IRQ: Mathematical

Foundations
Dr. Kamalika Datta
Dr. Abhoy Kole

Lecture - 2
WINTER SEMESTER 2023/2024
Lecture Coverage

• Spanning set
• Linear independence, basis and dimension
• Inner product, Hilbert Space

2
Recap of Previous Lecture

• Arithmetic of complex numbers

• Basic concept of vector space
• A quantum state ȁ𝝋ۧ can be expressed as the superposition (linear
combination) of the basis states:
ȁ𝝋ۧ = 𝜶 ȁ𝟎ۧ + 𝜷 ȁ𝟏ۧ
• Quantum state can be represented using vectors and gate
operations as unitary matrices

3
Quantum Mechanical Notation

• The standard quantum mechanical notation for a vector in a vector

space is ȁۧ.
• The ȁ. ۧ notation is used to indicate that the object is a column
vector.
• The entire object is sometimes called a ket.
𝟏
• ȁ𝟎ۧ = ȁ𝟏ۧ = 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏
• Here the column vector has 1 in the corresponding entry and 0
for all others.

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Quantum Mechanical Notation

• The ‫ۦ‬ȁ notation is used to indicate that the object is a row vector.
• The entire object is sometimes called a bra.

• ‫ ۦ‬0ȁ = 𝟏 𝟎 ‫ۦ‬1ȁ = 𝟎 𝟏

• Here the row vector has 1 in the corresponding entry and 0 for all
others.
DIRAC
NOTATION

5
Quantum Mechanical Notation

• Dirac notations can be used for arbitrary vectors

• Kets are column vectors
• Bras are row vectors

• For any column vector ȁۧ the row vector ‫ۦ‬ȁ is the conjugate
transpose of ȁۧ:
𝑇
• ‫ۦ‬ ȁ = ȁ  ۧ *

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Example

1+2𝑖
1+2𝑖 2 1+2𝑖 1 2 0
• ȁۧ = ȁ𝟎ۧ − ȁ𝟏ۧ = − = 3
2
3 3 3 0 3 1 −
3

𝑇
• ‫ۦ‬ ȁ = ȁ  ۧ *
1−2𝑖 2 1−2𝑖 𝟐
= ‫ 𝟎ۦ‬ȁ − ‫ 𝟏ۦ‬ȁ = −
3 3 3 𝟑

7
Some Standard Quantum Mechanical Notations

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Important Quantum Property

• Whenever we perform measurement the state of the quantum

system ȁ𝝋ۧ = 𝜶 ȁ𝟎ۧ + 𝜷 ȁ𝟏ۧ will collapse to any one of the basis
state.

• Operation on state:
• When the state of the system changes from one state to
another we call it transformation and this transformation is
linear transformation. Every linear transformation is
represented by a square matrix.

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Linear Combination of Vectors
Linear Combination of Vectors
Imaginary

1.5v1 + 1.4v2
v1
v x x = av1 + bv2

Real

v2 scalars

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Example An operation on
combined system is
equal to the sum of the
operation on individual
system.

Is a linear combination of

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 Spanning Set
• A spanning set for a vector space is a set of vectors ȁ𝑣1 ۧ, … , ȁ𝑣𝑛 ۧ
such that any arbitrary vector ȁ𝑣 ۧ in the vector space can be
written as a linear combination of vectors in that set:
ȁ𝑣 ۧ = σ𝑖 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝑣𝑖 ۧ

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Spanning Set

• Example: A spanning set for the vector space ℂ𝟐 is the set:

1 0
• ȁ𝑣1 ۧ = ; ȁ𝑣2 ۧ =
0 1

𝑎1
Any vector ȁ𝑣 ۧ = 𝑎 can be written as the linear combination
2
ȁ𝑣 ۧ = 𝑎1 ȁ𝑣1 ۧ + 𝑎2 ȁ𝑣2 ۧ of the two vectors.

Hence vectors ȁ𝑣1 ۧ and ȁ𝑣2 ۧ span the vector space.

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Spanning Set

• In general, a vector space may have many different spanning

sets. A second spanning set for the vector space ℂ𝟐 is the set:
1 1 1 1
𝑣1 = ; 𝑣2 =
2 1 2 −1

since any arbitrary vector 𝑣 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) can be written as the

linear combination:
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑎1 − 𝑎2
ȁ𝑣 ۧ = ȁ𝑣1 ۧ + ȁ𝑣2 ۧ
2 2

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Basis and Dimension

• A minimal spanning set is referred to as a basis.

