toki ilgini medins juostos su metaliniais trikampio tinklelio elementais yra jungiamos vienpusiais
dantytaisiais Bulldog tipo sprausteliais. Aprayti keturi toki natralaus dydio spragotini ilgini (tarpatramis 3,0 m)
bandymai. Bandymais nustatyta, kad metalo-medio jungi su Bulldog tipo sprausteliais atsparumas, slinkties modulis
bei statins slinkties dydis priklauso nuo kampo tarp jgos ir medienos pluot krypties, slinkties modulio ir statins
slinkties skaitins reikms yra gerokai didesns nei pateiktos eksperimentinse Europos normose (Eurocode 5). Bandymais
nustatyta, kad ros tarp santvaros tinklelio element persiskirsto tuomet, kai metalo-medio jungi su Bulldog tipo
sprausteliais slinkties deformacijos tampa artimos ribiniam (2 mm) dydiui.
Raktaodiai: kompozitin konstrukcija, metalo-medio jungtis, Bulldog tipo spraustelis, slinktis, atsparumas, bandymas.

W. Lu, P. Makelainen, J. Kesti, J. Lindborg. altai formuot plieno lakt optimalus projektavimas taikant
genetinius algoritmus // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1,
p. 3137.
Profiliuoti altai formuoti plieno laktai danai naudojami stogo, grind sistem bei sien apdarui. Dl didels rinkoje
esani profili vairovs naudinga nustatyti optimali lakto form. altai formuot profiliuot plieno lakt matmenims
optimizuoti naudoti genetiniai algoritmai. Optimizavimo tikslas nustatyti profiliuot lakt optimalius matmenis, kai
lakto svoris yra minimalus esant nustatytai atrmimo schemai. Laktai projektuojami remiantis Eurocode 3 1.3 dalies
nurodymais. Gautos nesudtingos lakt formos gali bti pateiktos plienini konstrukcij projektuotojams bei plieno
gamintojams.
Raktiniai odiai: altai formuotas plienas, profiliuoti laktai, optimizavimas, genetinis algoritmas.
Ib ................................................................................................................................................................................... SANTRAUKOS

A.Naujokaitis. Relations between the characteristics of components of decorative compact silicate concrete
mix // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 3943.
The article investigates the influence of components of decorative compact silicate concrete mix and the dependence of its
characteristics. The work reveals the characteristics of components influencing the properties of silicate decorative con-
cretes with precise dimensions. The greatest influence is produced by the granulometric composition of a mix. It has an
effect on the homogeneity of mix compaction, the precision of dimensions of formed product and on the product compac-
tion. The analysis was performed by means of computer-registered data of a new press. For the investigation under
production conditions the quartz sands from Girait deposit, medium fine to fine ones and practically free of any impuri-
ties, were used. A new technique for selecting the mix compositions with colouring pigments is offered. It takes into
account the characteristics of binders with a pigment. The research results can be used in the production of decorative
products with precise dimensions.
Keywords: components, silicate concrete, concrete composition, sand, grain composition, pigments, sand fineness, prod-
ucts with precise-dimensions, compaction rate.

M. J. Sulewska. Pylim tankinimo kontrol iuolaikiniu metodu // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management.
Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 4550.
Lengvasis dinaminis zondas prietaisas lauko bandymams. Jis taikomas vairi tip grunto pylim laikomosios galios ir
sutankinimo kokybs greitai kontrolei. Tai iuolaikinis taisas, kuris danai taikomas Vokietijoje, o iuo metu ir Lenkijoje.
Straipsnyje pateikti lengvojo dinaminio zondo kalibravimo laboratorijoje ir statybos aiktelje pavyzdys bei io tais
pritaikymas realaus pylimo tyrimui.
Raktiniai odiai: pylimai, sutankinimo kontrol, lengvas dinaminis zondas, grunto dinaminis deformacij modulis.

