The precolonial literature includes all literature produced before the Spanish

colonization like chants, proverbs, songs, and folk narratives. These were all passed
down from generation to generation by word of mouth.

Philippine folk narratives are varied and distinct. They depict the peoples livelihood,
customs, and traditions.

1. Folktale This is a characteristically anonymous, timeless, and placeless tale

circulated orally among a people.

2. Fable This features animal characters or inanimate objects that behave like
people.

3. Legend This is presented as history but is unlikely to be true.

4. Myth This is told to explain a belief, a practice, or a natural phenomenon.

5. Epic This narrative poem celebrates the adventures and achievements of a

hero.

Folktales
Folktales about Juan are very popular. Some emphasize certain virtues, and
some serve as warning about behavior. Also, some are for the readers
amusement.

Example 1:

Juan Gathers Guavas (A Tagalog Folktale)

One day several neighbors came to Juans home to visit. His father wanted
to give the guests something to eat, so he sent Juan to get some ripe
guavas for them.

Full of mischief, Juan decided to play a joke on his fathers guests. He went
to get the guavas and ate all of them while thinking of a good joke. Then
he saw a wasps nest hung nearby. With some difficulty he managed to
take it down and put it into a tight basket. He hastened home and gave
the basket to his father. Quickly he left the room where the guests were
and closed the door and fastened it.

As soon as Juans father opened the basket, the wasps flew over the room.
With the door locked, the people fought to get out of the windows. After a
while Juan opened the door. When he saw the swollen faces of the people,
he cried.
 What fine, rich guavas you must have had! They have made you all so
fat!

Example 2:

Juan Pusong and His Fathers Cows (A Visayan Folktale)

One day Juan Pusong's father put his cows out to pasture. Juan slipped
away from home and took the cows into the forest and tied them there.
When his father found out that the cows were missing, he looked around
for them. While looking, he ran into his son.

Where did you come from? he asked.

I just came from school, Father. How about you, where are you going?

I am looking for our cows.

You dont say!" said Juan.

By that time, everybody knew about Juans power as a seer. So, he took a
little book from his pocket and looked into it. He said, Our cows are tied
together in the forest. So, his father went to the forest and found the
cows.

Later on, people would discover that Juan could not read even his own
name. Consequently, his father beat him for the trick he had played on
him.

Fable
The monkey is a common animal character in Philippine fables. It is often
depicted as a cunning animal.

Example:

The Monkey and the Crocodile (A Tagalog Fable)

One day, a monkey saw a tall macopa tree laden with ripe fruits, which
stood by a wide river. It was hungry, so it climbed the tree and ate all of
the fruits. When it climbed down, it could find no means by which to cross
the river. Then it saw a young crocodile who had just woken up from its
siesta. It said to the crocodile in a friendly way, My dear crocodile, will
you do me a favor?

The crocodile was greatly surprised by the monkeys amicable salutation.

So, it answered humbly, Oh, yes! If there is anything I can do for you, I
 shall be glad to do it. The monkey then told the crocodile that it wanted
to get to the other side of the river. Then the crocodile said, Ill take you
there with all my heart. Just sit on my back, and well go at once.

The monkey sat firmly on the crocodiles back, and they began to move. In
a short while they reached the middle of the stream. Then the crocodile
began to laugh aloud. You foolish monkey! it said, Ill eat your liver and
kidneys, for Im very hungry. The monkey became nervous. Trying to
conceal its anxiety, it said, Im very glad that you mentioned the matter. I
thought myself that you might be hungry, so I have prepared my liver and
kidneys for your dinner. Unfortunately, in our haste to depart, I left them
hanging on the macopa tree. Let us return, and Ill get them for you.

Convinced that the monkey was telling the truth, the crocodile turned
around and swam back to the direction of the macopa tree. When they
got near the riverbank, the monkey nimbly jumped up onto the land and
scampered up the tree. The crocodile came to realize what happened and
said, I am a fool.