• It can be shown that any two sets of linearly independent vectors
that span a vector space V contain the same number of elements.
• Such a set of linearly independent vectors is called a basis for V.
• The number of elements in the basis is called the dimension of V.

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Linearly Dependent Vectors

• A set of non-zero vectors ȁ𝑣1 ۧ, … , ȁ𝑣𝑛 ۧ are said to be linearly

dependent if there exists a set of complex numbers 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 with
𝑎𝑖 ≠ 0 for at least one value of 𝑖, such that
a1 ȁ𝑣1 ۧ + a2 ȁ𝑣2 ۧ+…+an ȁ𝑣𝑛 ۧ = 0

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Linearly Dependent Vectors

• Consider three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 where 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 3𝑏

• Any linear combination of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 say

• 2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 3𝑏
= 3𝑎 + 4𝑏

• As 𝑐 can be written in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏 and hence it is linearly

dependent and we do not require it for the solution.

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Example
• The set of vectors is linearly dependent because

can happen when x = 2, y = -3, z = -1.

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Linearly Independent Vectors

• A set of vectors is linearly independent if they are not linearly

dependent.
• A set of non-zero vectors ȁ𝑣1 ۧ,…, ȁ𝑣𝑛 ۧ are said to be linearly
independent if there exists a set of complex numbers
𝑎1, … , 𝑎𝑛 with all 𝑎𝑖 = 0 for all value of 𝑖, such that
𝑎1 ȁ𝑣1 ۧ + 𝑎2 ȁ𝑣2 ۧ + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ȁ𝑣𝑛 ۧ = 0

20
Example

1 1
• Let v1 = v2 = check whether they are linearly
1 −1
independent or dependent.
1 1 𝑐1 𝑐2 0
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 =0 ⇒ + =
1 −1 𝑐1 −𝑐2 0
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 0 , 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 = 0
Add the above equation: 2𝑐1 = 0, ⇒ 𝑐1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐2 = 0
Hence the vector v1 and v2 are linearly independent

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Example

• The set of vectors is linearly independent because the only way

that can occur is if 0 = x, 0 = x + y, 0 = x + y + z.
This implies x = y = z = 0.

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Basis (Z) : ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ𝟏ۧ

• ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ𝟏ۧ is a basis because it satisfies two conditions:

𝑎
• Any vector can be expressed as linear combination of ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ𝟏ۧ
𝑏
𝑎
= 𝑎 ȁ 𝟎ۧ + 𝑏 ȁ 𝟏ۧ
𝑏
• ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ𝟏ۧ are linearly independent

1 0
• ȁ𝟎ۧ = and ȁ𝟏ۧ =
0 1

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Basis (X) : ȁ+ۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−ۧ

1 1 ȁ−ۧ =
1 1
• ȁ+ۧ = 𝐚𝐧𝐝
2 1 2 −1

1 1 0 1 1 0
ȁ+ۧ = ( + ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−ۧ = ( − )
2 0 1 2 0 1

1 1
ȁ+ۧ = (ȁ𝟎ۧ + ȁ𝟏ۧ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−ۧ = (ȁ𝟎ۧ − ȁ𝟏ۧ)
2 2

24
Basis (Y) : ȁiۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−i ۧ

1 1 1 1
• ȁiۧ = 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−iۧ =
2 𝑖 2 −𝑖

1 1 0 1 1 0
ȁiۧ = ( + 𝒊 ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−iۧ = ( −𝒊 )
2 0 1 2 0 1

1 1
ȁiۧ = (ȁ𝟎ۧ + 𝒊ȁ𝟏ۧ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ−iۧ = (ȁ𝟎ۧ − 𝒊ȁ𝟏ۧ)
2 2

25
Important Quantum Property

• A quantum system can be defined as a system whose basis state

form a vector space over complex numbers
• Or State of a quantum system corresponds to a vector in a
complex vector space
• A basis is minimal and hence it is linearly independent
• We can have more than one basis in a vector space but all will
have same number of elements

26
Operator as Matrices
Matrix Representation of Linear Operators

• Consider an 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 complex matrix 𝐴 with entries 𝐴𝑖𝑗.

