-

.- karminvivtn_nRbBnKImImYyGacmankrNIBIry:ag KW
k-r PaBETmU:DINamic RbBnKImI minGacekItmanRbtikm)aneT eTaHkglkxNNakeday .
]TahN_ bnSMrvag Cu nig HCl KanRbtikmeT Cu Cu 2+
: E =0,34V o

eKfa vamanrPaBETmU:DINamic.
Cu HCl KanRbtikm H H +
: E =0,00V 2
o

x-PaBraMgxb;sIuenTic RbBnKImI minGacekItmanRbtikm)aneT ebIkglkxNminRKb;RKan;.

]TahrN_ bnSMrvag H nig O KanRbtikmCamYyKaeT
2 2 O H O : E =1,23V2 2
o

H O
2 Kan
2

bu:En ebIeKdut beRbIkatalIkr Pt vanwgmanRbtikm HO H : E =-0,82V

2 2
o

2 H O 2 H O . eKfaRbBnmanPaBraMgxb;sIuenTic .
2 2
Pt
2

.-

k-Rbtikmrhs ekIteLIgPam .
]TahrN_ Ag Cl

AgCl

Cu 2 2 OH
Cu (OH ) 2

x-RbtikmyWt ekIteLIgeRcInnaTI eRcInema:g >>>.

]TahrN_ DIstkmGIuy:ugtsulpat S O kgmCdanGasIut [plCa S nig SO .
2
2
3 2

Eo
S2O3 2-
S : E0=0,50V 1 S 2 O32 6 H 4e
2 S 3 H 2 O
1 S 2 O32 H 2 O 2 SO 2 2 H 4e

SO2 S2O32- : E0=0,40V
2 S 2 O32 4 H
2 S 2 SO 2 2 H 2 O
CaTUeTA RbtikmyWtCakmvtkgkarsikSasIuenTicKImI .
Eo
K-RbtikmyWtbMput ekIteLIgeRcInf eRcInEx qaM >>> . H2 O2 H2O : E0=1,77V
1
O2 H2O2 : E0=0,62V
 ]TahN_ RbtikmbMEbkTwkGuksIuEsn H O . 2 2

H 2 O2
H 2 O 12 O2
-
.-
-

eKlaysUluysg H O CamYysUluysg KI eKeXIjkekItsUluysg I BNRkhmetat .

2 2 2
Eo
1 H2O2 2H 2e
2H2O H2O2 H2O : E0=1,77V
1 2I I2 2e

H2O2 2I 2H
I2 2H2O
I2 I- : E0=0,54V
[I2] M2
- I2 [I2]2

-niymny el,nmFmnkMN I enAcenaHeBl t eTA 2 1 t2 : M1

[I2]1
KWCapleFobrvagbERmbRmYlkMhab; I CamYybERmbRmYlryeBl t. 2

[ I 2 ] 2 [ I 2 ]1 [ I 2 ]
-rUbmn Vm
t 2 t1

t
0 t1 t2 t

- I2 [I2]
T2
-niymny el,nxNnkMN I enAxNeBl t KWCalImIt 2
[I2]2
M T2
nel,nmFm kalNabERmbRmYlryeBlxiteTArksUn . [I2]1
T1

-rUbmn V lim [ I ]t [t I ] lim [It ] b V d[dtI ]

t
2 2 2 1 2
t
2
t 0
2 1
t 0
t
0 t1 t t2 t
.-
[H2O2]
- H2O2 [H2O2]0

-niymny el,nmFmnbM)at; H O enAcenaH 2 2 [H2O2]1 T1

eBl t eTA t : KWCapleFobrvagbERmbRmYlkMhab;

1 2
[H2O2]2 T2

H O CamYynwgbERmbRmYlryeBl t .
2 2
0 t1 t2 t
-rUbmn Vm
[ H 2 O2 ] 2 [ H 2 O2 ]1
t 2 t1

[ H 2 O2 ]
t [H2O2]
[H2O2]0
- H2O2

-niymny el,nxNnbM)at;TwkGuksIuEsn H O 2 2
[H2O2]1 T1

enAxNeBl t : KWCalImItnel,nmFm [H2O2]2

T2

kalNabERmbRmYlryeBlxiteTArksUn . 0 t1 t t2 t
[ H 2 O2 ] 2 [ H 2 O2 ]1 [ H 2 O2 ] d [ H 2 O2 ]
-rUbmn Vt lim
t 2 t1
lim
t
b Vt
t 0 t 0
dt t1
2
 CaTUeTA kMhab;KitCa mol.L ; ryeBlKitCa min s
-1

nigel,nKitCa mol.L .min mol.L .s .

-1 -1 -1 -1

smIkartagRbtikm
R
P
Rbtikr )
( ( plitpl bGgFatukekIt )

1-karvivtn_kMhab;GgFatuRbtikr ( R ) nigkMhab;GgFatukekIt ( P )
-kMhab;GgFatuRbtikrfycuHCaGnuKmn_eTAnwgkMeNInryeBl ehIyenAeBlGann kMhab;
GgFatuRbtikrvivteTArk [R] .

