University of Garmian

Civil Engineering Department

Mathematics-III 2021-2022
Geometry of Space Second Stage

By: Dr .Rafiq Salih Muhammad

 1 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

12.2 VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE (REVIEW)

12.2 3D Vector :

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =< 𝑣1 ‚𝑣2 ‚𝑣3 > three dimension vector s.t. P=(𝑥1 ‚𝑦1 ‚𝑧1 ) and Q=(𝑥2 ‚𝑦2 ‚𝑧2 ):
If 𝑣 = 𝑃𝑄

Example 1: Find the (a) component form and (b) length of the vector with initial point P(
- 3, 4, 1) and terminal point Q( -5, 2, 2).
Solution: (a) The standard position vector 𝑣 representing PQ has components
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𝑣1 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = −5 − (−3) = −2‚ 𝑣2 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 2 − 4 = −2‚

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is 𝑣 = 〈−2‚ − 2‚1〉
𝑣3 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 2 − 1 = 1‚ The component form of 𝑃𝑄
(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is |𝑣| = √(−2)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2 = √9 = 3‚
The length or magnitude of 𝑣 = 𝑃𝑄

EXAMPLE 3: Let 𝑢 = (−1‚3‚1) and 𝑣 = (4‚7‚0). Find the components of

1
(a) 2𝑢 + 3𝑣 (b) 𝑢 − 𝑣 (c) | 𝑢|
2

Solution: (a) 2𝑢 + 3𝑣 = 2(−1‚3‚ 1) + 3(4‚7‚0) = (−2‚6‚2) + (12‚21‚0)

= (10‚27‚2)
(b) u − 𝑣 = (−1‚3‚1) − (4‚7‚0) = (−1 − 4‚3 − 7‚1 − 0) = (−5‚ − 4‚1)

1 1 1 3 1 1
(e) | 𝑢| = | 〈−1‚3‚1〉| = √(− )2 + ( )2 + ( )2 = √11
2 2 2 2 2 2

A vector : Is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction (relative things). The
magnitude of a vector is a scalar. Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, electric
field.

Magnitude = size. Direction = orientation. Draw it as an arrow. The point (a,b,c) is the
point at the head of the vector 𝑣 when its tail is placed at the origin (0,0,0).

Components of a Vector: Consider a vector 𝑣 with tail at the origin and head having
the Cartesian coordinates (a,b,c), We can represent this vector as the sum of three
component vectors
⃗
𝒗
⃗ = (𝒂‚𝒃‚𝒄) 𝒐𝒓 𝒗
⃗ = 𝒂𝒊 + 𝒃𝒋 + 𝒄𝒌 𝒐𝒓 𝒗
𝒗 ⃗ =< 𝒂‚𝒃‚𝒄 > 𝒐𝒓 ⃗ = |𝒗
𝒗 ⃗ | |𝒗| ,
⃗

𝒂𝒊 represent a vector parallel to x-axis, 𝒃𝒋 represent a vector parallel to y-axis and 𝒄𝑘

represent a vector parallel to z-axis. 𝒂𝒊‚ 𝒃𝒋 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒌 are vector components of 𝑣 in the
direction of 𝑖 = (1‚0‚0) , 𝑗 = (0‚1‚0)and 𝑘 = (0‚0‚1). The magnitude(length) of a vector
𝑣 is a scalar written as

|𝑣| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
Example: If 𝑣 = 3𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 2𝑘 find magnitude(length) of the vector 𝑣.

