Article

pubs.acs.org/EF

Synthesis and Characterization of Aviation Turbine Kerosene

Nanouid Fuel Containing Boron Nanoparticles
Fateme Sadat Shariatmadar and Shahram Ghanbari Pakdehi*
Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Malek-Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: The present work studies the thermal and physical properties of aviation turbine kerosene (ATK)boron
nanofuels, including stability time, viscosity, thermal behavior, and energy content. Also, this study tries to explore the eects of
the size and concentration of boron particles, surfactant type, and temperature on the stability and viscosity of nanofuel. Nanofuel
samples were prepared and characterized at 0.54 wt % of particle loading and 0.12 wt % of surfactant loading ranges, for
micro- and nanosized boron particles. Various surfactants, such as oleic acid, propylene glycol (PG), sorbitan oleate, Tween 85,
and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), were used to stabilize the nanouids. The results showed that sorbitan oleate
was the best surfactant and the best weight ratio of boron particles/sorbitan oleate was about 2. With the increase of the
nanoparticle concentrations from 2 to 4 wt % at 5 C, the nanofuel viscosity was increased 24%, and with the increase of the
temperature from 5 to 40 C at a constant particle concentration (4 wt %), a 67% decrease was obtained in viscosity. Also, the
eect of the particle concentration on the energy content and thermal behavior of nanofuel was determined, and it was noticed
that 3 wt % boron nanoparticles could decrease the boiling point and increase the energy content of ATK fuel, signicantly.

1. INTRODUCTION aviation turbine fuel (ATF),23 the decline of diesel ignition

Nanouid-type fuels are a new class of nanotechnology-based
fuels, which are widely used in the elds of combustion and
propulsion. Nanoparticles are suspended in traditional liquid
fuels and improve the energy content and performance of
them.14 Recent studies have shown that adding energetic
nanoparticles, such as boron and aluminum, to fuels can result
in better performance, such as a shorter ignition delay time,
higher energy content, and increased burning rate.210 Also,
thermal properties of the base fuel can be changed because of a
higher thermal conductivity of the particles.11,12
To date, many studies have explored combustion,
thermophysical properties, and heat transfer performance of
nanouids. Jackson et al.13 using a shock tube found that the
ignition delay time of n-dodecane could decrease by adding Al
nanoparticles. Tyagi et al.7 reported that a small amount of
aluminum nanoparticle (2 wt %) could improve the ignition of
diesel fuel signicantly. Van Devener and Anderson8 reduced
the ignition temperature of Jet fuel (JP-10) by using the
Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2) catalytic nanoparticles. Van Devener
and Anderson coated boron nanoparticles with ceria as a
catalyst and produced air-stable particles.9,14 These unoxidized
boron nanoparticles were used as fuel additives and were
solvable in hydrocarbons. In another work, Young et al.1517
used boron nanoparticles for air-breathing propulsion.
A benchmark study for thermal conductivity of nanouids
was performed by Buongiomo et al.18 Their results showed the
thermal conductivity of nanouids increased with the particle
concentration. Subsequently, other researchers1921 have used
dierent methods, including steady-state cut bar method,
transient hot-wire method, and KD2 Pro, to nd out the
thermal conductivity of nanouids. Regardless of dierent
measurement methods, all of them observed that an increase in
the temperature lead to a signicant increase in thermal
conductivity.22 Several researchers have studied the inuence of
Al2O3 nanoparticles on the thermophysical properties of
delay time,7 and the combustion4 and evaporation5 character-
istics of ethanol. They have clearly explained that the addition
of the Al2O3 nanoparticle increases the thermophysical
properties of the base fuels. Al2O3 nanoparticles at 1% volume
concentration have shown that the viscosity of fuel increases by
38%.23
Wang et al.24 measured the viscosity of ethylene glycol
alumina and wateralumina nanouids and observed that the
viscosity of nanouids was higher than that of the base uids.
Lee et al.25 measured the viscosity and thermal conductivity of
wateralumina nanouids at a low concentration of particles
and remarked that the nanouid viscosity had a nonlinear
enhancement with the particle concentration. Nguyen et al.26
have shown that the viscosity of wateralumina nanouids
increases with particle loading and decreases with the
temperature. Li et al.27 showed the eect of surface
modication of nanoparticles on the viscosity and thermal
conductivity of nanofuels. They modied the surface of Cu
nanoparticles with O,O-di-n-cetyldithiophosphoric acid and
prepared keroseneCu nanofuels. In another study, the heat
transfer coecient and thermophysical properties of ATF
alumina nanofuel were determined at various particle volume
concentrations.23 The results showed a 55% increase in
viscosity and only a 17% increase in thermal conductivity of
ATFAl2O3 nanofuel, for 0.3 vol % alumina at 50 C. Another
benchmark study on the nanouid viscosity measurement
showed that the viscosity of nanouids increases with the
particle concentration.28
Although many experimental data on nanouid properties
are available in the literature, the data on ATK-based nanofuels
Received: June 7, 2016
Revised: August 7, 2016
Published: August 22, 2016

