CHAPTER 5: VECTORS

5.1) DISPLACEMENT VECTORS

Definitions

• The displacement vector from one point to another is an arrow with its tail at the first point
and its tip at the second point.

• The magnitude (or length) of the displacement vector is the distance between the points
and is represented by the length of the arrow.

Initial point Terminal point

Remark: Displacement vectors which have the same direction and magnitude are considered the
same, even if they do not coincide.

Definitions

• A vector 𝑣𝑣⃗ is an object which has both magnitude and direction. The direction of the vector
is indicated by an arrow, and the length of the arrow is the magnitude of the vector.

• A scalar is a quantity which has magnitude but no direction.

Remarks

• �⃗ is denoted by �𝒱𝒱
The magnitude (length) of a vector 𝒱𝒱 �⃗�.
• �⃗, is the vector with zero length (and therefore has no direction).
The zero vector, denoted 0

Definition: The sum of two vectors 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤 ��⃗, denoted by 𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝑤𝑤
��⃗, is the combined displacement
resulting from first applying 𝑣𝑣⃗ and then 𝑤𝑤
��⃗.
Definition: If 𝜆𝜆 is a scalar and 𝑣𝑣⃗ is a vector, then the scalar multiple, 𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣⃗ of 𝑣𝑣⃗ , is the vector that is
parallel to 𝑣𝑣⃗ such that:

• 𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣⃗ has the same direction as 𝑣𝑣⃗ if 𝜆𝜆 > 0, and the opposite direction if 𝜆𝜆 < 0.

• The magnitude of 𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣⃗ is |λ| multiplied by the magnitude of 𝑣𝑣⃗ .

Remarks

• ��⃗ and 𝒱𝒱�⃗, are parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other (ie. 𝒲𝒲
Two vectors, 𝑤𝑤 ���⃗ = 𝜆𝜆𝒱𝒱
�⃗ for
some 𝜆𝜆).

• �⃗ = −𝒱𝒱
(−1)𝒱𝒱 �⃗ has the same magnitude as 𝒱𝒱
�⃗ but is in the opposite direction of 𝒱𝒱
�⃗.

Definition: The difference of two vectors 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗, denoted 𝑤𝑤 ���⃗ + (−𝒱𝒱
��⃗ − 𝑣𝑣⃗, is the vector 𝒲𝒲 �⃗).

Definitions

• If 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) are two points in ℝ2 , then the vector ������⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 has components:
�����⃗ = ⟨𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 ⟩
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

• If 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑧𝑧1 ) and 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 , 𝑧𝑧2 ) are two points in ℝ3 , then the vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
�����⃗ has
components:

�����⃗ = ⟨𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ⟩

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Examples

1) Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with:

a) initial point 𝐴𝐴(2; −3) and terminal point 𝐵𝐵(−6; 10).

b) initial point 𝑃𝑃(2; −1; −2) and terminal point 𝑄𝑄(7; 0; −3).

2) Illustrate each of the above vectors on their respective planes.

Basis Vectors

• In ℝ2 , 𝚤𝚤⃗ = ⟨1, 0⟩ and 𝚥𝚥⃗ = ⟨0, 1⟩ are basis vectors.

• �⃗ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩ are basis vectors.

In ℝ3 , 𝚤𝚤⃗ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, 𝚥𝚥⃗ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ and 𝑘𝑘

Remarks

• Any vector can be written in terms of the basis vectors.

• If 𝜐𝜐⃗ = ⟨𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 ⟩ in ℝ2 , then 𝜐𝜐⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗.

• �⃗
If 𝜐𝜐⃗ = ⟨𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 ⟩ in ℝ3 , then 𝜐𝜐⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘

From now on, we will use the basis vectors to represent a vector. Furthermore, formulae/
theorems will be stated for ℝ3 but the same can be concluded for ℝ2 .
 �⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
Arithmetic of Vectors: If 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘 �⃗ are vectors,
��⃗ = 𝑏𝑏1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑏𝑏3 𝑘𝑘
then:
�⃗.
��⃗ = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏𝑏1 )𝚤𝚤⃗ + (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2 )𝚥𝚥⃗ + (𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑏𝑏3 )𝑘𝑘
a) 𝜈𝜈⃗ + 𝑤𝑤

�⃗.
��⃗ = (𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑏𝑏1 )𝚤𝚤⃗ + (𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏2 )𝚥𝚥⃗ + (𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑏𝑏3 )𝑘𝑘
b) 𝜈𝜈⃗ − 𝑤𝑤

c) 𝜆𝜆𝜈𝜈⃗ = 𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘�⃗.