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 3 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

Solution: |𝑣| = |3i + 5j + 2𝑘 | = √32 + 52 + 22 = √9 + 25 + 4 = √38

Vector Algebra:
1- Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
2- The negative of a vector 𝑣, denoted −𝑣, is a vector
of the same magnitude as 𝑣 but in the opposite direction.
3- Multiply by scalar: any vector 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘, may be
multiply by scalar s: 𝑠𝑣 = 𝑠(𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘) = 𝑠𝑎𝑖 + 𝑠𝑏𝑗 + 𝑠𝑐𝑘
4- Addition of vectors: Two vectors 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘
and 𝑢
⃗ = 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑒𝑗 + 𝑓𝑘can be added together to give
⃗ = (𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘) + (𝑑𝑖 + 𝑒𝑗 + 𝑓𝑘) = (𝑎 + 𝑑)𝑖 + (𝑏 + 𝑒)𝑗 + (𝑐 + 𝑓)𝑘 .
𝑣+𝑢
Vectors are added by adding their individual components.
5- Vector subtraction: the difference, 𝑣 − 𝑢
⃗ , is
defined as the sum of 𝑣 and the negative of 𝑢
⃗
⃗ = 𝑣 + (−𝑢
𝑣−𝑢 ⃗)=𝑣+𝑢
⃗ = (𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘) + (−(𝑑𝑖 + 𝑒𝑗 + 𝑓𝑘)) = (𝑎 − 𝑑)𝑖 +
(𝑏 − 𝑒)𝑗 + (𝑐 − 𝑓)𝑘 .
6- Zero Vectors 0: It’s the only vector that doesn’t have a direction <0,0,0>.
1 1 1
7- Unit Vector: A unit vector is a vector of magnitude one for example < ‚ ‚ >
√3 √ 3 √3

Note that each of 𝑖‚ 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 are unit vectors.

Unit Vectors:

Vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit vectors in 3D are

𝑖 = 〈1‚0‚0〉‚ 𝑗 = 〈0‚1‚0〉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 〈0‚0‚1〉 Any vector v can been written as linear
combination of the standard unit vectors as follows:

𝑣 = 〈𝑣1 ‚𝑣2 ‚𝑣3 〉 = 〈𝑣1 ‚0‚0〉 + 〈0‚𝑣2 ‚0〉 + 〈0‚0‚𝑣3 〉

= 𝑣1 〈1‚0‚0〉 + 𝑣2 〈0‚1‚0〉 + 𝑣3 〈0‚0‚1〉

= 𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑣2 𝑗 + 𝑣3 𝑘‚

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Direction of Vector: direction of any vector, is a unit vector obtained by dividing the
vector by its length; i.e. direction of 𝑣 is:

⃗
𝒗 𝑎𝑖+𝑏𝑗+𝑐𝑘 𝒂𝒊 𝒃𝒋 𝒄𝒌
⃗ ) = |𝒗| =
𝐃(𝒗 = + +
⃗ √𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐 +𝒄𝟐 √𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐 +𝒄 𝟐 √𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐 +𝒄 𝟐 √𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐 +𝒄𝟐

We use vectors that are only 1 unit long to build position vectors. i is a vector 1 unit long
in the x direction, j is a vector 1 unit long in the y direction and k is a vector 1 unit long in
the z direction, 𝑖 = (1‚0‚0)‚ 𝑗 = (0‚1‚0)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = (0‚0‚1), |𝑖| = √12 + 02 + 02 =
1‚ |𝑗| = √02 + 12 + 02 = 1‚ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = √02 + 02 + 12 = 1

EXAMPLE 4: Find a unit vector 𝑢 in the direction of the vector from 𝑃1 (1‚ 0‚ 1) to
𝑃2 (3‚ 2‚ 0)․

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Solution: We divide 𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑃2 by its length: 𝑃1 𝑃2 = (3 − 1)𝑖 + (2 − 0)𝑗 + (0 − 1)𝑘

= 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑃 2 2 2
1 𝑃2 | = √ (2) + (2) + (−1) = √ 4 + 4 + 1 = √ 9 = 3.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘 2 2 1
𝑢= = = 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘‚
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑃 1 𝑃2 |
3 3 3 3

The unit vector 𝑢 is the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃1 𝑃2 .
If 𝑣 ≠ 0, then
𝑣
1. |𝑣| is a unit vector in the direction of 𝑣;
𝑣
2. the equation |𝑣| |𝑣| expresses 𝑣 as its length times its direction.