R. ukys. Perspectives and problems of health and safety in construction // Journal of Civil Engineering and
Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 5155.
Now, when Lithuania became a part of the EU, it is important to estimate results of integration effects in social, economic
and other areas. One of underlying areas is workers health and safety. Building is one of the most dangerous work areas
(work nature and place often changes, a lot of work is done under dangerous conditions and in bad weather).
The purpose of research is to estimate qualitative and quantitative effects, which Lithuanias building companies experi-
ence while implementing EU Councils Directive 92/57EEC About minimal health and safety requirements on temporal
and movable building sites.
Statistical analytical, poll, analysis, analogical, financial reports summation and other methods were used in this research.
Financial costs, costs at the government level, positive consequences are determined and recommendations are elaborated.
Keywords: integration, health and safety, EU Councils Directive 92/57EEC, financial costs, contracts.

S. Vakrinien, P. yras, R. ukys. Traumata prevention resources optimization in construction // Journal of

Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 5763.
Analysis of data on accidents in construction companies shows that their main reasons are non-compliance of standard
acts, wrongly organised work, the absence of security measures, wrongly organised work place, insufficient training of
workers. Employers must know how to optimally distribute resources for accident prevention. That would help (on the
average or with a particular probability) to reduce number of accidents and reduce social insurance costs. In this article the
task of stochastic programming is analysed which models the resources reserved for preventing an accidents in construc-
tion. To get resources for accidents prevention at work, optimal distribution strategy, with desirable precision, we need to
solve task of separable programming, whose zone of allowable plan is not prominent. In the article Lagrange multipliers
essence for the studied problem and global extremums abstraction rule are estimated. When solving problems, pretty
precise and reliable function dependencies between tasks parameters and solution are achieved. They allow to optimize the
use of resources reserved for accidents at work in construction and shows expected numbers of avoided injuries depen-
dence on confidence level and on variation of resources reserved for accidents at works in construction.
Keywords: Accidents, prevention, optimal distribution of resources, stochastic programming, Lagrange function, Kuhn-
Tucker conditions, confidence level, resources variation.

V. Volkova. Dinamikai netiesini sistem poliharmonini svyravim identifikacija // Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 6570.
Atliekant svyravim analitin tyrim, btina turti matematinius modelius. Tam naudojami technini brini ir apraym
duomenys bei kita dokumentacija, susijusi su atskir parametr reikmmis. Kai kuriais atvejais ios informacijos nepakanka.
Pastaruoju atveju efektyviausi yra identifikacijos metodai. Juose matematiniai modeliai sudaromi pagal eksperimentini
tyrim duomenis.
Raktaodiai: identifikacija, fazins trajektorijos, poliharmoniniai svyravimai, dinamikai netiesins sistemos.
SANTRAUKOS ..................................................................................................................................................................................... Ic

E. K. Zavadskas, A. Kaklauskas, S. Raslanas, M. Krutinis. Pecularities of multi-criteria e-trade system

application in real estate sector // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X,
Suppl 1, p. 7178.
One of the major problems in Internet based information systems is to find what you want. Thousands of alternative
products and services may be found on the Internet. How can customers find the rational products and services there?
Once product or service information is found, the customer usually wants to compare alternatives. There are five types of
aids to comparison shopping: search on hypertext files by agents, search alternatives on databases, alternative search and
tabular comparison, comparison of alternative products and services from multiple malls, search and multiple criteria
decision-making. Therefore, the efficiency of Internet based information systems may be increased by applying multiple
criteria decision support systems developed by the authors. The authors have developed Internet Based DSS for Real
Estate. Proposed Internet Based DSS for Real Estate can create value in the following ways: help customers assess their
needs, identify suitable real estate to fulfil needs, compare and evaluate real estate, help customers evaluate the usefulness
of the real estate in the after-purchase evaluation stage, etc.
Keywords: Internet based information systems, DSS, multi-criteria analysis.
IIa

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