Legend
There are different Filipino legends of the great flood. The story of Bukidnon,
for instance, tells that a huge crab caused the water to rise by going into the
sea. On the other hand, the Igorot story tells that the sons of Lumawig the
Great Spirit caused the flood.

Example 1:

The Flood Story (A Legend of Bukidnon)

A long time ago there was a very big crab which crawled into the sea.
When it went in, it crowded the water out so that it ran all over the earth
and covered all the land.

Now about one moon before the flood happened, a wise man had told
the people that they must build a large raft. They did as he commanded
and cut many large trees until they had enough to make three layers.
These they bound tightly together; when it was done, they fastened the
raft with a long rattan cord to a big pole in the earth.

Soon after the raft was done, the flood came. White water poured out of
the hills, and the sea rose and covered even the highest mountains. The
people and animals on the raft were safe, but all the others drowned.

Soon the waters went down, and the raft was again on the ground. It was
near their old home, for the rattan cord had held.
 The people on the raft together with the animals were the only ones left
on the whole earth.

Example 2:

The Flood Story (A Legend of the Igorot)

Once upon a time, the world was flat, and there were no mountains.
There lived two sons of Lumawig, the Great Spirit. The brothers were fond
of hunting; since no mountains had formed, there was no good place to
catch wild pig and deer. The older brother said, Let us cause water to
flow over all the world and cover it, and then mountains will rise up.

So, the brothers caused water to flow over all the earth. When it was
covered, they took the head-basket of the town and set it for a trap. They
were very much pleased when they went to look at their trap, for they had
caught not only many wild pigs and deer but also many people.

Lumawig looked down from his place in the sky and saw that his sons had
flooded the earth. However, there was just one spot which was not
covered. All the people in the world had been drowned except a brother
and a sister who lived in Pokis.

Then Lumawig descended, and he called to the boy and girl, saying, Oh,
you are still alive.

Yes, answered the boy, we are still alive, but we are very cold.

So, Lumawig commanded his dog and deer to get fire for the boy and girl.
The dog and the deer swam quickly away. Lumawig waited a long time,
but the dog and the deer did not return. All the time the boy and girl were
growing colder.

Finally, Lumawig himself went after the dog and the deer. When he
reached them, he said, Why are you so long in bringing the fire to Pokis?
Get ready and come quickly while I watch you, for the boy and girl are
very cold.

Then the dog and the deer took the fire and started to swim through the
flood. When they had gone only a little way, the fire was put out.

Lumawig commanded the dog and the deer to get more fire, and they did
so. However, they swam only a little way again when that of the deer went
out. That of the dog would have been extinguished also had not Lumawig
gone quickly to him and taken it.

As soon as Lumawig reached Pokis, he built a big fire which warmed the
brother and sister. The water evaporated so that the world was as it was
 before, except that now there were mountains. The brother and sister
married and had children, and thus there came to be many people on the
earth.

Myth
There are Philippine versions of the creation myth. The Igorots story tells that
Lumawig the Great Spirit created people. On the other hand, the Tagalog
story tells that the first man and woman came from a bamboo.

Example 1:

The Creation (An Igorot Myth)

In the beginning, there were no people on the earth. Lumawig, the Great
Spirit, came down from the sky and cut many reeds. He divided the reeds
into pairs which he placed in different parts of the world, and then he
said to them, You must speak. Immediately the reeds became people,
and in each place was a man and a woman who could talk. However, the
language of each couple differed from that of the others.

Then Lumawig commanded each man and woman to marry, which they
did. By and by there were many children, all speaking the same language
as their parents. The children married and had many children of their
own. In this way, there came to be many people on the earth.

Now Lumawig saw that there were several things which the people on the
earth needed to use, so he set to work to supply them. He created salt and
told the inhabitants of one place to boil it down and sell it to their
neighbors. However, the people could not understand the directions. The
next time he visited them, they had not touched the salt. So, he took the
salt away from them and gave it to the people of a place called Mayinit.