�⃗ , then: ‖𝜈𝜈⃗‖ = �𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎32
Magnitude of a Vector: If 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘

�⃗ , then 𝜈𝜈⃗ is said to be resolved into components and the

Remark: If 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘
�⃗ are called the components of 𝑣𝑣⃗.
𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗, 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ and 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘
Examples

1) Let 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 2𝚤𝚤⃗ + 3𝚥𝚥⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗ = −4𝚤𝚤⃗ − 7𝚥𝚥⃗. Determine:

a) 𝜈𝜈⃗ + 2𝑤𝑤
��⃗ b) −3𝜈𝜈⃗ − 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ c) ‖𝜈𝜈⃗‖ and ‖𝑤𝑤
��⃗‖

2) �⃗ and 𝑏𝑏�⃗ = 4𝚤𝚤⃗ − 3𝑘𝑘

Let 𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥𝚥⃗ − 2𝑘𝑘 �⃗. Determine:

1
�⃗
a) 4𝑎𝑎⃗ − 𝑏𝑏
3

�⃗.
b) the magnitudes of 𝑎𝑎⃗ and 𝑏𝑏

Theorem: If a vector 𝜈𝜈⃗ makes an angle of 𝜃𝜃 with the 𝑥𝑥 -axis and 𝑎𝑎 is the length of 𝜈𝜈⃗, then:

�⃗ = 𝒂𝒂 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄(𝜽𝜽)𝒊𝒊⃗ + 𝒂𝒂 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬( 𝜽𝜽)𝒋𝒋⃗

𝝂𝝂
Definition: A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is 1.

�⃗
𝒗𝒗
�⃗ =
Theorem: If 𝑣𝑣⃗ is a nonzero vector, then 𝒖𝒖 is a unit vector in the same direction as 𝑣𝑣⃗ .
�⃗∥
∥𝒗𝒗

Examples

1) �⃗ are unit vectors.

The vectors 𝚤𝚤⃗, �⃗𝚥𝚥 and 𝑘𝑘

2) Find a unit vector in the direction of 𝑣𝑣 = 3𝚤𝚤⃗ − 4𝚥𝚥⃗.

3) �⃗.
Find a unit vector in the direction of 𝑣𝑣⃗ = −𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 7𝑘𝑘

4) Resolve the following vectors into components:

𝜋𝜋
a) vector 𝜈𝜈⃗ with ‖𝜈𝜈⃗‖ = 5 and 𝜃𝜃 = .
3

3𝜋𝜋
�⃗ with ‖𝜔𝜔
b) vector 𝜔𝜔 �⃗‖ = 7 and 𝜃𝜃 = .
4
Exercises

1) Simplify the following:

         
(a) (4i + 2 j ) − (3i − j ) (b) (4i − 3 j + 7 k ) − 2(5i + j − k )

2) Calculate the lengths of the following vectors:

        
(a) z =−
i 3 j + 2k (b) v = 3(i − k ) − 2(3i − j )
  
3) (a) Draw the position vector for v= 5i − 7 j .

(b) Determine v .


(c) Find the angle between v and the positive x - axis.
  
4) (a) Find a unit vector in the direction of i− j+k .
  
(b) Find a unit vector in the opposite direction of 2i − j − 11k .

     
5) Find the values of a v 5ai − 3 j parallel to =
making= w a2 i + 6 j .
5.2) VECTORS IN GENERAL
In Section 5.1, we looked specifically at displacement vectors. However, there many other
quantities that have both magnitude and direction, for example:

• Velocity
• Gravity
• Magnetic Field

Definition: The velocity vector of a moving object is a vector whose magnitude is the speed of
the object and whose direction is its direction of motion.

Examples

1) A car is travelling north at a speed of 100km/h and an aeroplane is flying southwest at a

speed of 500km/h. Represent the velocity vectors of the car and the plane using
components.

2) A ball is moving with velocity 𝑣𝑣⃗ when it hits a wall at right angles and bounces straight back
with its speed reduced by 20%. Express the new velocity in terms of the old one.