EXAMPLE 6 A force of 6 newtons is applied in the direction of the vector 𝑣 = 2𝑖 +

2𝑗 − 𝑘‚ Express the force F as a product of its magnitude and direction.
𝑣
Solution: The force vector has magnitude 6 and direction |𝑣|, so

𝑣 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘 2 2 1
𝐹=6 =6 =6 = 6( 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘)
|𝑣| √22 + 22 + (−1)2 3 3 3 3
8- Equality of Vectors: Two vectors are equal if there
corresponding component are equal i.e. if
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⃗ → (𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘) = (𝑑𝑖 + 𝑒𝑗 + 𝑓𝑘) → 𝑎 = 𝑑 ‚ 𝑏 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 𝑓

𝑣=𝑢
equal vector means they have the same magnitude and the same direction
EXAMPLE 7: Find the midpoint of the segment joining 𝑃1 (3‚ − 2‚0) and 𝑃2 (7‚ 4‚ 4)
Solution: The midpoint M of the line segment joining points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 ‚𝑦1 ‚𝑧1 ) and
𝑃2 (𝑥2 ‚𝑦2 ‚𝑧2 ) is the point
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 3 + 7 −2 + 4 0 + 4
𝑀=( ‚ ‚ )=( ‚ ‚ ) = (5‚1‚2)
2 2 2 2 2 2
12.3 The Dot Product:(3D) The dot product 𝑢․𝑣 ("u dot v") of vectors 𝑢 = (𝑢1 ‚ 𝑢2 ‚ 𝑢3 )
and 𝑣 = (𝑣1 ‚ 𝑣2 ‚ 𝑣3 ) is 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 = |𝑢||𝑣| cos 𝜃
Dot products are also called inner or scalar products because the product results in a
scalar, not a vector.
Theorem: Angle Between Two Vectors: The angle 𝜃 between two nonzero
vectors 𝑢 = (𝑢1 ‚ 𝑢2 ‚ 𝑢3 ) and 𝑣 = (𝑣1 ‚ 𝑣2 ‚ 𝑣3 )is given by
𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
|𝑢||𝑣|
EXAMPLE 1:
(8) 〈1‚ − 2‚ − 1〉 ∙ 〈−6‚2‚ − 3〉 =(1)(-6) + (-2)(2) + (-1)(-3)
= -6 - 4 + 3 = -7
1 1
(b) ( 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘) ∙ (4𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘) = ( )4 + (3)(−1) + (1)(2) = 1
2 2

EXAMPLE 2: Find the angle between 𝑢 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 2𝑘 and 𝑣 = 6𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘‚

Solution: We use the formula above:
𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 = (1)(6) + (−2)(3) + (−2)(2) = 6 − 6 − 4 = −4
|𝑢| = √12 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = √9 = 3

|𝑣| = √62 + 32 + 22 = √49 = 7

−4
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−0․19047) = 100․98
3×7
DEFINITION: Vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only if 𝑢․𝑣 = 0.

(a) 𝑢 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 𝑘 and 𝑣 = 2𝑗 + 4𝑘 are orthogonal because

𝑢․𝑣 = (3)(0) + (−2)(2) + (1)(4) = 𝑂‚

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(b) 0 is orthogonal to every vector u since