The people of Mayinit did as Lumawig directed. Because of their

obedience, he told them that they should always be owners of the salt and
that the other peoples must buy of them.

Then Lumawig went to the people of Bontoc and told them to get clay and
make pots. They got the clay, but they did not understand the molding;
the jars were not well shaped. Because of their failure, Lumawig told them
that they would always have to buy their jars, and he removed the pottery
to Samoki.

Lumawig told the people of Samoki what to do, and they did just as he
said. Their jars were well shaped and beautiful. Then Lumawig saw that
they were fit owners of the pottery, and he told them that they should
always make many jars to sell.
 In this way, Lumawig taught the people and brought to them all the things
which they now have.

Example 2:

The Creation (A Tagalog Myth)

When the world first began there was no land. There were only the sea
and the sky, and between them was a kite. One day the bird which had
nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until
it threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea,
showered upon it many islands until it could no longer rise, but ran back
and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to alight on one of the islands to
build its nest, and to leave the sea and the sky in peace.

Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and
they had a bamboo as their child. One day when the bamboo was floating
about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach.
The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo. Out
of one section came a man and from the other a woman.

The earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be
done with the man and the woman, and it was decided that they should
marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all
the different races of people.

After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and
useless children around. They wished to be rid of them, but they knew of
no place to send them to. Time went on, and the children became so
numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation,
the father seized a stick and began beating them on all sides.

The beating frightened the children so much that they fled in different
directions. Some seek hidden rooms in the house. Some concealed
themselves in the walls. Some ran outside, while others hid in the
fireplace. Several fled to the sea.

Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house
later became the chiefs of the islands; and those who concealed
themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free
men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who
fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back
they were the white people.
Epic
The Philippine epics are sung or chanted in episodes. They feature
supernatural characters and reflect the society where they originated. Also,
there are different versions of a story.

Examples:

Biag ni Lam-ang

This Ilocano epic tells the adventures of Lam-ang, a man with

supernatural powers. He goes to war at nine-months-old and seeks the
killers of his father. He embarks on a quest with his animal friends and
meets his future wife, Innes Kanoyan. He is swallowed by a fish and
resurrected from death by his animal friends.

Hinilawod

This epic is of the Sulod, a group of people living in the mountains of

central Panay. It tells the story of three very strong men, namely, Labaw
Donggon, Humadapnon, and Dumalapdap. They are the sons of Datu
Paubari, the ruler of Halawod, and the goddess Alunsina. The exploits of
each son concerns beautiful women that he wants to have as a wife.

Darangan

This Maranao epic depicts the adventures of a brave warrior named

Bantugan. He owns a magical sword protected by a spirit. After a battle,
he rests and accidentally falls into the water. A crocodile finds him and
brings him to the enemies. He fights, regains his strength, and wins the
war.

Notes on the Spanish Colonial Period (15211898)

Expeditions to the Philippines were sent by Spain in the 16th century. In their
conquest, the Spaniards brought Christianity with them. The clergy made a
great impact on faith, education, and government.

Through the Manila-Acapulco trade (15651815), liberal ideas entered the

country. Also, the trade gave rise to a wealthier middle class. Children in
middle class families could then be sent to Europe to get an education. Upon
their return, they brought European ideals of liberty and freedom with them.
Such ideals would then give rise to Filipino nationalism.
Philippine Literature
during the Spanish Occupation

The Spanish missionaries taught the gospel through the native language, so they
hired natives to translate Spanish religious instructional materials. Eventually, the
natives became fluent in Spanish and became known as ladinos.

Ladinos mainly wrote devotional poetry. Two of them were Fernando Bagongbanta
and Gaspar Aquino de Belen. Bagongbanta wrote Salamat nang walang
hanga/gracias de sin sempiternas, which appeared in Memorial de la vida cristiana
en lengua tagala(1605), a book containing basic Catholic doctrines. On the other
hand, de Belen wrote Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na
tola (1704), the earliest version of pasyon.