• A can be regarded as a linear operator sending vectors in the vector
space ℂ𝒏 to the vector space ℂ𝒎 , under matrix multiplication of 𝐴 by a
vector in ℂ𝒏 .
• This actually means:

𝐴 ෍ 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝑣𝑖 ۧ = ෍ 𝑎𝑖 𝐴(ȁ𝑣𝑖 ۧ)
𝑖 𝑖

28
 2.1.3 T he Pauli m atrices
Four extremely useful matrices which we shall often have occasion to use are the Pauli
matrices. T hese are 2 by 2 matrices, which go by a variety of notations. T he matrices,
and their corresponding notations, are depicted in Figure 2.2. T he Pauli matrices are so
usefulSome Important
in the study Matrices
of quantum computation in Quantum
and quantum information that Computing
we encourage
you to memorize them by working through in detail the many examples and exercises
We them
based •upon shallinbe using four
subsequent extremely useful matrices, known as Pauli
sections.
matrices.
1 0 0 1
σ0 ≡ I ≡ σ1 ≡ σx ≡ X ≡
0 1 1 0

0 −i 1 0
σ2 ≡ σy ≡ Y ≡ σ3 ≡ σz ≡ Z ≡
i 0 0 −1

Figure 2.2. T he Pauli matrices. Sometimes I is omitted from the list with just X , Y and Z known as the Pauli
• We often omit I, and refer to X, Y and Z only as Pauli matrices.
matrices.

2.1.4 Inner products

An inner product isafunction which takes as input two vectors |vۧ and |wۧ from avector 29
Hilbert Space and Inner Products
Hilbert Space

• To define a Quantum System we need Hilbert space

• Hilbert space is a vector space where complex inner product is

defined and the transformation is linear

• A Hilbert space is a complex inner product space that is complete

• A quantum System is represented by an element which belongs

to Hilbert Space

31
Example of a Real Space
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
Z

A Basis = {i, j, k}

i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0), k = (0,0,1)

Y

X Normalized
i.i = j.j =k.k = 1
i.j = j.k =k.i = 0 Orthogonal

A basis which satisfies orthonormal property is said to

be a Complete basis.

32
Hilbert Space

• Consider the Hilbert space which is

ȁφ1 ۧ
spanned by two basis states {ȁφ1 ۧ,
ȁφۧ ȁφ2 ۧ}

• ȁ𝜑ۧ= c1 ȁ𝜑1 ۧ + c2 ȁ𝜑2 ۧ

ȁφ2 ۧ

• Any quantum state is the linear

combination of the basis states

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Complex Inner Product

• A complex inner product is a function that takes as input two

vectors ȁ𝑣 ۧ and ȁ𝑤 ۧ from a vector space, and produces a complex
number as output.
• For the time being, we write the inner product of the two vectors
as (ȁ𝒗ۧ, ȁ𝒘ۧ).
• The standard quantum mechanical notation is 𝒗 𝒘 .
• A vector space equipped with an inner product is known as an
inner product space.

34
Complex Inner Product

• Example: For the vector space ℂ𝑛, the inner product of two
vectors 𝑦1 , … , 𝑦𝑛 and (𝑧1 , … , 𝑧𝑛 ) is defined by

𝑧1.
𝑦1 , … , 𝑦𝑛 𝑧1 , … , 𝑧𝑛 = σ𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑦1 ∗ … 𝑦𝑛 ∗ ..
𝑧𝑛

a* is the complex conjugate of a

35
An Example
• Consider the following operation that we perform with two vectors
in (that is, two vectors of size 3 with real numbers as
elements):

36
An Example of a Property
2 1
• ȁψ𝟏ۧ = 1 ȁψ𝟐ۧ = 2𝑖
4𝑖 3
1 1
‫ۦ‬ψ1ȁ ψ2ۧ = 2 1 4𝑖 * 2𝑖 = 2 1 −4𝑖 2𝑖 = 2 - 10i
3 3 Both are
complex
conjugate
2 2
‫ۦ‬ψ2ȁ ψ1ۧ = 1 2𝑖 3 *
1 = 1 −2𝑖 3 1 = 2 + 10i
4𝑖 4𝑖