-kMhab;GgFatukekItekIneLIgCaGnuKmn_eTAnwgkMeNInryeBl ehIyenAeBlGannkMhab;
GgFatukekItvivteTArk [P] .

CaTUeTA kgeBlRbtikm kMhab;RbtikrfycuH kMhab;GgFatukekItekIneLIg .

-eBlBak;kNalRbtikm t CaeBlEdlRtUvnwgkMhab;plitplkekIt)anBak;kNal b kMhab;GgFatu
1
2

RbtikrRbtikmGs;Bak;kNal .
[ P]
kMhab;plitplkekIt)anBak;kNal [ P]
2 t 12

[ R] [ R]
kMhab;GgFatuRbtikrenAsl;Bak;kNal [ R] 2 t 12
0

2-karvivtn_el,nbM)at;nGgFatuRbtikr ( R ) nigel,nkMNGgFatukekIt( P )
- el,nbM)at;nGgFatuRbtikrfycuH CaGnuKmn_eTAnwgkMeNInryeBl ehIyenAeBlGannExSekag
[R]=f(t)

xitCitGasIumtUtedk [R] .

- el,nkMNnGgFatukekItfycuH CaGnuKmn_eTAnwgkMeNInryeBl ehIyenAeBlGannExSekag [P]=f(t)

xitCitGasIumtUtedk [P] .

[R] [P]
[R]o
[P]
[P]=f(t)
[R]o [R]
[ R ]
2
2

[R]=f(t)
[R]

0 t1 t 0 t1 t
2 2

3
 ExSekagtagGgFatuRbtikr ExSekagtagGgFatukekIt
CaTUeTA el,nRbtikmFMenAeBldMbUg ehIyel,necHEtfyeTArhUtdl;sUnenAeBlRbtikmcb;.

RbtikmKImICaeRcInTak;TgeTAnwgTMhMPaKlitrbs;GgFatuRbtikr .
BiesaFn_ \TiBlTMhMPaKlit
-vtbMNg bgajBI\TiBlTMhMduMGgFaturwgnGgFatuRbtikreTAelIel,nRbtikm .
-smar EkvEGLincMnYnbI sIurauMgcMnYnbI qkekAsU TueyaCr .
-sarFatuKImI sUluysgGasIutkrIRDic kMhab; 1mol.L cMnYn 200mL . -1

emSA CaCO 20g dMu CaCO tUc 20g nig dMu CaCO TMhMFMmFmcMnYn 20g dUcKa .
3 3 3

-dMeNIrkarBiesaFn_

CaCO3 + HCl(aq) CaCO3 + HCl(aq) CaCO3 + HCl(aq)

-smIkarRbtikmKImI CaCO + 2HCl CaCl + H O + CO

3 2 2 2

-segt RbtikmrvagemSA CaCO CamYy HCl elOnCagRbtikm HCl CamYyduM CaCO FM nigdMutUc .
3 3

-snidan el,nRbtikmGaRsynwgTMhMPaKlitnGgFatuRbtikr . TMhMPaKlitkan;EttUc el,nRbtikm

kan;EtelOn.
-
.-

BiesaFn_ \TiBlkMhab;GIuy:ugGIuy:UDY I -

-vtbMNg tamdankarvivtn_nkMhab; I GaRsynwgkMhab; I .

2
-

-smar EkvebEscMnYnbI cgwHcMnYnbI RkUNUEm:t .

-sarFatuKImI sU> KI sU> H O nigsU> H SO .
2 2 2 4

-dMeNIrkarBiesaFn_ erobEkvbIdak;sU> KI EdlmankMhab;xusKaedaybEnmsU> H SO bnic. 2 4

enAxN t =0 eKEfmsU>H O eTAkgEkvTaMgbIxagelIdUcKa ehIykUr[l,ayesIsac;.

2 2

-smIkartagRbtikmKImI H O + 2H + 2I I + H O
2 2
+ -
2 2

4
 -segt enAxN t eKsegteXIjBNrbs; I kgsU>EkvEdlmankMhab; I FMCageK ekIteLIgeRcInCag
2
-

eK nigbnbnab;.
-snidan el,nkMN I ekItkan;EtelOn kalNakMhab; I kan;EtFM.
2
-

.-

k-c,ab;kMhab; el,nkMNGgFatukekIt b el,nbM)at;RbtikrekIn kalNakMhab;GgFatuRbtikrekIn.

x-bMNkRsay kalNakMhab;GgFatuRbtikrekIn enaHcMnYnTgicRbsiTkan;EteRcIn naM[el,nRbtikmekIn
eLIgEdr .
K-Gnuvtn_
-edIm,IeFVIRbtikmyWtmYy[elOn eKRtUvbegInkMhab;GgFatuRbtikr[FM.
-edIm,IeFVIRbtikmenAkgsU>mYy[yWt eKRtUvBRgavmCdanRbtikmedaybEnmTwk .
-

sm<aFman\TiBlEteTAelIRbBnTaMgLayNaEdlmanPaBrUbCa]snEtb:ueNaH .
kalNasm<aFekIneLIg naM[cMnYnTgicRbsiTekIneLIgEdr enaHel,nRbtikmekIneLIg .
]TahrN_ TegVIGam:Ujak;tamlMnaMehebRtUvkarsm<aFx<s; .
katalI

kr Fe
N (g) + 3H (g)
2 2 2NH (g) 3
sm<aBx<s;

4>1-sikSaBiesaFn_ \TiBlnsItuNPaBelIel,nRbtikm
-vtbMNg tamdankarvivtn_nkMhab; I GaRsyelIsItuNPaB .
2

-smar EkvebEscMnYnbI bMBg;sakcMnYn4 ETm:UEm:tcMnYn2 ceggGal;kul1 .