Also, the native drama called the komedya or moro-moro was popular. It depicted
the war between Christians and Muslims, wherein the former always wins. The poet
Jose de la Cruz (17461829) was a master of such art form.

Native literature continued. Though the Spaniards destroyed the written literature in
their effort to replace it with their own, the oral tradition survived and flourished in
areas beyond the reach of the Spaniards.

Francisco Baltazar (1788-1862), the master of traditional Tagalog poetry, became

well-known for his work Florante at Laura(18381861), the most famous metrical
romance of the country.

Pedro Paterno (18571911) wrote Sampaguitas y poesias varias (1880), the first
poetry collection in Spanish by a Filipino; and the novel in Spanish Ninay (1885),
considered to be the first Filipino novel.

Jose Rizal (18611896), a prominent ilustrado and the countrys national hero, is
famous for the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These novels portray
the corruption and abuse of the Spanish officials and the clergy.

Andres Bonifacio (18631897), the founder of the Katipunan, wrote the poem Pag-
ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa. This poem appeared in the Kalayaan, the official newspaper
of the Katipunan, in March 1896.

Leona Florentino (18491884), known as the mother of Philippine womens

literature, was a poet in both Ilocano and Spanish. Twenty of her poems were
preserved and exhibited in Europe. The poems were included in the Encyclopedia
International des Oeuvres des Femme in 1889.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

identify some Filipino writers who produced significant works of literature

during the American and Japanese Periods (18981945), and
 analyze a poem by the Filipino poet Fernando Maramag.

Notes on the American Occupation

(18981940)
The US established a civil government in 1901. Free public education was
introduced. Also, English was the medium of instruction.

In 1934, President Roosevelt signed a bill making the Philippines a

commonwealth. On May 14, 1935 Manuel L. Quezon was elected president.

Literary Works Produced

The production of literary works in English is the direct result of the American
colonization of the Philippines. The first collection of poetry in English is Filipino
Poetry (1924), edited by Rodolfo Dato. The short story Dead Stars (1925) by Paz
Marquez Benitez is considered as the first Filipino modern short story in English. A
Child of Sorrow (1921) by Zoilo M. Galang is the first Filipino novel in English. The
novel His Native Soil (1940) by Juan C. Laya won first prize in the First
Commonwealth Literary Awards in 1940.

Filipino writers in English during the apprenticeship period (19001930) imitated

American writing. The poet Fernando Maramag writes in the Romantic tradition in
his sonnet Moonlight on Manila Bay (1912). Filipino fictionists copied Sherwood
Anderson, William Saroyan, and Ernest Hemingway. Jose Garcia Villa used the
Anderson pattern. Manuel Arguilla and N. V. M. Gonzalez were influenced by
Anderson and Hemingway. Francisco Arcellana was influenced by Saroyan.

Notes on the Japanese Occupation

(19411945)
On December 8, 1941, the Japanese attacked Manila.

On January 2, 1942, Japanese occupied Manila. They set up a Council of State

in the country and started propaganda to remold the Filipinos.

In October 1943 the Japanese declared the Philippines independent. On

September 20, Jose P. Laurel was elected president.

MacArthur and his Allied forces returned to the country in 1944. They landed
on Leyte on October 20, and the biggest naval battle in history ensued.
 The Japanese surrendered formally on September 2, 1945.

Literary Works Produced

During the occupation, publications were censored by the military. Also, Tagalog was
declared an official language (together with Nihonggo). In effect, Philippine literature
in English came to a halt. Some Filipino writers then turned to writing in Filipino.

The Tagalog short story reached its maturity during the period. The best works were
compiled by the Liwayway magazine editors in Ang Pinakamabuting Maikling
Kathang Pilipino ng 1943, which came out in 1944. It is a collection of stories that
won a contest sponsored by the Japanese. The top four stories were Lupang
Tinubuan by Narciso G. Reyes, Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa by Liwayway Arceo,
Nayon at Dagat-dagatan by N. V. M. Gonzalez, and Suyuan sa Tubigan by Macario
Pineda.