37
An Example

2 + 3𝑖
• ȁ𝑣1ۧ =
5 − 4𝑖

2 + 3𝑖
• ‫𝑣ۦ‬1ȁ𝑣1ۧ = 2 + 3𝑖 5 − 4𝑖 *
5 − 4𝑖
2 + 3𝑖
= 2 − 3𝑖 5 + 4𝑖
5 − 4𝑖
= 2 − 3𝑖 2 + 3𝑖 + (5 + 4𝑖)(5 − 4𝑖)
= 54

39
Example with ȁ𝟎ۧ and ȁ𝟏ۧ

1 0
• ȁ0ۧ = ȁ1ۧ =
0 1

1 0
• ‫ۦ‬0ȁ0ۧ = 1 0 * ‫ۦ‬1ȁ1ۧ = 0 1 *
0 1
=1 =1

NORMALIZED
CONDITION

40
Norm or Length

• For every complex inner product space V, we can define a norm

or length as

• Example: In , the norm of the vector [3, -6, 2]T is given by

41
Example

2 + 3𝑖
• Norm of 𝒗 =
ȁ ۧ
5 − 4𝑖

2 + 3𝑖
‫𝑣ۦ‬ȁ𝑣ۧ = 2 + 3𝑖 5 − 4𝑖*
5 − 4𝑖
2 + 3𝑖
= 2 − 3𝑖 5 + 4𝑖
5 − 4𝑖
= 54
Norm of ȁ𝒗ۧ = 54

42
Unit Vector

• A unit vector is a vector for which the norm is 1.

• For example, (1, 0, 0, 0)T .

43
Orthogonal Vectors

• Two vectors V1 and V2 in an inner product space V are orthogonal

if:
Linearly
𝑉1 , 𝑉2 = 0 Independent
Vectors

• Example: The two vectors 𝑤 = 1,1 and 𝑣 = 1, −1 are

orthogonal, as:
(1 * 1) + (1 * -1) = 0.

44
Example with ȁ𝟎ۧ and ȁ𝟏ۧ

1 0
• 𝟎 =
ȁ ۧ and 𝟏 =
ȁ ۧ
0 1

• Check whether vector ȁ𝟎ۧ and ȁ𝟏ۧ are orthogonal or not?

0
‫ۦ‬0ȁ1ۧ = 1 0 =0
1
Hence ȁ0ۧ and ȁ1ۧ basis are orthogonal.
ORTHOGONAL
CONDITION

45
Orthogonal Basis and Orthonormal Basis

is called the Kronecker delta function.

46
Inner Product Properties

• The inner product of two orthogonal vectors are 0

• Inner product of a unit vector is 1

47
Relook at Hilbert Space
• Hilbert space (H )= Orthogonal + Normal +Inner
ȁφ1 ۧ product defined
ȁφۧ • Hence ȁ𝝋ۧ ∈ H → 𝜑 is normalized

• ȁ𝜑ۧ = c1 ȁ𝜑1 ۧ + c2 ȁ𝜑2 ۧ

ȁφ2 ۧ • Then 𝑐1 2 + 𝑐2 2 = 1

• ȁ𝜑ۧ is normalized i.e. total probability is 1

• Sum of the squares of amplitude is equal to 1

48
Quantum Superposition

• A quantum state can be in superposition of the basis states.

ȁ𝝋ۧ = 𝜶 ȁ𝟎ۧ + 𝜷 ȁ𝟏ۧ

• Here ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ȁ𝟏ۧ are the basis states, and 𝜶 and 𝜷 are
complex numbers
𝜶 𝟐 + 𝜷 𝟐 =𝟏

49
Quantum Measurement

• When the state of a qubit is “measured”:

• The value returned is that of one of the basis states – the qubit state also
collapses to that basis state.
• This happens with some probability.
• This is unlike reading the output of a circuit in conventional computing.
• Suppose the state of a qubit is: ȁ𝝋ۧ = 𝜶 ȁ𝟎ۧ + 𝜷 ȁ𝟏ۧ
• When we read the state of the qubit, it returns ȁ0ۧ with probability 𝜶 𝟐 , and
it returns ȁ1ۧ with probability 𝜷 𝟐 .

50
Summary

• Basis and Dimension

• Linear independence
• Hilbert space
• Orthogonal and normal
• Inner product

51