-sarFatuKImI sU> KI sU> H O nigsU> H SO .
2 2 2 4

-dMeNIrkarBiesaFn_ ykbMBg;sakBIr dak;sUluysg I manlaysU> H SO bnic ehIybMBg;sakBIr

-
2 4

eTotdak;sU> H O . rYcykbMBg;BIrqas;KaeTARtaMkgEkvebEsdak;Twkkk nigTwkekA .

2 2

enAxN t =0 eKlaysU>nImYycUlKa ehIyRkLk[l,ayesIsac;.

Twkkk TwkekA Twkkk TwkekA

-smIkartagRbtikmKImI H O 2I 2H I 2H O
2 2

2 2

-segt enAxN t eKsegteXIjBNrbs; I RtaMkgTwkekA manPaBCaMxaMgCagRtaMkgTwkkk.

2

5
 -snidan el,nkMN I kan;EtelOn kalNasItuNPaBekIneLIg .
2

4>2-Gnuvtn_
edIm,I[RbtikmekItelOn eKRtUvdMeLIgsItuNPaB . edIm,I[RbtikmekItyWt eKRtUvbBaHsItuNPaB .
-

.-

katalIkr CasarFatuEdlBennel,nRbtikmKImIekItg ehIyvaekIteLIgvijedayKan)at;bg;lkNKImI

enAeBlRbtikmcb;.
BiesaFn_ RbtikmbMEbkTwkGuksIuEsn H O 2 2

smIkartagRbtikm H O (aq) H O (l ) O ( g )
2 2
MnO2 ( s )
2
1
2 2

regIkePIgeQIKUs regIkePIgeQIKUs

sU> H O
2 2
sU> H O
2 2

MnO2

MnO2

.-

niymny katalIs KWCaGMeBInkatalIkreTAelIRbtikmKImI . eKEckkatalIsCabIRbePTKW

-katalIsGUmU:Esn CakatalIsEdlkatalIkrmanpasdUcGgFatuRbtikr .
]Ta- H O (aq) H O (l ) O ( g )
2 2
Fe 2 ( aq )
2
1
2 2

-katalIseGetrU:Esn CakatalIsEdlkatalIkrmanpasxusBIGgFatuRbtikr .
]Ta- H O (aq) H O (l ) O ( g )
2 2
MnO2 ( s )
2
1
2 2

-katalIsGg;sIum CakatalIsEdlkatalIkrCaGg;sIum dUcCaRbUetGIunEdlbgeLIgBIPavrs;.

]Ta- H O (aq) efIm(kataLas
2 2 H O (l ) O ( g ) 2
1
2 2

.-

)atuPUtviessPaB
kalNakatalIkrmYymanskmPaBc,as;las;eTAelIRbtikmKImImYy .
katalIkrGacedATisnRbtikmKImI)an .
6
 ]Ta-edsIuRdUEsnkmeGtaNul .
CH 3 CH 2 OH (aq)
Cu
CH 3 CHO(aq) H 2 ( g )

CH 3 CH 2 OH (aq) CH 2 CH 2 ( g ) H 2 O (l )
Al2O3

katalIkrEdleRbITUeTAmanbrimaNtic. Cajwkjab;brimaNticnkatalIkrGacbMElgbrimaNdeRcIn
nGgFatuRbtikr)an .
]Ta- smIkarRbtikmrbs;katalIkrGIuy:ug Fe elIDIstkmTwkGuksIuEsn.
2+

-dMbUg
2 Fe2+ Fe3+ + 1e-
1 H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- 2H2O H2O2 --- H2O : Eo=1,77V
2 Fe2+ + H2O2 + 2H+ 2 Fe3+ + 2H2O (1)
-bnab;
2 Fe3+ + 1e- Fe2+ Fe3+ ----- Fe2+ : Eo=0,77V
1 H2O2 O2 + 2H+ + 2e-
2 Fe3+ + H2O2 2 Fe2+ + O2 + 2H+ (2)
-bUk (1) nig(2) O2 --- H2O2 :Eo=0,68V
1 2 Fe + H2O2 + 2H 2 Fe + 2H2O
2+ +
(1) 3+
3+
1 2 Fe + H2O2 2 Fe + O2 + 2H (2)
2+ +

2H2O2 2H2O + O2 (3)

.-

niymny sVykatalIs KWCakatalIsnRbtikmEdlekIteLIgedaysarplitplkekItnRbtikmenaH.

]TahrN_ erdukmGIuy:ugEBm:g;kaNat MnO edayGasIutGuksalic H C O .