2016 American Chemical Society 7755 DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370

Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels
Table 1. Physical Properties of ATK Fuel and Surfactants
chemical formula molecular weight (g/mol)
ATK
oleic acid C18H38COOH 282.46
PG C3H8O2 76.09
sorbitan oleate C24H44O6 428.6
Tween 85 C60H108O8(C2H4O)n
CTAB C19H42BrN 364.45
Figure 1. SEM images of boron nanoparticles produced by the milling method.
are limited. ATK is an important hydrocarbon fuel for pulsed
detonation engines (PDEs) and scramjets because of its high
energy density and stable thermodynamic properties.1 The
addition of energetic boron nanoparticles to ATK is a way to
increase the energy content and performance of this fuel. Boron
particles have a volumetric heat of combustion (136 MJ/L)
higher than aluminum particles (81 MJ/L) and hydrocarbon
fuels (jet fuels, 3439 MJ/L).14 In the present study, the
suspensions of a boron nanoparticle in ATK fuel were prepared
and the eect of the surfactant type, particle size, particle
loading, and temperature on the stability of ATKboron
nanofuels was investigated. Also, the viscosity, energy content,
and thermal behavior of nanofuel samples were measured
experimentally and compared at dierent boron particle
concentrations.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1. Materials. The boron microparticles (synthesized at Malek-
Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, Iran), which were used to
produce boron nanoparticles, had 89 1 wt % purity and a particle
size range of 15 m. Various surfactants, including oleic acid,
propylene glycol (PG), sorbitan oleate, and Tween 85 (as non-ionic
surfactants) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) (as an
ionic surfactant) were used (all surfactants were from Merck Co.,
Germany). ATK, a nonpolar solvent, was selected as the base fuel. The
physical properties of dierent surfactants and ATK fuel are presented
in Table 1.
2.2. Production of Boron Nanoparticles. Boron nanoparticles
were produced by ball milling of as-received boron microparticles. The
milling was carried out in a ball mill apparatus (Planetary Ball Mill,
NARYA-MPM 2*250H, Amin Asia Co.) with two steel milling jars. To
facilitate the particle size reduction to <100 nm, the ratio of balls/
powder mass was kept high at 60:1. In the milling process, in each jar,
7756
Article
normal boiling point (C) viscosity (mPa s)
180230 1.64 (20 C)
360 27.64 (25 C)
188.2 42 (20 C)
>260 12002000 (20 C)
100 250500 (20 C)
2.5 g of boron microparticle was milled with 21.25 mL of n-hexane and
1.25 mL of oleic acid. Normal hexane was used to prevent the
formation of caking and reduce the milling time, and oleic acid was
used for coating of boron nanoparticles. The ball milling of boron
microparticles was performed in a nitrogen atmosphere.
Because oleic acid is soluble in methanol, the excess amount of oleic
acid was removed by immersing the synthesized particles in methanol,
and then the colloidal dispersion was centrifuged. Methanol washes
the excess amount of oleic acid but not oleic acid that is bonded to the
boron particle surface.14
2.3. Preparation of Nanofuel. In preparation of nanofuel, the
uniform dispersion of particles in the base fuel is very important.
Kerosene as a nonpolar uid is less sensitive to charged particles, and
thus, electrostatic stabilization is not eective in kerosene-based
nanofuels. On the other hand, steric stabilization acts well in kerosene
fuel, and the surfactant chains keep nanoparticles apart eectively.22
Kerosene-based suspensions were prepared using as-received boron
microparticles and the fabricated nanoparticles. At rst, surfactants
were mixed with the fuel, and then particles were added. Then, the
suspensions were sonicated for 30 min with a bath ultrasonic (350 W,
47 kHz, Pro-Sonic, Sultan Chemists) to disperse particles uniformly
and avoid agglomeration.29 Sonication was performed in an ice bath to
maintain a constant temperature (0 C) for the mixture.29
2.4. Characterization of Boron Nanoparticles. Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM, XL30, Philips) analysis was used to
determine the size distribution and morphology of synthesized boron
nanoparticles. Also, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX,
EM208, Philips) was used to probe the presence of oleic acid coating
on the surface of synthesized boron nanoparticles.
2.5. Characterization of ATK Nanofuel. 2.5.1. Nanofuel
Stability. Detailed studies for steric stabilization in ATKboron
suspensions were performed with dierent types of surfactants, and the
concentration of surfactants varied between 0 and 2 wt %. The particle
concentration in all samples was constant (0.5 wt %). The stability of
suspensions was determined by a Turbiscan Classic system (MA 2000,
DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370
Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels Article