0․𝑢 = (0‚0‚ 0)․(𝑢1 ‚𝑢2 ‚ 𝑢3 ) = 0 ∗ 𝑢1 + 0 ∗ 𝑢2 + 0 ∗ 𝑢3 = 0
12.4 Cross Product: We start with two nonzero vectors u and v in space. If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are
not parallel, they determine a plane. We select a unit vector 𝑛 perpendicular to the plane
by the right-hand rule. This means that we choose 𝑛 to be the unit (normal) vector that
points the way your right thumb points when your fingers curl through the angle 𝜃 from 𝑢
to 𝑣 (Figure 12.27). Then the cross product 𝑢 × 𝑣 ("u cross v") is the vector defined as
follows:
DEFINITION
𝑢 × 𝑣 = (|𝑢||𝑣| sin 𝜃)𝑛
The cross product is a vector. For this reason it's also called the vector product of u and v,
and applies only to vectors in space. The vector u × v is orthogonal to both u and v
because it is a scalar multiple of n. The cross product of two vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 is zero if and
only if 𝑢 and 𝑣 are parallel or one or both of them are zero.
Parallel Vectors: Nonzero vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 are parallel if and only if 𝑢 × 𝑣 = 0.
When we apply the definition to calculate the pairwise cross products of 𝑖‚ 𝑗‚ and 𝑘, we
find (Figure 12.29)
𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘, 𝑗 × 𝑘 = 𝑖, 𝑘×𝑖 =𝑗
which imply, by the anticommutativity of the cross product, that
𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘, 𝑘 × 𝑗 = −𝑖, 𝑖 × 𝑘 = −𝑗

FIGURE 12.29 The pairwise Diagram for recalling FIGURE 12.30 The parallelogram
cross products of i, j, and k these products determined by u and v.

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 7 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

3 − |𝑢 × 𝑣| is the Area of a parallelogram because 𝑛 is a unit vector,

The magnitude of 𝑢 × 𝑣 is
|𝑢 × 𝑣| = |𝑢||𝑣||sin 𝜃||𝑛| = |𝑢||𝑣| sin 𝜃 ‚
This is the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v (Figure 12.30), |𝑢| being the
base of the parallelogram and |𝑣||sin 𝜃| the height.
Determinate Formula for 𝒖 × 𝒗:
Our next objective is to calculate 𝑢 × 𝑣 from the components of 𝑢 and 𝑣 relative to a
Cartesian coordinate system. Suppose that 𝑢 = 𝑢1 𝑖 + 𝑢2 𝑗 + 𝑢3 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑣2 𝑗 +
𝑣3 𝑘 Then the distributive laws and the rules for multiplying 𝑖‚ 𝑗‚ and 𝑘 tell us that
𝑢 × 𝑣 = (𝑢1 𝑖 + 𝑢2 𝑗 + 𝑢3 ) × (𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑣2 𝑗 + 𝑣3 𝑘)
= 𝑢1 𝑣1 𝑖⏟
× 𝑖 + 𝑢1 𝑣2 𝑖⏟
× 𝑗 + 𝑢1 𝑣3 𝑖⏟
× 𝑘 + 𝑢2 𝑣1 𝑗⏟
× 𝑖 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑗⏟
×𝑗
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑘 −𝑗 −𝑘 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

+ 𝑢2 𝑣3 𝑗⏟
× 𝑘 + 𝑢3 𝑣1 𝑘⏟
× 𝑖 + 𝑢3 𝑣2 𝑘⏟
× 𝑗 + 𝑢3 𝑣3 ⏟
𝑘×𝑘
−𝑖 𝑗 −𝑖 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

= (𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 )𝑖 − (𝑢1 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣1 )𝑗 + (𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 )𝑘․

The component terms in the last line are hard to remember, but they are the same as the
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
terms in the expansion of the symbolic determinant |𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 |
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
Note: Determinant 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 determinants are evaluated as follows:
𝑎 𝑏 2 1
| | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 | | = 2 ∗ 3 − (−4 ∗ 1) = 10
𝑐 𝑑 −4 3
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏2
|𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = 𝑎1 | 2 | − 𝑎2 | 1 | + 𝑎3 | 1 |
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
1 2 3
Example:
−5 3 1
1 1 2 1 2 1
| 2 1 1| = −5 | | − 3| | + 1| | = −5 × (−2) − 3 × 6 + 1 × 10
3 1 −4 1 −4 3
−4 3 1
= 10 − 18 + 10 = 2

Calculating the Cross Product as a Determinant:

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
If 𝑢 = 𝑢1 𝑖 + 𝑢2 𝑗 + 𝑢3 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑣2 𝑗 + 𝑣3 𝑘 then 𝑢 × 𝑣 = |𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 |
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
Example: Find 𝑢 × 𝑣 and 𝑣 × 𝑢 if 𝑢 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = −4𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘․
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𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
1 1 2 1 2 1
Solution: 𝑢 × 𝑣 = | 2 1 1| = | |𝑖 − | |𝑗 + | | 𝑘 = −2𝑖 − 6𝑗 + 10𝑘
3 1 −4 1 −4 3
−4 3 1

12.5 Lines and Planes in Space (NEW)

We show how to use scalar and vector products to write equations for lines, line
segments, and planes in space.
Lines and Line Segments in Space
In the plane, a line is determined by a point and a number giving the slope of the line. In
space a line is determined by a point and a vector giving the direction of the line.
Vector Equation for a Line
A vector equation for the line L through 𝑃0 (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 ) parallel to v is
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑟0 + 𝑡𝑣‚ −∞< 𝑡 <∞ (2)
where 𝑟 is the position vector of a point 𝑃(𝑥‚ 𝑦‚ 𝑧) on 𝐿 and 𝑟0 is the position vector of
𝑃0 (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 )․

Parametric Equations for a Line

The standard parameterization of the line through 𝑃0 (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 )‚ parallel to 𝑣 = 𝑣1 𝑖 +
𝑣2 𝑗 + 𝑣3 𝑘 is
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑣1 ‚ 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑣2 ‚ 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑣3 ‚ − ∞ < 𝑡 < ∞ (3)

EXAMPLE 1 Find parametric equations for the line through (-2,0,4) parallel to v = 2i +
4j - 2k
Solution: by equation (3)
𝑃0 (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 ) = (−2‚0‚4)‚
𝑣=𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑣2 𝑗 + 𝑣3 𝑘 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑘
𝑥 = −2 + 2𝑡‚ 𝑦 = 4𝑡‚ 𝑧 = 4 − 2𝑡‚

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EXAMPLE 2 Find parametric equations for the line through P( -3,2, -3) and Q(1, -1,4).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 − (−3))𝑖 + (−1 − 2)𝑗 + (4 − (−3))𝑘 = 4𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 7𝑘․
Solution: The vector 𝑃𝑄
is parallel to the line, and Equations (3) with (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 ) = (−3‚2‚ − 3) give
𝑥 = −3 + 4𝑡‚ 𝑦 = 2 − 3𝑡‚ 𝑧 = −3 + 7𝑡․
We could have chosen 𝑄( 1‚ − 1‚ 4) as the ''base point" and written
𝑥 = 1 + 4𝑡‚ 𝑦 = −1 − 3𝑡‚ 𝑧 = 4 + 7𝑡․
EXAMPLE 3 Parametrize the line segment joining the points 𝑃(−3‚2‚ −
3) and 𝑄(1‚ − 1‚4)

Solution: We begin with equations for the

line through P and Q, taking them, in this
case, from Example 2:
𝑥 = −3 + 4𝑡. 𝑦 = 2 − 3𝑡. 𝑧 = −3 + 7𝑡.
We observe that the point
(𝑥. 𝑦. 𝑧) = (−3 + 4𝑡. 2 − 3𝑡. −3 + 7𝑡)
on the line passes through 𝑃(−3.2. −3)

at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑄(1‚ − 1‚4) at 𝑡 = 1. We add the restriction 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 to parametrize the

segment:
𝑥 = −3 + 4𝑡‚ 𝑦 = 2 − 3𝑡‚ 𝑧 = −3 + 7𝑡‚ 0≤𝑡≤1

The position of the particle at time t:

𝑣
𝑟(𝑡)
⏟ = 𝑟⏟0 + ⏟
𝑡 |𝑣|
⏟ (4)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
|𝑣|
⏟
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

EXAMPLE 4 A Helicopter is to fly directly from a helipad at the origin in the direction
of the point (1,1,1) at a speed of 60 ft/sec. What is the position of the helicopter after 10
sec?