4 2 2 4
2
2 MnO 4 8H 5 e Mn 4H 2O
+ 5 H C O
2 CO2 2 H 2e
2 2 4

tulkar 2MnO 5H C O 6H 2Mn

4 2 2 4
Mn 2 2
10CO2 8 H 2 O

GIuy:ug Mn EdlkekItedIrtYCakatalIkr.
2+

BiesaFn_ l,aysU>MnO nigsU> H C O 4

-
2 2 4

man Mn2+

.-

katalIsmansarsMxan;ya:gFMcMeBaH]sSahkmKImI
() /

7
 ()karbegInplitpl nig
() karsRmaMgplitpl .

-



- NaCl (s) H

2O
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
CaCl2 (s) H

2O
Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Al2(SO4)3 (s) H

2O
2Al3+ (aq) + 3SO42- (aq)
.-


- NaCl (aq)
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
AgNO3(aq)
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl (aq)
AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

.-




- AgNO3(aq) + NaCl (aq)
AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
AgCl (s) + Na+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
AgCl (s) ()

-



(-)
- NaCl (s) H

2O
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HCl (g) + H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

8
- ( H3O+ )

H+ (H3O+)
- HCl (g) H

2O
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
H+ (aq) + H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq)

HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

-




.




.
- NaCl (s) H

2O
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HCl (g) + H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)




H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)
- HF (g) + H2O (l)


H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)

-


- KCl NaCl
- CaCl2 NaCl

-

-

( 0 K = - 273 oC )

-




- C3H8 CH4

- -

10
 -
-
-
-
-
(
) O ; N ; F
-

11

-

-
-
.-

- HCl + NaOH
NaCl + H2O
H

- HF
HCl
H2S

H O



- HNO3 H2SO4
CH3COOH


(H3O+)

HCl (g) + H2O (l)
Cl- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HF (g) + H2O (l) F- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

-
H2SO4 : ...
- HNO3 :
...
-
H3PO4 :
...
-
HCl : ...
- CH3COOH : ...

.-







KOH + HNO3
KNO3 + H2O
(OH-)

NaOH(s) water
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

12
-
-
-
( H+ )

- HCl (g) water
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
-



( OH- )

- NaOH(s) water
Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
-

H+
OH-
H+ ()



H3O+
H+ (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq)



- HCl (g) + H2O (l)
Cl- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HNO3 (l) + H2O (l)
NO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
-
OH-
H3O+
- NaOH(s) water Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
NH3 (g) + H2O (l)

-
- -



(H+)
HCl (g) + NH3 (g)
NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HCl NH3





NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
NH3 H2O
-
-

H+ + H O H
H O H
H
H+ (aq) + H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq)


H+








H+ (aq) + NH3 (aq) (aq)
H

H N H
H+ +
H
NH3

13
-

-
- HCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Cl- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
NO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
-
- H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
HSO4- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l)
SO42- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
-
- H3PO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
H2PO4- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
H2PO4- (aq) + H2O (l)
HPO42- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HPO42- (aq) + H2O (l)
PO43- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

-

.
-

(H3O+)

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) Cl- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) NO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HClO4 (aq) + H2O (l) ClO4- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) SO42- (aq) + 2H3O+ (aq)
- (H3O+)


HF (aq) + H2O(l)
F (aq) + H3O (aq)
- +

HCN (aq) + H2O(l)
CN- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l)
CH3COO - (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

.
-

(OH-)

KOH (s)
K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
-
(OH-)



NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
NH3 (g) + H2O(l)

+ -

C6H5NH3+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
C6H5NH2 (aq) + H2O(l)


CH3COO (aq) + H2O (l)
- CH3COOH (aq) + OH- (aq)

14


.
-
.

HCOOH + H2O + H3O+

CH3COOH + H2O + H3O+

C6H5COOH + H2O + H3O+

+ H2O HCOOH +

+ H2O CH3COOH +

+ H2O C6H5COOH +

.
-
- -

- NH3(aq) + HF (aq) (aq) + (aq)

- /NH3 HF/
.
-
- HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

- HCl(aq) + CH3COONa(aq) NaCl(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)

- CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

15


pH

-



-

H2O (l) + H2O (l)
H3O (aq) + OH (aq)
+ -

25oC
pH=7
[H3O+] = [OH-] = 10-7mol.L-1
-

H3O+
OH
-



(Ke Kw)
[H3O+] [OH-] = Ke ( )
25oC Ke = [H3O+] [OH-] = 10-14



[H3O+] = [OH-]
( pH = 7 )
[H3O+] > [OH-]
( pH < 7 )

[H3O+] < [OH-]

( pH > 7 )

- pH

- pH

- pH


[H3O+]


pH = - log[H3O+] [H3O+] = 10-pH
- pOH




[OH-]


pOH = - log[OH-] [OH-] = 10-pOH
25oC Kw = 10-14 pKw = - logKw = - log 10-14 = 14
pH + pOH = 14

[ H3O ] = [ OH ]
+ -

- pH
- pH pH pH

16

-

-
- H3O+

OH-
- NaOH (s)
Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
HCl (g) + H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
2H2O


-()-

-
-











CaVa = Cb Vb
Ca Va Cb Vb

-

pH

(H) 3.1 - 4.4

(BBT) 6.0 - 7.6

(PP) 8.2 - 10.0

-
-





-

-

17


tamRTwsI RbtikmGacRbRBwteTAtamTisedABIr KWRbtikmtamTisbeNay nigRbtikmtamTisRcas .