3) Suppose that an aeroplane is flying at a direction of 60° from due North at a velocity of
300km/h, and a wind is blowing from the west at 40km/h. Find the resulting direction of the
plane (measured from due North) and the new speed of the aircraft.

4) An aeroplane is heading due east at a speed of 600km/h, but experiences a wind blowing
at 50km/h towards northeast. Find the aeroplane’s new direction and new speed.
5) A person is walking west on the deck of a ship at 5km/h, while the ship is moving due North
at 30km/h. Find the resulting speed and direction of the person relative to the water surface.

Some properties of Vectors

Let 𝑢𝑢
�⃗, 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ be vectors, and let 𝛼𝛼 and 𝛽𝛽 be scalars. Then we have the following:

𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ = 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ + 𝑣𝑣⃗ Commutative property

(𝑢𝑢
�⃗ + 𝑣𝑣⃗) + 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ = 𝑢𝑢
�⃗ + (𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝑤𝑤
��⃗) Associative property

𝛼𝛼(𝛽𝛽𝑣𝑣⃗) = (𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼)𝑣𝑣⃗ Associative property

(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝛽𝛽𝑣𝑣⃗ Distributive property

𝛼𝛼(𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝑤𝑤
��⃗) = 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝛼𝛼𝑤𝑤
��⃗ Distributive property

1𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑣⃗ Multiplicative Identity

0𝑣𝑣⃗ = �0⃗ Multiplication by Zero

�⃗ = 𝑣𝑣⃗
𝑣𝑣⃗ + 0 Additive Identity

��⃗ + (−1)𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑤𝑤
𝑤𝑤 ��⃗ − 𝑣𝑣⃗
Exercises

1) Determine the components of the velocity vector of:

(a) a wind blowing at 10 km/h towards southeast.

(b) a boat that is moving at 40 km/h in a direction 20 degrees south of west.

 
2) Which is travelling faster: a car whose velocity vector is 21 i + 35 j or a car whose velocity

vector is 40 i ?

3) An aeroplane is flying at an airspeed of 500 km/h in a wind blowing at 60km/h towards the
southeast. Determine:

(a) In what direction should the plane head to end up going due east?

(b) What is the plane’s speed relative to the ground?

4) An aeroplane is heading northeast at an airspeed of 700 km/h but experiences a wind

blowing at 60 km/h from the west.

(a) In what direction does the plane end up flying?

(b) What is the plane’s speed relative to the ground?

5) A man wishes to row the shortest possible distance from north to south across a river that is
flowing at 4 km/h. He can row at 5 km/h.

(a) In which direction should he steer?

(b) If there is a wind of 10 km/h from the southwest, in which direction should he steer to
try to go directly across the river? What happens?
5.3) THE DOT PRODUCT
�⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
Definitions: If 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘 �⃗ are vectors, then the dot
��⃗ = 𝑏𝑏1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑏𝑏3 𝑘𝑘
product of 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤��⃗ is given by:

𝑣𝑣⃗. 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3

Remark: The dot product is a number, not a vector. Therefore, the dot product is also known as
the scalar product.

The following theorem provides us with a geometric approach to the dot product:

Theorem: If 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between vectors 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗ where 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋, then:

��⃗ = ‖𝑣𝑣⃗‖‖𝑤𝑤
𝑣𝑣⃗. 𝑤𝑤 ��⃗‖ cos 𝜃𝜃

�⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
Proof: Let 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘 ��⃗ = 𝑏𝑏1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝑏2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑏𝑏3 𝑘𝑘�⃗. Then, calculating the lengths using
components, we have:
2
v = a12 + a2 2 + a32

 2
w = b12 + b2 2 + b32
  2
v − w = (a1 − b1 ) 2 + (a2 − b2 ) 2 + (a3 − b3 ) 2
(1)
= a − 2a1b1 + b + a2 − 2a2b2 + b2 + a3 − 2a3b3 + b3
1
2
1
2 2 2 2 2

Now, from the Cosine Rule, we also have:

  2  2  2  
v − w = v + w − 2 v w cosθ (2)

Equating (1) and (2) and cancelling, we have:

 
−2 v w cosθ
−2a1b1 − 2a2b2 − 2a3b3 =

 
v w cosθ
a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 =
Hence, we get:    
⇒ v ⋅ w =v w cosθ

�⃗.𝑤𝑤
𝑣𝑣 ��⃗
Remarks: From the theorem, it follows that: cos 𝜃𝜃 = . So we can calculate the angle
‖𝑣𝑣
�⃗‖‖𝑤𝑤
��⃗‖
between two vectors.

