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and Eigenvectors of Tensors
• It is of interest to inquire whether there are certain
vectors that have only their lengths, and not their
orientation, changed when operated upon by a
given tensor:
• Such vectors x are called characteristic vectors,
principal planes, or eigenvectors associated with A.
The parameter λ is called an characteristic value,
principal value, or eigenvalue, and it characterizes
the change in length of the eigenvector x after it
has been operated upon by A.
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• Since x can be expressed as x = I ∙ x, we have:
• This is a homogeneous set of equations for x, so
that a nontrivial solution (i.e., vector with at least
one component of x is nonzero) will not exist unless
the determinant of the matrix [A − λI] vanishes:
• The vanishing of this determinant yields an
algebraic equation of degree n, called the
characteristic equation, for λ when A is a n × n
matrix
2
• For a second‐order tensor, the characteristic
equation yields three eigenvalues λ1, λ2 and λ3.
• The vanishing of the determinant assures that
three eigenvectors are not unique to within a
multiplicative constant.
• In a Cartesian system, the characteristic equation
associated with a second order tensor can be
expressed in the form
3
Example
• Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
following matrix
• The eigenvalue problem associated with the matrix
A is
4
• The two roots of the resulting quadratic equation
are
• Each row of the above matrix equation yields the
same equation. 5
• The eigenvector x(1) is given by
• The normalized eigenvector
• For λ = 4, we have
6
• The eigenvector x(2) is given by
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Example
• Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
following matrix
• The characteristic equation is
8
• Solutions
• The characteristic equation is
• The eigenvector corresponding to λ3 = 2 is
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• Similarly, the normalized eigenvectors
corresponding to λ1 and λ2 are
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Example
• Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
following matrix
• The characteristic equation is
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• Thus, λ = −1 is an eigenvalue with algebraic
multiplicity of 2
• For λ = 2, we have
• A solution is
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• x2 = x1 and x3 = x2. Thus the eigenvector associated
with λ1 = 2 is the vector
• For λ = ‐1, we have
• All three equations yield the same equation x1 + x2
+ x3 = 0.
13
• Values of two of the three components (x1, x2, x3)
can be chosen arbitrarily. For the choice of x3 = 1
and x2 = 0, we obtain the vector
• The second vector associated with λ = −1 could
have been chosen by setting x1 = x3 = 1 to get
14
• A real symmetric matrix A of order n has some
desirable consequences as for the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors are concerned. These are
1. All eigenvalues of A are real.
2. A always has n linearly independent eigenvectors,
regardless of the algebraic multiplicities of the
eigenvalues.
3. Eigenvectors x(1) and x(2) associated with two
distinct eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 are orthogonal: x(1) ∙ x(2)
= 0. If all eigenvalues are distinct, then the associated
eigenvectors are all orthogonal to each other.
15
4. For an eigenvalue of algebraic multiplicity m, it is
possible to choose m eigenvectors that are mutually
orthogonal. Hence, the set of n vectors can always be
chosen to be linearly independent.
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[A] is a full 3 ×3 matrix.
• A method that facilitates the computation of
eigenvalues is s follows.
• Evaluate the deviatoric tensor associated with the
tensor A
• Note
17
• The characteristic equation associated with the
deviatoric tensor is
• Direct computation of the roots
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where
• Hence
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Example
• Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
following matrix
• We have
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and
• We have
21
so that
• Using
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