dUecH RKb;RbtikmKImI Edl)anelIkeLIgCaRbtikmeTAmkenAeRkamlkxNsmRsbNamYy .
-RbtikmeTAmk KWCaRbtikmmYyEdlkgenaH GgFatukekIt bplitpl GacmanRbtikmCamYyKabegIt
GgFatuRbtikrvij .
]Ta >)art (II) GuksIut RtUvkemAbMEbkCa)art nigGuksIuEsn .
2HgO

t
2Hg + O2 (1)
>kalNaRtUvkemA )artmanGMeBICamYyGuksIuEsn [plCa)art (II) GuksIutvij .
2Hg + O2

t
2HgO (2)
tam (1) nig (2) eK)ansmIkarRbtikmeTAmk
2HgO



t
2Hg + O2
-RbtikmeTAmkmanlMnwg kalNael,nRbtikmtamTisbeNayesInwgel,nRbtikmtamTisRcas
ehIykMhab;GgFatukekIt nigGgFatuRbtikrElgERbRbYl .
-

RbtikmKImICaeRcIn CaRbtikmeTAmk enAeRkamlkxNsItuNPaB nigkMhab;RbRktI .

RbtikmTaMgenaHeTAdl;sanPaBlMnwg ebIKansarFatuNamYyRtUv)anrMedaHecjBIRbBnKImI .
-krNIxH RbtikmtamTisbeNayRbRBwteTAesIrTaMgRsug eTIbmanRbtikmtamTisRcasekIteLIg .
dUecH enAeBllMnwgKImI kMhab;GgFatukekItFMCagGgFatuRbtikr .
eKfa lMnwgeTareTAxagsaM CaRbtikmnaMmux .
]Ta- 2SO (g) + O (g)
2 2 2SO 3

-krNIxH RbtikmtamTisbeNayRbRBwteTAedaylM)ak nigRbtikmtamTisRcasRbRBwteTAgayRsYl .

dUecH enAeBllMnwgKImI kMhab;GgFatuRbtikrFMCagGgFatukekIt .
eKfa lMnwgeTareTAxageqVg CaRbtikmnaMmux .
]Ta- H CO (aq) + H O (l)
2 3 2
3
+
H O (aq) + HCO (aq) 3
-

18
-

]bmafa GgFatu A nig B manRbtikmCamYyKa begIt)anCaGgFatu C nig D ehIyGgFatu C nig D

manRbtikmCamYyKabegIt)anCaGgFatu A nig B vij . enAeBllMnwgKImIeK)ansmIkartulkar


aA + bB
cC + dD
eK)ankenSamefrlMnwg K :
[C ] c [ D ] d
K
[ A]a [ B ]b
efr K b efrlMnwg K CaTMhMKanxat kMhab;RbePTKImI KitCa mol.L .
-1

efr K minGaRsynwgkMhab;RbePTKImIeT EtGaRsynwgsItuNPaB .

- RbtikmeTAmknRbtikmrvag H nig I enAlkxNkMNt;mYy tagedaysmIkartulkar
2 2

H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI (g)

[ HI ] 2
kenSamefrlMnwgKImIsresr K
[ H 2 ] [ I 2 ]

19


-
(Le Chat el i er )











.-

()
( )





- N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)


(1)
2NH3 (g)
( 2)
1 mol 3 mol 2 mol

4 mol

2 mol



(1)
.-






A + B

(1)
C + D
( 2)

A B (1)

K







. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
K = [CO2]

[CH 3 COO ] [ H 3 O ]
CH3COO (aq) + H3O (aq) K
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) - +
[CH 3COOH ]

H2O(l) + H2O(l)
H3O (aq) + OH (aq) K = [H3O ][OH-] = Ke
+ - +

.-







- ()


2NH3(g) 92kJ
(1)
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ( 2)

(2)
()

N2O4 (g)
(1)
2NO2 (g) ( 2)

20
 (1)

K
-








.-





. 2H3O+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) + 2H2O (l)


2H2O (l) + CO2(g)
H2CO3(aq)


CO2
.-
AgNO3
NaCl AgCl
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (s)



AgCl
.-
HCl NaOH

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
H3O + (aq) + OH- (aq)
2H2O (l)







-

.-







NaCl (s)

Na (aq) + Cl-(aq)
+

(HCl)


(Cl-)




(Na )
+
(NaCl)

.-
CH3COOH 0.1M
H3 O +
1,3%
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)


CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
21
 CH3COONa

CH3COO-
CH3COONa

H3O+
CH3COOH
CH3COOH

400 C
o

H2 (g) + I2 (g)


2HI (g) K = 50,0
0,0800 mol 0,0800 mol

1,00L







H2 (g) + I2 (g)


2HI (g) K = 50,0
0.08M 0.08M 0
x x 2x
0.08-x 0.08-x 2x

[ HI ]2 (2 x) 2 ( 2 x) 2 2x



K 50
[ H 2 ] [ I 2 ] (0,08 x) 2
(0,08) 2
0,08
2x = 0,087,07=0.5656
x = 0.2828M
[I2] = 0.08-0.28 = - 0.2M (
)
[ HI ]2 (2 x) 2