Examples

1) Find the dot product of the following vectors:

a) 𝜈𝜈⃗ = 4𝚤𝚤⃗ + 6𝚥𝚥⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗ = −3𝚤𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥𝚥⃗
b) �⃗ and 𝑏𝑏�⃗ = 5𝚤𝚤⃗ + 9𝑘𝑘
𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝚤𝚤⃗ − 2𝚥𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘𝑘 �⃗
𝜋𝜋
c) vectors 𝑝𝑝⃗ and 𝑟𝑟⃗ with ‖𝑝𝑝⃗‖ = 3, ‖𝑟𝑟⃗‖ = √6 and the angle in between is .
4

2𝜋𝜋
d) vectors 𝑥𝑥⃗ and 𝑦𝑦⃗ with ‖𝑥𝑥⃗‖ = 6, ‖𝑦𝑦⃗‖ = 5 and the angle in between is .
3

2) Find the angle between the vectors in (1a) and (1b).

Some properties of the dot product can be found in the following two theorems:

Theorem: Let 𝑢𝑢
�⃗, 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ be vectors, and let 𝛼𝛼 be a scalar. Then:

(a) 𝑢𝑢
�⃗. 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑣⃗. 𝑢𝑢
�⃗

�⃗. (𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣⃗) = 𝛼𝛼(𝑢𝑢

(b) 𝑢𝑢 �⃗. 𝑣𝑣⃗) = (𝛼𝛼𝑢𝑢
�⃗). 𝑣𝑣⃗

(c) (𝑢𝑢
�⃗ + 𝑣𝑣⃗). 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ = 𝑢𝑢
�⃗. 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ + 𝑣𝑣⃗. 𝑤𝑤
��⃗

Theorem: Let 𝑢𝑢
�⃗ and 𝑣𝑣⃗ be vectors: Then:

(a) 𝑣𝑣⃗. 𝑣𝑣⃗ = ‖𝑣𝑣⃗‖2

(b) 𝑢𝑢
�⃗ and 𝑣𝑣⃗ are perpendicular ⇔ 𝑢𝑢
�⃗. 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 0.

Examples

1) Determine which pair(s) of the following vectors are perpendicular:

�⃗ , 𝑏𝑏�⃗ = 2𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝚥𝚥⃗ − 2𝑘𝑘

𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝚤𝚤⃗ − 2𝑘𝑘 �⃗ , 𝑐𝑐⃗ = −2𝚤𝚤⃗ − 𝑘𝑘
�⃗

2) Determine whether the following vectors are perpendicular, parallel or neither:

�⃗ and 𝑏𝑏�⃗ = 6𝚤𝚤⃗ − 8𝚥𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘𝑘

a) 𝑎𝑎⃗ = −5𝚤𝚤⃗ + 3𝚥𝚥⃗ + 7𝑘𝑘 �⃗

b) 𝑢𝑢 �⃗ and 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 3𝚤𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥𝚥⃗ − 𝑘𝑘

�⃗ = −𝚤𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥𝚥⃗ + 5𝑘𝑘 �⃗

3) Use vectors to decide whether the triangle with vertices 𝑃𝑃 (1, − 3, − 2), 𝑄𝑄(2, 0, − 4)
and 𝑅𝑅(6, − 2, 5) is right - angled or not.

We now turn our attention to planes in 3-dimension.

Definition: A plane is a flat (two-dimensional) surface, like a flat sheet of paper.

Remarks

• The equation of a plane is given by: 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑑𝑑 .

• A vector perpendicular to a plane and a point on the plane determines the plane
completely. So, we need this information to find the equation of a plane

Finding the Equation of a Plane

If 𝑛𝑛 �⃗ is a normal (perpendicular) vector to a plane, and the plane contains the

�⃗ = 𝑎𝑎𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝑏𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘
point 𝑃𝑃0 (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 , 𝑧𝑧0 ), then the equation of a plane is given by:

𝒂𝒂(𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝒃𝒃(𝒚𝒚 − 𝒚𝒚𝟎𝟎 ) + 𝒄𝒄(𝒛𝒛 − 𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 ) = 𝟎𝟎

Remark: The above may be simplified as: 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑑𝑑 where 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑐𝑧𝑧0 .