Figure 2. EDAX analysis: (a) as-received boron microparticles and (b) surface-functionalized boron nanoparticles.

Table 2. Complete Sedimentation Time of Prepared ATK Nanofuels for Dierent Surfactants with Various Concentrations
suspensions time of complete sedimentation (h) at 33 C
ATK + 0.5 wt % B ATK (mL) ultrasonication time (min) surfactant (wt %) oleic acid PG sorbitan oleate Tween 85 CTAB
boron microparticle 10 30 0 2 2 2 2 2
10 30 0.1 4 0.17 6 1 2.5
10 30 0.3 5.75 0.08 6 0.75 2.5
10 30 0.5 4.75 deposition 6 0.5 2.5
10 30 1 4.5 deposition 6.5 0.25 2.5
10 30 1.5 4.25 deposition 5.5 0.25 2.5
10 30 2 2.25 deposition 3.5 0.25 1.5
boron nanoparticle 10 30 0 13 13 13 13 13
10 30 0.1 23 20 22 3 4
10 30 0.3 26 20 57 1.5 4
10 30 0.5 27 20 52 1.5 4
10 30 1 28 20 30 1.5 4
10 30 1.5 10 20 9 1 4
10 30 2 3 20 6 1 2.5

7757 DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370

Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels Article

Figure 3. Comparison of the full sedimentation time in the presence of dierent surfactants for boron (a) microparticles and (b) nanoparticles.

Figure 4. Comparison of the full sedimentation time of boron nano- and microparticles in the presence of dierent surfactants: (a) oleic acid, (b)
PG, (c) sorbitan oleate, (d) Tween 85, and (e) CTAB.

7758 DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370

Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels Article

Table 3. Various Concentrations of Boron Nanoparticles and Sorbitan Oleate Used for Preparation of the Most Stable Nanofuel
complete sedimentation time (h) at 25 C
ATK ultrasonication time sorbitan oleate
(mL) (min) (wt %) 0.5 wt % B 1 wt % B 1.5 wt % B 2 wt % B 2.5 wt % B 3 wt % B 3.5 wt % B 4 wt % B
10 30 0 19 18 17 16 15 15 14 13
10 30 0.1 34 29 26 22 20 19 17 15
10 30 0.3 77 38 34 33 31 26 24 23
10 30 0.5 64 75 40 37 34 31 36 29
10 30 1 43 63 75 75 59 42 41 40
10 30 1.5 18 51 63 69 74 75 55 61
10 30 2 11 44 52 62 67 70 74 73