K 50
[ H 2 ] [ I 2 ] (0,08 x) 2
2x
50 7 . 07
0 . 08 x
2x = 0,5656 - 7,07x
2x + 7,07x = 0,5656

0 . 5656
x 0 . 06 M
9 . 07

[I2] = 0.08-0.06 = 0.02M ()

22


-


-



CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)

CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)


[CH 3 COO ] [ H 3 O ]

K a
[CH 3 COOH ]
Ka


HA 0,1M pH = 2,2


100,8 = 6,3


H3O+ :
[H3O+] = 10-pH = 10-2,2 = 100,810-3 = 6,310-3M
= 0,0063M
HA(aq) + H2O(g)
A-(aq) + H3O+ (aq)

0,1M 0 0
0,0063M 0,0063M 0,0063M

0,1M-0,0063M 0,0063M 0,0063M
[ A ] [ H 3 O ] 0,0063 0,0063 (0,0063) 2
Ka 4,23 10 4
[ HA] (0,1 0,0063) 0,0937
-


H2O (l) + H2O (l)
H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)


H3O+ OH-


K e [ H 3 O ] [ OH ] K w 10 14 25oC
-




(
)


pH = 7
Na2CO3

pH 7 NH4Cl


pH 7


pH 7
.-

23
 HA A-
H3 O +


HA (aq) + H2O (l) A- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

A-




OH-


A (aq) + H2O (l)
-
HA (aq) + OH- (aq)

A- OH-



HA A-


-
Na2CO3
Na2CO3 (s)
2Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)

Na+ (aq) + H2O
CO32- (aq) + H2O
HCO3- (g) + OH- (aq)
CO32- Na2CO3 -
OH


Na2CO3
.-






B BH+
OH-



BH+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
B (aq) + H2O (l)

BH+
B


H3 O +

BH (aq) + H2O (l)
+

B (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
BH+
H3O+




B BH+
- NH4Cl
NH4Cl (s)
NH4 (aq) + Cl- (aq)
+

Cl- (aq) + H2O
NH4+ (aq) + H2O
NH3 (g) + H3O+ (aq)

NH4Cl H3O+

-










pH

24
-
0,100mol CH3COOH 0,100mol CH3COONa



CH3COOH CH3COO- 0,100 mol

-

( R-COOH ) ( -OH )
( -OR )
O
R C or R-COOR (R, R )
O R
O
C or -COO-C-
O C
.-

R


- CH3-COO-C2H5
C6H5-COO-C2H5
CH3-COO-C6H5
CH3-CH-CH2-COO-CH2-CH-CH3 2- 3-
CH3 CH3
.-

...
.-
.

R-COO-R + H2O R-COOH + R-OH


CH3-COO-C2H5 + H2O CH3-COOH + C2H5-OH

.
R-COO-R + NaOH R-COONa + R-OH
CH3-COO-C2H5 + NaOH

CH3-COONa + C2H5-OH
.
R-COO-R + NH3

R-CO-NH2 + R -OH

CH3-COO-C2H5 + NH3

CH3-CO-NH2 + C2H5-OH
25
 .
CuO,CuCr2O4 LiAlH4
R-COO-R + 2H2
R-CH2-OH + R-OH

CH3-COO-C3H7 + 2H2
CH3-CH2-OH + C3H7-OH
.-

.
R-COO-R

R-COOH + R-OH + H2O
CH3-COOH + C2H5-OH CH3-COO-C2H5 + H2O

.

-
R-CO-O-CO-R + R-OH
R-COO-R + R-COOH
CH3-CO-O-CO-CH3 + C2H5-OH
CH3-COO-C2H5 + CH3-COOH
-

R-CO-Cl + R-OH
R-COO-R + HCl
CH3-CO-Cl + C2H5-OH
CH3-COO-C2H5 + HCl
.- ( )
COO-CH3 COOH COO-CH3 COOH

OH OH O-CO-CH3
( )

COOH CH3-CO COOH
O
CH3-COOH
OH CH3-CO O-CO-CH3

-



.-
-1,2,3-
( CH2OH-CHOH-CH2OH)
CH2OH CH2OCOR
CH OH + 3R-COOH
CH OCOR + 3H2O
CH2OH CH2OCOR

- CH3-(CH2)14-COOH
- CH3-(CH2)16-COOH

26
 - CH3-(CH2)18-COOH


- CH3-(CH2)7-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH
- CH3-(CH2)4-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH
- CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH
-
CH3-(CH2)3 -CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-(CH2)4-COOH
.-


-

CH2OCO(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3 CH2OCO(CH2)16 CH3
CHOCO(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3 + 3H2 Ni
CHOCO(CH2)16CH3
t
CH2OCO(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3 CH2OCO(CH2)16CH3

( )
( )
-


CH2OCO(CH2)14CH3 CH2OH
CHOCO(CH2)14CH3 + 3NaOH
CHOH + 3CH3(CH2)14COONa
CH2OCO(CH2)14CH3 CH2OH ( )



.-





CO2
H2O
.-


()

27


() ()

( COO-)