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10 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department
1 1 1
Solution: The unit vector 𝑢 = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 gives the flight direction of the
√3 √3 √3

helicopter. From Equation (4), the position of the helicopter

1 1 1
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡0 + 𝑡(𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)𝑢 = 0 + t(60) ( 𝑖+ 𝑗+ k) = 20√3𝑡(𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘)
√3 √3 √3
When 𝑡 = 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐‚ 𝑟(10) = 200√3(𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘) = 〈200√3‚ 200√3‚ 200√3〉
The Distance from a Point to a Line in Space: To find the distance from a point 𝑆 to a
line that passes through a point 𝑃 parallel to a vector 𝑣, we find the absolute value of the
scalar component of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 in the direction of a vector normal to the line (Figure 12.38). In
⃗⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃, which
the notation of the figure, the absolute value of the scalar component is |𝑃𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝑣|
|𝑃𝑆
is |𝑣|
‚

Distance from a Point S to a Line through P

Parallel to v:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣|
|𝑃𝑆
𝑑= ‚ (5)
|𝑣|

⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣| = |𝑣||𝑃𝑆
Not: |𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃 {cross product rule}
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝑣|
|𝑃𝑆
∴ sin 𝜃 = |𝑣||𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
‚ ….(1)

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑
In right angle triangle: sin 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 |𝑃𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗ |

⃗⃗⃗⃗ | sin 𝜃 …. (2)

∴ 𝑑 = |𝑃𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣| |𝑃𝑆
|𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣|
⃗⃗⃗⃗ |․
Substitute (1) in (2) we get (5): 𝑑 = |𝑃𝑆 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑣||𝑃𝑆 |𝑣|

EXAMPLE 5 Find the distance from the point 𝑆(1‚1‚5) to the line
𝐿: 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡‚ 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑡‚ 𝑧 = 2𝑡
Solution: We see from the equations for 𝐿 that 𝐿 passes through 𝑃(1‚ 3‚ 0) parallel to
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 − 1)𝑖 + (1 − 3)𝑗 + (5 − 0)𝑘 = −2𝑖 + 5𝑘
𝑣 = 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘‚With 𝑃𝑆

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11 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗
And 𝑃𝑆 × 𝑣 = |0 −2 5| = 𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 2𝑘․
1 −1 2

Equation (5) gives

⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑣| √1 + 25 + 4 √30
|𝑃𝑆
𝑑= = = = √5․
|𝑣| √1 + 1 + 4 √6

An Equation for a Plane in Space

A plane in space is determined by knowing a point on the plane and its "tilt' or
orientation. This "tilt" is defined by specifying a vector that is perpendicular or normal to
the plane. Suppose that plane 𝑀 passes through a point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 ) and is normal to the
none zero vector 𝑛 = 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌‚ Then 𝑀 is the set of all points 𝑃(𝑥‚ 𝑦‚ 𝑧) for which
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑜 𝑃 is orthogonal to 𝑛 (Figure 12.39).

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus, the dot product 𝑛․𝑃 𝑜 𝑃 = 0. This equation is equivalent to

(𝐴𝑖 + 𝐵𝑗 + 𝐶𝑘)․[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑖 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑗 + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘] = 0

𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
Equation for a Plane
The plane through 𝑃0 (𝑥0 ‚𝑦0 ‚𝑧0 ) normsl to 𝑛 = 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒌 + 𝐶𝒌 has
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Vector equation: 𝑛․𝑃 𝑜𝑃 = 0

Component equation: 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

Component equation Simplified: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷‚ where
𝐷 = 𝐴𝑥𝑜 + 𝐵𝑦𝑜 + 𝐶𝑧𝑜
EXAMPLE 6: Find an equation for the plane through 𝑃𝑜 (−3‚0‚7) perpendicular to