27.5 13 23.5), and the complete sedimentation time of each
sample was measured at 33 C.
2.5.2. Dynamic Viscosity Measurement. The dynamic viscosity of
the ATKboron nanofuel was measured with a Brookeld DV-II
digital viscometer at the spindle rotation of 100 rpm. The experiments
were performed at various weight fractions of boron nanoparticles and
temperature ranges.
2.5.3. Energy Content and Thermal Behavior Measurement. The
thermal behavior of ATK nanofuel was studied using dierential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis (STA-780, Xcomment Pan:
aluminum). DSC analysis was conducted under an oxygen
atmosphere, and the heating rate was 10 C/min from 25 to 600
C. Samples of pure ATK and ATK nanofuels with the xed weight
ratio of particles/surfactant at 2 were prepared, and their thermal
behavior and energy content were studied.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Characterization of Boron Nanoparticles. Figure 1
shows SEM images of oleic-acid-functionalized boron nano-
particles. Using SEM images and Digimizer software (version
4.1.1), it was realized that the particles were in a range of 60
90 nm and there were no primary particles larger than 100 nm.
The EDAX analysis of as-received boron microparticles and
oleic-acid-functionalized boron nanoparticles are shown in
Figure 2. The increase of the carbon concentration in
nanoparticle structures conrms the coating of nanoparticles
with oleic acid. Figure 2b shows about 5.0 wt % Fe in the
structure of boron nanoparticles, which is related to the ball
mill jars. The amount of impurity is small and negligible. The
presence of Au in the results is related to the particle coating in
the EDAX apparatus.
3.2. Eective Parameters on ATK Nanofuel Stability.
3.2.1. Eect of the Surfactant Type on Suspension Stability.
The concentration of surfactants and the complete sedimenta-
tion time for all suspensions at all boron particle sizes (nano-
and micrometer sizes) are presented in Table 2.
According to Table 2, sorbitan oleate shows the highest
stability time for boron micro- and nanoparticles. This is due to
the fact that sorbitan oleate has more active sites to link with
particle surfaces and, thus, makes more metal complexes. In
addition, the length of the linear alkyl chain of sorbitan oleate is
higher than other surfactants, which can stand in the linear
structure of ATK and create repulsive forces between particles.
This surfactant can reduce surface energy and surface tension of
fuel and, thus, increase the stability of them.10 However, too
much sorbitan oleate will form macromolecules that are free in
the solution, which is called depletion stabilization. Depletion
stabilization reduces the stability of suspensions.30 For more
clarication, the stability comparison of all surfactants for boron
micro- and nanoparticles has been shown in panels a and b of
Figure 3, respectively. Figure 3 shows the complete
7759
sedimentation time of boron micro- and nanoparticles versus
the weight percentage of dierent surfactants.
3.2.2. Eect of the Particle Size on the Stability of
Suspensions. The sedimentation times of nano- and micro-
meter-sized boron particles for each surfactant (Table 2) show
that the stability time of nanoparticles in ATK is higher than
that of microparticles at the same concentration of each
surfactant. The rst reason is decreasing the particle size. Thus,
with the increase of the ratio of surface area/volume, the
interaction between the particle surface and fuel is strong
enough to overcome a dierence in density. Also, the larger
surface area of boron nanoparticles can be used for surface
functionalization and make a stabilized suspension for a very
long time. Another reason is the oleic acid coating on the
surface of nanoparticles. Oleic acid surrounds nanoparticles and
creates steric stability by its long chains. The sedimentation
time comparison of nano- and microparticles for dierent
surfactants is shown in Figure 4.
3.2.3. Eect of the Particle Loading on the Stability of
Nanofuel. According to before experiments (section 3.2.1),
sorbitan oleate was chosen as the suitable surfactant for
preparation of optimized nanofuel. The samples were made by
varying boron nanoparticles and sorbitan oleate loadings of
0.54 and 02 wt %, respectively. In other words, the mass
ratio of boron nanoparticles/sorbitan oleate was increased from
0.25 to 40 stepwise. The sedimentation time of each sample
was measured at 25 C. Table 3 shows the complete