-



()

air water

air
water water

water water
water

Ca2+

Mg2+

Ca2+ Mg2+

2R + Ca2+ (R COO)2Ca (s)

2R + Mg2+ (R COO)2Mg (s)

28


Ca2+

Mg2+

.- -SO3- -0SO3-
- R SO3Na ( R 1218 )
- CH3 (CH2)10 CH2 OSO3Na

.-
- - -

29


-
.-
-
NH3
(R)
H N H NH3 R N H R-NH2
H H

R R
CnH2n+3N
-

R
R1 N H I, R1 N R2 II, R1 N R2 III
H H R3
-
- I R-
. . CH3-NH2 . CH3-CH2-NH2
. CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-NH2 . CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH2
CH3 2- NH2 1
- II III
: R- N- ( N,N-
)
: 1
. . C2H5-NH-CH3 N-
. CH3-NH-CH3 N-
. C2H5-N-CH3 N,N-
CH3
. C6H5-N-C2H5 N N-
CH3
.-

6

30

I
III
.-
-
C2H5-NH2
0,1M
pH=11,9 25oC
C2H5-NH2 + H+ C2H5-NH3+
C2H5-NH2 + H2O C2H5-NH3+ + OH-

R-NH2 NH3 C6H5-NH2
- (R-X)
C2H5
R1 N R2 + C2H5 I R1 N+ R2 + I-
R3 R3
Ex. CH3
CH3 N CH3 + CH3 I CH3 N+ CH3 + I-
CH3 CH3
- I (R-CO-Cl)
R CO Cl + R1 NH2 R CO NH R1 + HCl
Ex. CH3COCl + CH3NH2 CH3CO NHCH3 + HCl
-
R NH2 + HCl R NH3+ + Cl-

.-
- I
RX + NH3 R NH2 + HX
C2H5Cl + NH3 C2H5NH2 + HCl
I II, II III
R X R X
R X R NH 2
NH 3
R NH R R3 N
- I
R C N 4 H R CH 2 NH 2
Ni 200 atm

I
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 C N 4 H CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 NH 2
Ni , t , p

31
-
.-
-
(R-COOH)(-OH)
(-NH2)
R-CO-NH2
(-NH2)
RCONH2 RCONHR1 RCONR1
I II R2
III
-

. H-CO-NH2 CH3-CO-NH2 CH3-CH2-CO-NH2
(IUPAC) :
()
- II III
N- N,N-
. CH3CONHCH3 CH3CONCH3
N- CH3 N,N-
.-
-

-
CH 3 CO NH 2 H OH

t
CH 3 COOH NH 3
.-
-
CH 3 COO C2 H 5 NH 3
CH 3 CO NH 2 C2 H 5 OH
-
CH 3 CO Cl 2 NH 3
CH 3 CO NH 2 NH 4Cl
-
CH 3 CO O CO CH 3 NH 3
CH 3 CO NH 2 CH 3 COOH
-
CH 3 COOH NH 3
CH 3 CO NH 2 H 2O

32
.- ( )

H2CO3 H2N-CO-NH2
CO2 2 NH 3
H 2 N CO NH 2 H 2O

-

.-
-
(-COOH )
( -NH2 ) -


- R C H COOH
NH2
-

- -


. H C H COOH CH 3 C H COOH
NH2 NH2
- ( Gly) - ( Ala)

H 2 N C H 2 C H 2 COOH H 2 N C H 2 C H 2 C H 2 COOH
- -
.-
-
...

-


R CH COO R CH COOH R CH COO

NH 3 NH 3 NH 2

/

33
 R CH COOH R CH COO


+ H+
NH 3 NH 3

R CH COO R CH COO

+ H+
NH 3 NH 2


.-

-

-
-
CH2 COOH 2NH3
CH2 COOH NH4Cl
Cl NH2
-


HCN H2 O
CH3 CHO CH3 CH C N CH3 CH COOH
NH3 H+
NH2 NH2
.-
-

(-CO-NH- )

(Gly) (Ala) (Gly-Ala)

- 60

- 60

- 20

34
 emeonTI3 smasFatuRbehIr
CasmasFatusrIragEdlmanvg;bg;Esn (C H ) b 6 6 kgsmasFaturbs;va.
RbtikmCMnYssMxan;EdlekItmanelIbg;EsnrYmman
Cl
-RbtikmkrkmbUkkr Cl
2 + Cl 2 + HCl

Br
-RbtikmRbUmkmbUkkr Br 2 + Br2 + HBr

NO 2
-RbtikmnIRTkmbUk HNO 3 + HO NO 2 + H2O

SO 3H
-RbtikmsulpUkmbUk H SO
2 4 + HO SO 3H + H2O

R
-RbtikmGal;KIlkmbUk R X + R Cl + HCl

1-RsLaybg;Esn
-nIRtUbg;Esn ekItBIRbtikmrvagbg;Esn CamYyGasIutnIRTic kgmCdanGasIutsulpYric
H NO 2
H2SO 4
+ HO NO 2 o + H2O
80 C
NO 2 NO 2
plitplEdlekItGacCMnYselIkTI2eTot TItaMg)a:ra: mantictYc
HO NO 2
NO 2
TItaMgemta maneRcIn
nIRtUbg;Esn NO 2 NO2
-nIRtUtUluyEGn ekItBIRbtikmCMnYsrvag tUluyEGn CamYyGasIutnIRTic kgmCdanGasIutsulpUric .
CH3 CH3
O 2N NO 2
H2SO 4
+ 3 HO NO 2 2,4,6- RTInRI tU tUluyEGn
( TNT )
NO 2

-epNul CasmasFatubg;Esn EdlPab;RkumGIuRduksIul (-OH) .

