Hermitian Operators Eigenvectors of a Hermitian operator

Definition: an operator is said to be Hermitian if Note: all eigenvectors are defined only up to a
it satisfies: A=A multiplicative c-number constant
Alternatively called self adjoint A am = am am ! A(c am )= am (c am )
In QM we will see that all observable properties
must be represented by Hermitian operators Thus we can choose the normalization !am|am"=1

Theorem: all eigenvalues of a Hermitian THEOREM: all eigenvectors corresponding to

operator are real distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal
Proof: Proof:
Start from Eigenvalue Eq.: A am = am am Start from eigenvalue equation: A am = am am

Take the H.c. (of both sides): am A = am! am Take H.c. with m $ n: an A = an an

Use A=A: am A = am! am Combine to give:

an A am = an an am = am an am
Combine to give:
am A am = am! am am = am am am This can be written as: ( an ! am ) an am = 0

Since !am |am" # 0 it follows that So either am = an in which case they are not
distinct, or !am|an"=0, which means the
am! = am eigenvectors are orthogonal
 Completeness of Eigenvectors of a
Hermitian operator
THEOREM: If an operator in an M-dimensional
Hilbert space has M distinct eigenvalues (i.e.
no degeneracy), then its eigenvectors form a
`complete set of unit vectors (i.e a complete
basis)
Proof:
M orthonormal vectors must span an
M-dimensional space.
Thus we can use them to form a
representation of the identity operator:
Degeneracy
Definition: If there are at least two linearly
independent eigenvectors associated with the
same eigenvalue, then the eigenvalue is
degenerate.
The `degree of degeneracy of an eigenvalue is
the number of linearly independent eigenvectors
that are associated with it
Let dm be the degeneracy of the mth eigenvalue
Then dm is the dimension of the degenerate
subspace
Example: The d=2 case
Lets refer to the two linearly independent
eigenvectors |%n" and |&n"
There is some operator W such that for some n
we have:
W |%n"= %n|%n" and W | &n"= &n| &n"
Also we choose to normalize these states:
!%n|%n"=1 and ! &n| &n"=1
Linear independence means !%n |&n" # 1.
If they are not orthogonal (!%n |&n" # 0), we can
always use Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization to
get an orthonormal set
 Phy851/Lecture 4: Basis sets and
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization representations
Procedure:
Let A `basis is a set of orthogonal unit vectors in
!n ,1 " !n
Hilbert space
A second orthogonal vector is then
analogous to choosing a coordinate system in
3D space
! n " $n $n ! n
$ n ,2 # A basis is a complete set of unit vectors that
! n " $n $n ! n spans the state space
Proof:

$n ! n " $n $n $n ! n Basis sets come in two flavors: discrete and

$n ,1 $n ,2 #
! n " $n $n ! n continuous

but !n !n = 1 A discrete basis is what we have been

Therefore !n ,1 !n ,2 = 0 considering so far. The unit vectors can be
labeled by integers, e.g. {|1", |2",, |M"}, where
Can be continued for higher degree of degeneracy M can be either finite or infinite
Analogy in 3-d: The number of basis vectors is either finite or
r r r r countable infinity.
r = ex rx + ey ry + ez rz
r r r r r r r r r r
r = ex (ex " r ) + ey (ey " r ) + ez (ez " r ) A continuous basis is a generalization whereby
r r r r r the unit vectors are labeled by real numbers,
r " ex (ex # r ) $ ex r " ex ex r # ex e.g. {|x"}; xmin< x < xmax, where the upper and
Result: From M linearly independent degenerate lower bounds can be either finite or infinite
eigenvectors we can always form M orthonormal
! The number of basis vectors is `uncountable
unit vectors which span the M-dimensional infinity.
degenerate subspace.
! !
If this is done, then the eigenvectors of a Hermitian
operator form a complete basis even with degeneracy
present
 Properties of basis vectors Example 1
property discrete continuous Consider the relation: !' = A!
To know |' _ " or |'" you must know its
orthogonality j k = ! jk x x! = # ( x " x!)
components in some basis
normalization j j =1 x x =! Here we will go from the abstract form to the
specific relation between components
state " = ! j cj " = ! dx x " (x )
expansion j

component/ # " "= A #

cj " j ! ! (x ) " x ! Abstract equation: # = A#
wavefunction
projector 1= ! j j 1 = ! dx x x Project onto a single
j j # " "= j A #
unit vector: j # = j A#
operator A = ! j A jk k A = ! dx dx" x A(x, x") x"
expansion jk

Matrix element Insert the projector: j # " "= ! j A k k #

A jk ! j A k A(x, x!) " x A x! j # = k! j A k k #
k

12 = 1 Translate to vector
c"j "= ! A jk ck
2 notation: c j = k! A jk ck
[ " dx x x ] = " dx dx # x x x# x# k

= " dx dx # x $ (x % x #) x #
Same procedure for #" = A #
= " dx x x continuous basis:
x #" = x A #
x #" = $ dx " x A x " x " #
! # "( x ) = $ dx "A( x, x ")# ( x ")

!
 Example 2: Combining different basis
sets in a single expression
Change of Basis
Lets assume we know the components of |(" in the Let the sets {|1",|2",|3",} and {|u1",|u2",|u3",} be
basis {|1",|2",|3", } two different orthonormal basis sets
cj)!j|("
Lets suppose that we only know the wavefunction
Suppose we know the components of |'" in the
of |'" in the continuous basis {|x"}
basis {|1",|2",|3",}, this means we know the
'(x) )!x|'" elements {cj}:
In addition, we only know the matrix elements of A
in the alternate continuous basis {|k"}
A(k,k') )!k|A|k'" How do we find the components {Cj} of |'" in the
alternate basis {|u1",|u2",|u3",}
How would we compute the matrix element !(|A|'"?

" A! = " A! This is easily handled with Dirac notation:

" A! = % " j j A!
= ! # j j A" j
j
= % & dx " j j A x x !
= # $ dx " j j A x x ! j
j
= % & dx dk dk # " j j k k A k # k # x x !
= $ % dx dk dk # " j j k k A k # k # x x ! j

j = % & dx dk dk # c $j j k A(k , k #) k # x ! (x )
j
= $ % dx dk dk " c #j j k A(k , k ") k " x ! (x )
j
The change of basis is accomplished by multiplying
the original column vector by a transformation
We see that in order to compute this number, we matrix U.
need the inner-products !j|k" and !k|'"

These are the transformation coefficients to go from

one basis to another
 The Transformation matrix Example: 2-D rotation
The transformation matrix looks like this Lets do a familiar problem using the new
notation
& u1 1 u1 2 u1 3 L# Consider a clockwise rotation of 2-dimensional
$ ! Cartesian coordinates:
$ u 1 u2 2 u2 3 L!
U =$ 2
u 1 u3 2 u3 3 L!
$ 3 !
$ M M M O!"
%
The columns of U are the components of the
old unit vectors in the new basis

If we specify at least one basis set in physical

terms, then we can define other basis sets by
specifying the elements of the transformation
matrix
 Continued Summary
Basis sets can be continuous or discrete
The important equations are:

1= ! j j 1 = ! dx x x
Insert j
projector
j k = ! jk x x! = # ( x " x!)
onto known
basis
Change of basis is simple with Dirac notation:
1. Write unknown quantity
2. Insert projector onto known basis
3. Evaluate the transformation matrix elements
4. Perform the required summations

Cj = uj "
= ! uj k k "
k

= ! u j k ck
j