sedimentation time of nanofuels at all boron nanoparticle and
sorbitan oleate weight fractions.
Figure 5 shows the complete sedimentation time of boron
nanoparticles versus the weight ratio of boron nanoparticles/
sorbitan oleate, at dierent weight percentages of particles. As
shown in Figure 5a, an increase in the weight ratio of boron
nanoparticles/sorbitan oleate up to 2 increases the sedimenta-
tion time of particles. This is due to the fact that sorbitan oleate
attaches to the surface of particles with its active sites and
creates steric stability by the long alkyl chains. This surfactant
can reduce surface energy and surface tension of fuel and, thus,
increases the stability of boron particles. Therefore, the most
stable nanofuel was prepared at 2 boron nanoparticles/sorbitan
oleate weight ratio. A further increase in the weight ratio of
particles/surfactant rapidly decreased the complete sedimenta-
tion time of boron nanoparticles. This is attributed to the low
concentration of surfactant. For more clarication, the changes
in the sedimentation time of particles in the weight ratio of
boron nanoparticles/sorbitan oleate at the range of 0.255
have been magnied in Figure 5b.
3.2.4. Eect of the Temperature on the Nanofuel Stability.
The dependency of nanofuel stability upon the temperature
was investigated for nanofuel with 0.5 wt % boron nanoparticles
DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370
Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels
Figure 5. Eect of the particle loading on the stability time of ATK
boron nanofuel.
and 02 wt % sorbitan oleate loadings. The complete
sedimentation time of boron nanoparticles was measured at
7, 25, and 33 C. Figure 6 shows the sedimentation time of
Figure 6. Eect of the temperature on the stability time of ATK
boron nanofuel at 0.5 wt % boron nanoparticles.
particles versus sorbitan oleate weight percentage. As shown,
with the decrease of the temperature, the complete
sedimentation time of boron nanoparticles and, thus, the
stability of nanofuel increase signicantly.
The sedimentation velocity (V) in a suspension can be
expressed according to Stokes law31
7760
Article
R2
V= ( l ) g
9 p (1)
where is the liquid viscosity, R is the particle radius, g is the
gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2), and p and l are the
particle and liquid densities, respectively. According to eq 1,
when the temperature decreases, the viscosity of ATK base fuel
increases. This leads to a decrease in the sedimentation velocity
and, thus, an increase in nanofuel stability.
3.3. Dynamic Viscosity of Nanofuel. Figure 7 shows that,
by increasing the concentration of boron nanoparticles in ATK,
the dynamic viscosity of nanofuel increases signicantly at a
xed temperature.
Figure 7. Eect of the boron particle loading and temperature on the
viscosity of ATK nanofuel.
Also, Figure 7 shows that the dynamic viscosity of nanofuel
decreases when the temperature increases. In the case of pure
ATK, as the temperature increases, as a result of thermal
expansion of the fuel, viscous shear stress goes down, resulting
in lower viscosity at a high temperature. In nanofuels, thermal
expansion of ATK at a high temperature results in higher
Brownian motion of boron nanoparticles, leading to greater
viscosity reduction.
3.4. Energy Content and Thermal Behavior of the
Nanofuel. Figure 8a shows the eect of the weight
concentration of boron nanoparticles and sorbitan oleate on
the thermal behavior of ATK nanofuel. As shown, the presence
of boron nanoparticles results in exothermic peaks on the DSC
curve of ATK fuel, which become larger by increasing the
percentage of particles up to 3 wt %. These peaks display the
formation of new bonds. In fact, oleic acid (coating on the
surface of boron nanoparticles) and sorbitan oleate are able to
form strong hydrogen interactions and weak dipolar bonds.
Thus, with the increase of the amount of boron particles up to
3 wt %, the possibility of hydrogen and dipolar bond formation
increases; therefore, more energy releases and peaks become
larger. However, with the increase of the boron concentration
up to 4 wt %, exothermic peaks become smaller. The reason
may be that, with an excess amount of boron nanoparticle in
ATK fuel, the presence of particles without oleic acid coating
increase, which leads to the formation of weak dipolar bonds
DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370
Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels Article