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12 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

𝑛 = 5𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘.
Solution: The component equation is 5(𝑥 − (−3)) + 2(𝑦 − 0) + (−1)(𝑧 − 7) = 0‚
Simplifying, we obtain
5𝑥 + 15 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 + 7 = 0
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −22‚

EXAMPLE 7: Find an equation for the plane through

𝐴(0‚ 0‚1)‚ 𝐵(2‚0‚0)‚ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(0‚ 3‚ 0)․
Solution: We find a vector normal to the plane and use it with one of the points (it does
not matter which) to write an equation for the plane. The cross product
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶 = |2 0 −1| = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 6𝑘
0 3 −1
is normal to the plane. We substitute the components of this vector and the coordinates of
𝐴(0‚0‚1) into the component form of the equation to obtain
3(𝑥 − 0) + 2(𝑦 − 0) + 6(𝑧 − 1) = 0
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 6‚
Lines of Intersection
Just as lines are parallel if and only if they have the same direction, two planes are
parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, or 𝑛1 = 𝑘𝑛2 for some scalar 𝑘. Two
planes that are .not parallel intersect in a line.
EXAMPLE 8: Find a vector parallel to the line of intersection of the planes
3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5‚
Solution: The line of intersection of two planes is perpendicular to both planes' normal
vectors 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 (Figure 12.40) and therefore parallel to 𝑛1 × 𝑛2 . Turning this around,
𝑛1 × 𝑛2 is a vector parallel to the planes' line of intersection. In our case,
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑛1 × 𝑛2 = |3 −6 −2| = 14𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 15𝑘‚
2 1 −2
Any nonzero scalar multiple of 𝑛1 × 𝑛2 will do as well.

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 13 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

EXAMPLE 9:Find parametric equations for the line in which the planes 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 =
15 and 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5 intersect.
Solution:We find a vector parallel to the line and a point on the line and use Equations
(3) Example 8 identifies 𝑣 = 14𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 15𝑘 as a vector parallel to the line. To find a
point on the line, we can take any point common to the two planes. Substituting 𝑧 = 0 in
the plane equations and solving for 𝑥 and 𝑦 simultaneously identifies one of these points
as (3‚ − 1‚0). The line is 𝑥 = 3 + 14𝑡‚ 𝑦 = −1 + 2𝑡‚ 𝑧 = 15𝑡.
The choice 𝑧 = 0 is arbitrary and we could have chosen 𝑧 = 1 or 𝑧 = −1 just as well. Or
we could have let 𝑥 = 0 and solved for 𝑦 and 𝑧. The different choices would simply give
different parametrizations of the same line.
8
EXAMPLE 10: Find the point where the line 𝑥 = + 2𝑡‚ 𝑦 = −2𝑡‚ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑡, intersects
3

the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 6.
8
Solution The point ( + 2𝑡‚ − 2𝑡‚1 + 𝑡 ) lies in the plane if its coordinates satisfy the
3
8
equation of the plane, that is, if 3 ( + 2𝑡) + 2(−2𝑡) + 6(1 + 𝑡) = 6 ⟹ 8 + 6𝑡 − 4𝑡 +
3

6 + 6𝑡 = 6 ⟹ 8𝑡 = −8 ⟹ 𝑡 = −1. The point of intersection is

8 2
(𝑥‚𝑦‚𝑧)|𝑡=−1 = ( − 2‚2‚1 − 1) = ( ‚2‚0)
3 3
The Distance from a Point to a Plane
If 𝑃 is a point on a plane with normal 𝑛, then the distance from any point 𝑆 to the plane is
the length of the vector projection of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 onto 𝑛. That is, the distance from 𝑆 to the plane
is
𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ․
𝑑 = |𝑃𝑆 | (6)
|𝑛|
Where 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑖 + 𝐵𝑗 + 𝐶𝑘 is normal to the plane.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆․𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑛| cos 𝜃 {dot product rule} ∴ cos 𝜃 =
𝑃𝑆․𝑛 = |𝑃𝑆 … (∗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑛|
|𝑃𝑆

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑
cos 𝜃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 |𝑃𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗ |

⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos 𝜃 … (∗∗)

∴ 𝑑 = |𝑃𝑆
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𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ․ |
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 (∗) 𝑖𝑛 (∗∗) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 (6) 𝑑 = |𝑃𝑆
|𝑛|
14 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

EXAMPLE 11 Find the distance from S(1,1,3) to the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 6.