Examples

1) Find an equation of the plane that is perpendicular to 𝑛𝑛 �⃗ and passes

�⃗ = 2𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝚥𝚥⃗ − 3𝑘𝑘
through (1, 2, 0).

1
2) Find an equation of the plane that is perpendicular to 𝑛𝑛 �⃗ and passes
�⃗ = 2𝚤𝚤⃗ − 𝚥𝚥⃗ − 7𝑘𝑘
3
through (−1, 3, 5).

3) Find a vector that is normal to the plane: −𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 5𝑧𝑧 = 8.

4) Determine the angle between the two planes:

3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑧𝑧 = 2 and −6𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 + 4𝑧𝑧 = −4

Exercises
         
1) Let a =2 j + k , b =−3i + 5 j + 4k and c = i + 6 j be 3 – dimensional vectors. Determine:
    
(a) a⋅c (b) ( a ⋅ b) a
      
(c) a ⋅ (b + c) (d) ((c ⋅ c)a) ⋅ a

2) Find a normal vector to the following planes:

(a) 2x + y − z =23 (b) z − 5( x − 2) = 3(5 − y )

3) Compute the angle between the vectors:

         
(a) i + k and j − k (b) i + j − k and 2i + 3 j + k

4) Find an equation of the plane that satisfies the given conditions:

  
(a) Passing through (1, 5, 2) and perpendicular the vector 3i − j + 4k .

(b) Passing through (1, 0, − 1) and parallel to the plane 2 x + 4 y − 3 z =

1.
   
(c) Passing through (4, 5, − 2) and perpendicular the vector v = 2i − 3 j + 5k .

5) A plane has equation: z = 5 x − 2 y + 7 . Determine:

 
1 
(a) a value(s) of t making the vector ti + j + k normal to the plane.
2
(b) a value(s) of s so that the point ( s + 1, s, s − 1) lies on the plane.
       
6) For what values of a are the vectors v = ai − j + k and w =ai + a j − 2k are:

(a) perpendicular? (b) parallel?

7) Let A(2, 2, 2), B (4, 2, 1) and C (2, 3, 1) be vertices of a triangle. Determine:

(a) using vectors, whether triangle ABC is right – angled or not?

(b) the cosine of angle BAC .

5.4) THE CROSS PRODUCT
Definitions: The cross product (𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤 �⃗ and
��⃗) of two vectors 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑣1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑣𝑣2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘
𝑤𝑤 �⃗ is defined by:
��⃗ = 𝑤𝑤1 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑤𝑤2 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑤𝑤3 𝑘𝑘

�⃗ .
��⃗ = (𝑣𝑣2 𝑤𝑤3 − 𝑣𝑣3 𝑤𝑤2 )𝚤𝚤⃗ − (𝑣𝑣1 𝑤𝑤3 − 𝑣𝑣3 𝑤𝑤1 )𝚥𝚥⃗ + (𝑣𝑣1 𝑤𝑤2 − 𝑣𝑣2 𝑤𝑤1 )𝑘𝑘
𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
Remarks

• 𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ gives a vector that is perpendicular (normal) to both 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗. The direction of the
normal vector 𝑛𝑛 �⃗, is determined by the right-hand rule.

• The Right – Hand Rule: Place 𝑢𝑢 �⃗ and 𝑣𝑣⃗ so that their tails coincide and curl the fingers of
your right hand through the smaller of the two angles between 𝑢𝑢 �⃗ and 𝑣𝑣⃗; your thumb points
in the direction of the normal vector, 𝑛𝑛
�⃗.

• ��⃗ are not parallel, then ‖𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤

If 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤 ��⃗‖ gives the area of the parallelogram with edges
𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗.

Examples

1) Determine 𝚤𝚤⃗ × 𝚥𝚥⃗, 𝚥𝚥⃗ × 𝑘𝑘�⃗ and 𝑘𝑘�⃗ × 𝚤𝚤⃗.

2) �⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
Let 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝚤𝚤⃗ − 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘𝑘 �⃗ . Determine:
��⃗ = −2𝚤𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥𝚥⃗ + 5𝑘𝑘

(a) 𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗

(b) the area of the parallelogram formed by 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗.

3) For any vector 𝑣𝑣⃗ , determine 𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑣𝑣⃗ .

4) Let 𝑃𝑃 (1, 4, 6), 𝑄𝑄(−2, 5, 1) and 𝑅𝑅(1, − 1, 1) be vertices of a triangle. Determine:

(a) �����⃗
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and �����⃗
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 .

(b) The area of triangle 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 .

(c) The equation of the plane containing points 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅

Geometric Definition of the Cross Product: If 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ are not parallel, then:

𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤 ��⃗‖ sin 𝜃𝜃)𝑛𝑛�⃗

��⃗ = (‖𝑣𝑣⃗‖‖𝑤𝑤

where 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 is the angle between 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤 ��⃗ and 𝑛𝑛�⃗ is the unit vector perpendicular to 𝑣𝑣⃗ and
𝑤𝑤
��⃗, pointing in the direction given by the right-hand rule.

Remarks

• If 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ are not parallel, then the area of the parallelogram with edges 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ is given
by:
‖𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗‖ = ‖𝑣𝑣⃗‖‖𝑤𝑤
��⃗‖ sin 𝜃𝜃

• Vectors 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤 ��⃗ = �0⃗.

��⃗ are parallel ⇔ 𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤

Examples

1) �⃗ and 𝑤𝑤
Let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝚤𝚤⃗ − 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘𝑘 �⃗ be vectors. Determine:
��⃗ = −2𝚤𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥𝚥⃗ + 5𝑘𝑘

(a) the area of the parallelogram with sides 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗.

(b) the value of 𝜃𝜃 where 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between 𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝑤𝑤

��⃗.

2) Determine if the following planes are perpendicular parallel or neither:

(a) 𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑧𝑧 = 1 and −3𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 7𝑧𝑧 =0

(b) 2𝑧𝑧 = 4𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 and 3𝑥𝑥 − 12𝑦𝑦 + 6𝑧𝑧 = 1

Properties of the Cross Product: For vectors 𝑢𝑢

�⃗, 𝑣𝑣⃗, 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ and scalar 𝜆𝜆, we have:

(a) 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ × 𝑣𝑣⃗ = −(𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗)

(b) (𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣⃗) × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ = 𝜆𝜆(𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗) = 𝑣𝑣⃗ × (𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤
��⃗)

(c) �⃗ × (𝑣𝑣⃗ + 𝑤𝑤
𝑢𝑢 ��⃗) = (𝑢𝑢
�⃗ × 𝑣𝑣⃗) + (𝑢𝑢
�⃗ × 𝑤𝑤
��⃗)
Exercises
 
1) Determine v × w if:
    
(a) v = −i and w= j + k
       
(b) v = 2i − j − k and w =−6i + 3 j + 3k
       
(c) v=−3i + 5 j + 4k and w =−
i 3j −k

2) Find an equation of the plane through the points:

(a) (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) .

(b) (3, 2, 4), (−2, 1, 0) and (0, 2, 1) .

3) Find an equation of the plane through the origin containing points (1, 3, 0) and (2, 4, 1) .

4) Find a vector that is parallel to the line of intersection of the two planes 4 x − 3 y + 2 z =
12
and x + 5 y − z = 7.

5) Let 𝑃𝑃(0, 1, 0), 𝑄𝑄(−1, 1, 2) and 𝑅𝑅(2, 1, −1) be vertices of a triangle. Determine:

(a) the area of triangle PQR .

(b) The equation of the plane that contains P, Q and R .

6) Let 𝐴𝐴(−1, 3, 0), 𝐵𝐵(3, 2, 4) and 𝐶𝐶(1, −1, 5). Determine:

(a) an equation for the plane that passes through these three points.

(b) the area of the triangle determined by these three points.

     
7) 5 and v × w =
Suppose that v ⋅ w = 3 , and the angle between v and w is θ . Determine:

(a) tan θ (b) θ

      
8) 3 , determine tan θ where θ is the angle between
If v × w = 2i − 3 j + 5k and v ⋅ w =
 
v and w .