Figure 9. Comparison of the boiling point of ATK nanofuel samples

Figure 8. Exothermic peaks on the DSC curve of ATK fuel in the
presence of dierent weight percentages of boron nanoparticles.
rather than strong hydrogen bonds. As a result, less energy
releases and exothermic peaks become smaller. For more
clarication, the thermal behavior and energy content enhance-
ment of nanofuel samples over a temperature range of 150450
C have been enlarged in Figure 8b.
Table 4 shows the temperature and heat energy of
exothermic peaks for dierent nanofuels, which have been
numbered in Figure 8b.
Figure 9a shows that the presence of sorbitan oleate causes
displacement of the ATK boiling peak to a lower temperature.
Sorbitan oleate reduces the boiling point of ATK by weakening
the interactions in the fuel structure. DSC curves of nanofuels
show that, by increasing the concentration of nanoparticles up
to 3 wt %, the boiling point of ATK decreases signicantly;
however, a further increase in the nanoparticle content
increases the boiling point. This might be related to the
exothermic peaks and energy release of particles. As mentioned,
by increasing the amount of boron particle up to 3 wt %, the
using DSC analysis.
formation of hydrogen and dipolar bonds increases and more
energy is released; therefore, the boiling point of ATK
decreases. However, with the increase of the boron
concentration up to 4 wt %, the formation of weak dipolar
bonds increases and less energy is released; therefore, the
boiling point of ATK increases. For more clarication, the
thermal behavior of nanofuel samples over a temperature range
of 25250 C has been enlarged in Figure 9b.
Table 5 shows the boiling point values of ATK nanouids at
dierent weight percentages of nanoparticles and sorbitan
oleate, which have been shown as endothermic peaks in Figure
9b.
4. CONCLUSION
The aim of this study was the experimental investigation of
physical and thermal properties and energy content of ATK
boron nanofuel for its potential usage in pulsed detonation
engines and scramjets. An increase in the amount of
nanoparticle sedimentation was observed at a higher weight

Table 4. Temperature and Heat Energy of Exothermic Peaks on the DSC Curve of ATK in the Presence of Dierent Weight
Percentages of Boron Nanoparticles

peak 1 peak 2 peak 3 peak 4

curve number kerosene (wt %) sorbitan oleate (wt %) boron nanoparticle (wt %) T (C) H (mJ) T (C) T (C) T (C)
1 100
2 98 2
3 98.5 0.5 1 188.67 325.3 249.67 361.17
4 97 1 2 191 415.02 297.83 367
5 95.5 1.5 3 197.67 1055.51 298.5 368.83 414.33
6 94 2 4 186.83 470.57 293.83 351.8

7761 DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370

Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762
Energy & Fuels Article

Table 5. Boiling Point of ATK Nanouids at Dierent Conference; Canberra, Australia, Nov 69, 2006; AIAA 2006-7953,
Weight Percentages of Boron Nanoparticles and Sorbitan DOI: 10.2514/6.2006-7953.
Oleate (16) Young, G. Metallic nanoparticles as fuel additives in air-
breathing combustion. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Mechanical
boron Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 2007.
curve kerosene sorbitan oleate nanoparticle boiling point (17) Gan, Y.; Syuen Lim, Y.; Qiao, L. Combust. Flame 2012, 159,
number (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) (C) 17321740.
1 100 172 (18) Buongiorno, J.; Venerus, D. C.; Prabhat, N.; Mckrell, T.;
2 98 2 160.5 Townsend, J.; et al. J. Appl. Phys. 2009, 106, 094312.
3 98.5 0.5 1 158.33 (19) Li, C. H.; Peterson, G. P. J. Appl. Phys. 2006, 99, 084314.
4 97 1 2 155.33 (20) Wen, D.; Ding, Y. J. Thermophys. Heat Transfer 2004, 18, 481
5 95.5 1.5 3 146.5 485.
6 94 2 4 158.5
(21) Mintsa, H. A.; Roy, G.; Nguyen, C. T.; Doucet, D. Int. J. Therm.
Sci. 2009, 48, 363371.
(22) Kumar Agarwal, D.; Vaidyanathan, A.; Sunil Kumar, S. Appl.
concentration of particles and surfactants. Sorbitan oleate was Therm. Eng. 2013, 60, 275284.
found to be a suitable surfactant, with an optimum weight ratio (23) Sonawane, S.; Patankar, K.; Fogla, A.; Puranik, B.; Bhandarkar,
of particles/sorbitan oleate of 2. It was found that, with U.; Sunil Kumar, S. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2011, 31, 28412849.
temperature reduction, the stability time of nanofuel increased (24) Wang, X.; Xu, X.; Choi, S. U. S. J. Thermophys. Heat Transfer
1999, 13, 474480.
signicantly at 0.5 wt % boron particles. The results showed
(25) Lee, J. H.; Hwang, K. S.; Jang, S. P.; Lee, B. H.; Kim, J. H.; Choi,
that the viscosity and energy content of ATK fuel increased in S. U. S.; Choi, C. J. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 2008, 51, 26512656.
the presence of boron nanoparticles. The dynamic viscosity (26) Nguyen, C. T.; Desgranges, F.; Galanis, N.; Roy, G.; Mare, T.;
increased from 57 to 67% over a particle loading of 24 wt % at Boucher, S.; Angue Mintsa, H. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 2008, 47, 103111.
5 C. Also, the temperature enhancement from 5 to 40 C (27) Li, D.; Xie, W.; Fang, W. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2011, 6, 373.
caused a 67% reduction in viscosity, at 4 wt % boron (28) Venerus, D. C.; et al. Appl. Rheol. 2010, 20, 17.
concentration. The eect of boron nanoparticles on the energy (29) Kardan, H. Preparation and studying the eect of micro and
content and thermal behavior of nanofuels showed a 70% nano sized boron in HTPB composite propellants. M.Sc. Thesis,
enhancement and 15% decrement in the energy content and Malek-Ashtar University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, 2012.
boiling point of ATK fuel, respectively. (30) Napper, D. H. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 1977, 58, 390407.