Solution We find a point 𝑃 in the plane and calculate the length of the vector projection
of 𝑃𝑆 onto a vector 𝒏 normal to the plane (Figure 12.41). The coefficients in the equation
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 6 give 𝑛 = 3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 6𝑘.

The points on the plane easiest to find from the plane's equation are the intercepts. If we
take 𝑃 to be the y-intercept (0, 3, 0), then
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 = (1 − 0)𝑖 + (1 − 3)𝑗 + (3 − 0)𝑘 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘․
|𝑛| = √(3)2 + (2)2 + (6)2 = √49 = 7.
𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ․ |
The distance from S to the plane is 𝑑 = |𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ }
{length of proj𝑛 𝑃𝑆
|𝑛|

3 2 6 3 4 18 17 17
= |(i − 2j + 3k)․( 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘)| = | − + = |= ‚
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

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15 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

Angles between Planes

The angle between two intersecting planes is defined to be the acute angle between their
normal vectors (Figure 12.42).

EXAMPLE 12
Find the angle between the planes 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 15 and 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5‚
Solution The vectors 𝑛1 = 3𝑖 − 6𝑗 − 2𝑘‚ 𝑛2 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘 are normals to the planes.
The angle between them is
𝑛1 ․𝑛2 4
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = cos −1 ( ) ≈ 1․38 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠․
|𝑛1 ||𝑛2 | 21
Exercises 12.5, page 688 (Thomas)
Q24 The plane through (2, 4, 5), (1, 5, 7), and (-1,6,8)
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Solution: 𝑷𝑸 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘. 𝑃𝑆 = −3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 ⟹ 𝑷𝑸 × 𝑃𝑆 = |−1 1 2| =
−3 2 3
−𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘 is normal to the plane

Q25. The plane through 𝑃𝑜 (2‚ 4‚ 5) perpendicular to the line 𝑥 = 5 + 𝑡‚ 𝑦 = 1 + 3𝑡‚ 𝑧 =

4𝑡

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16 Mathematics -III Second Stage 2021-2022 Civil Engineering Department

Solution: The normal vector of the plane is same with the direction vector of the line and
is: 𝑛 = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 4𝑘‚ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜 (2‚4‚5)𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
⟹ (1)(𝑥 − 2) + (3)(𝑦 − 4) + (4)(𝑧 − 5) = 0
⟹ The equation of the plane is 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 34
Q31: Find a plane through 𝑃𝑜(2‚1‚ − 1) and perpendicular to the line of intersection of
the planes 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑍 = 3‚ 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑍 = 2.
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Solution: 𝑛1 × 𝑛2 = |2 1 −1| = 3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 3𝑘 is a vector in the direction of the line
1 2 1
of intersection of the planes.
⟹ 3(x − 2) + (−3)(y − 1) + 3(z + 1) = 0 ⟹ 3x + 3y + 3z = 0 ⟹ x − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
is the the desired plane containing 𝑃𝑜(2‚1‚ − 1)
Q69. Find two different planes whose intersection is the line 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡‚ 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑡‚ 𝑍 =
3 + 2𝑡‚ Write equations for each plane in the form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷.
Solution: There are many possible answers. One is found as follows: eliminate t to get
𝑧−3 𝑧−3
𝑡 =𝑥−1=2−𝑦 = ⟹ 𝑥 − 1 = 2 − 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 − 𝑦 = are two such planes.
2 2

(16) By: Dr. Rafiq Salih