OH OH OH
]Ta> CH3
O 2N NO 2

NO 2
epNul O-emTIl epNul b eRksul 2,4,6-RTInIRtU epNul b GasIutBIRKic

35
 -lkNrUbepNul -CaRkamKanBNrlaykgTwktic cMNucrlay 42 C cMNucrMBuH 181 C . o o

sUluysgrbs;vamanlkNBul eKvasRmab;smab;emeraK .
ONa
-TegVIepNul Cl
+ 2 NaOH
tx<s;
P x<s;
+ NaCl + H2O

krUbg;Esn sUdmepNULat
ONa OH
+ CO 2 + H2O + NaHCO 3

sUdmepNULat epNul sUdmbkabUNat

-lkNKImI -lkNdUcGal;kul KWvamanRbtikmCamYysUdm .
OH ONa
]Ta> + Na + 1 H
2 2

-lkNxusBIGal;kul vamanRbtikmCamYy NaOH , Br , nig Gal;edGIutprmic 2

>RbtikmCamYy)as NaOH eRBaHvamanlkNCaGasIutKWGasIutepnic .

]Ta> OH ONa

+ NaOH + H2O

>RbtikmCMnYsCamYyRbUm Br 2 OH

]Ta> OH
+ 3 Br2
Br Br
+ 3 HBr

Br
2,4,6-RTIRbUm:U epNul
> RbtikmCamYyGal;edGIutprmic katalIkrCa)asGal;kalI
OH OH
]Ta> CH2OH
H C H OH-
+
O
epNul Gal;edGIutprmic O-GIuRduksIu bg;sIulGal;kul
Rbtikmkugdg;km CaRbtikmEdlm:UelKul BIrbeRcIn eFIVRbtikmCamYyKaedIm,IbegItCam:UelKulFMCagmun
edaypac;m:U>tUcecj. OH OH OH OH
]Ta> CH2 CH2 CH2 EpkmYyn)aeklIt

-Gal;kulRbehIr CasmasFatuRbehIrEdlmanRkumGIuRduksIul (-OH ) Pab;nwgExSkabUnCab;vg;bg;Esn

]Ta> CH2 OH CH2 CH2 OH

bg;sIul Gal;kul epnIleGtaNul

>TegVIbg;sIulGal;kul tamRbtikmrvag bg;sIul RbUm:U CamYysUt .

CH2Br CH2OH
+ NaOH + NaBr

3-Gal;edGIutRbehIr CasmasFatuRbehIrEdlmanbgM (-CHO ) Pab;nwgExSkabUnCab;vg;bg;Esn

CHO CH2 CHO

36
 ]>

-lkNrUbbg;sal;edGIut CaGgFaturavKanBN minrlaykgTwk varlayenA -17 C nigBuHenA 179 C o o

-lkNKImI - RbtikmCMnUsRbUm Br Rbe TAedayBi)ak .

2
CHO
]> + Br 2
Fe
CHO
+ HBr
t
bg;sal;edGIut Br p-RbUm:Ubg;sal;edGIut
- lkNCaGal;edGIut vaGacrgGuksIutkmtamsRmYleday K Cr O eTACaGasIut . 2 2 7

]> CHO
K 2Cr2O 7 H2SO 4
COOH

bg;sal;edGIut GasIut bg;sUGiuc

-TegVIGal;edGIut tamRbtikmCMnYskr elItUluyEGn bnab;mkrgGIuRdUlIskgmCdan)as .
CH3 CHCl CHO
]> + Cl 2 + H O
2
2
UV NaOH
tUluyEGn bg;sal;krY bg;sal;edGIut
4-GasIutRbehIr CasmasFatuRbehIrEdlmanbgMnaTI (-COOH ) Pab;nigvg;bg;EsnmYybeRcIn .
]> COOH
COOH
COOH

GasIutbg;sUGiuc GasIutpalic GasIuteterpalic

COOH
COOH
TegVIGasIutRbehIr-TegVIGasIutbg;sUGiuc tamRbtikmGuksIutkmnbg;sal;edGIut
CHO COOH
K 2Cr2O 7 H2SO 4

bg;sal;edGIut GasIutbg;sUGiuc
-TegVIGasIut p-krUbg;sUGiuc RbtikmGuksIutkm p-krU tUluyEGn .
KMnO 4
Cl CH3 Cl COOH
p-krU tUluyEGn p-GasIutkrU bg;sUGiuc
-TegVIGasIuteterpalic tamRbtikmGuksIutkmn p-sIuELnedayGuksIuEsn enAsItuN
PaBx<s; nigmankatalIkrkU)al; (Co ) .
+ O2 HO C C OH
CH3 CH3 o
150 C , Co
O O

37