(31) Umer Ilyas, S.; Pendyala, R.; Marneni, N. Chem. Eng. Technol.
AUTHOR INFORMATION 2014, 37, 20112021.
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: sh_ghanbari73@yahoo.com.
Notes
The authors declare no competing nancial interest.

REFERENCES
(1) Liang, J. H.; Wang, S.; Hu, H. H.; Zhang, S. T.; Fan, B. C.; Cui, J.
P. Sci. China: Phys., Mech. Astron. 2012, 55, 947954.
(2) Kim, S.; Yoo, H.; Kim, C. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2012, 29, 1321
1328.
(3) Allen, C.; Mittal, G.; Sung, C. J.; Toulson, E.; Lee, T. Proc.
Combust. Inst. 2011, 33, 33673374.
(4) Gan, Y. A.; Qiao, L. Combust. Flame 2011, 158, 354368.
(5) Gan, Y. A.; Qiao, L. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 2011, 54, 4913
4922.
(6) Sabourin, J. L.; Yetter, R. A.; Asay, B. W.; Lloyd, J. M.; Sanders, V.
E.; Risha, G. A.; Son, S. F. Propellants, Explos., Pyrotech. 2009, 34, 385
393.
(7) Tyagi, H.; Phelan, P. E.; Prasher, R.; Peck, R.; Lee, T.; Pacheco, J.
R.; Arentzen, P. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 14101416.
(8) Van Devener, B.; Anderson, S. L. Energy Fuels 2006, 20, 1886
1894.
(9) Van Devener, B.; Perez, J. P. L.; Jankovich, J.; Anderson, S. L.
Energy Fuels 2009, 23, 61116120.
(10) Tanvir, S.; Qiao, L. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2012, 7, 226.
(11) Xuan, Y.; Li, Q. Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 2000, 21, 5864.
(12) Rashmi, W.; Ismail, A. F.; Sopyan, I.; Jameel, A. T.; Yusof, F.;
Khalid, M.; Mubarak, N. M. J. Exp. Nanosci. 2011, 6, 567579.
(13) Jackson, D.; Davidson, D.; Hanson, R. Proceedings of the 44th
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit;
Hartford, CT, July 2123, 2008; AIAA 2008-4767, DOI: 10.2514/
6.2008-4767.
(14) Van Devener, B.; Perez, J. P. L.; Anderson, S. L. J. Mater. Res.
2009, 24, 34623464.
(15) Young, G.; Balar, R.; Krasel, M.; Yu, K. Proceedings of the 14th
AIAA/AHI Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and Technologies

7762 DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01370

Energy Fuels 2016, 30, 77557762