Postwar and Contemporary Literature

Postwar and contemporary literature include all literary works written and
published in the Philippines from 1946.

After World War II, the Philippines had to deal with the economy and the need for
rehabilitation and reconstruction of infrastructures. There was political, economic,
and social confusion, as well as great poverty, and these issues found their way into
the short stories and novels during that time.

During the postwar period, Filipino writers got their inspiration from American
teachers and were able to learn their techniques, which also helped in mastering the
English language.

Writers wrote fiction that focused on courageous deeds as well as the sacrifices and
suffering in the lives of Filipinos. It was also common for writers to write about the
experiences of the Filipino people under the Spanish and American rule and the
Japanese Occupation. Other subjects and themes include:

religious faith

superstitions

fantasy

social problems

poverty

politics
 nationalism

morality

Literary Works
Philippine literature flourished even more during the postwar and contemporary
period. Writers were able to produce short stories, novels, essays, and poems that
continue to be read by Filipinos today.

Examples:

Some works written in the postwar and contemporary period are:

May Day Eve by Nick Joaquin, 1947

Waywaya by F. Sionil Jose, 1983
We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers by Alejandro Roces, 1948
The Return by Edith L. Tiempo
History and Philippine Culture by Horacio de la Costa, 1965
Without Seeing the Dawn by Stevan Javellana, 1947

Explanation:

Nick Joaquin, a National Artist for Literature awardee, wrote articles under the
name of Quijano de Manila. His short story "May Day Eve," published in 1947, is
about love in a patriarchal society. It also made use of magic realism.

F. Sionil Jose, one of the most widely read Filipino writers in English, wrote the short
story "Waywaya," which is about pre-Hispanic society and the peoples struggle for
moral order.

Alejandro Roces, a Filipino author, essayist, and dramatist, wrote the short story
"We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers." This story focuses on the drinking habits and
culture of Filipinos and Americans.

Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return" is a sentimental piece that talks about life in
old age.

Horacio de la Costa wrote the essay "History and Philippine Culture," which
emphasizes the importance of understanding and presenting a nations culture.

Stevan Javellana wrote the first postwar Filipino novel in English, Without Seeing
the Dawn. This novel narrates what people experienced during World War II under
the Japanese rule in the Philippines.

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to recognize Jose Garcia Villas
contributions to the development of Philippine literature.
Jose Garcia Villa

Jose Garcia Villa was a Filipino literary critic, poet, painter, and short story
writer. He was born on August 5, 1908 in Manila.

He gained both local and international recognition for his works. He was
named as the National Artist for Literature in 1973, and he was also a
recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship.

During his college years, he wrote Man Songs, a collection of controversial

poems that was considered too bold by the University of the Philippines and
became the ground for his suspension from the said institution.

Some of his well-known literary works are "Mir-i-nisa" (won in the Philippines
Free Press in 1929), and "Footnote to Youth" (published in 1933).

Jose Garcia Villa as a Poet

As a poet, Jose Garcia Villa is known for introducing the reversed consonance

rhyme scheme. According to Villa, in this method, the last sounded

consonants of the last syllable, or the last principal consonant of a word, are
reversed for the corresponding rhyme. Thus, a rhyme for light would be
words such as tile, tall, tale, etc.

He is also known for his comma poems, where he employed a comma after
every word.

He used the pseudonym Doveglion, which is derived from dove, eagle, lion.

He died on July 7, 1997.

Analyzing a writer's works will help you understand and identify his or her
contributions to Philippine literature.

Example:

One of Jose Garcia Villa's well-known works is "Footnote to Youth."

a. Setting
The short story is set in a small town.

b. Plot
 Exposition
Dodong, a seventeen-year-old boy, tells his parents that he wants to marry
his girlfriend Teang.

Rising Action
Teang secretly regrets marrying Dodong at a young age. She wonders what
can happen if she has married Lucio, who is nine years older than Dodong.

Climax
Dodong wonders why life does not get to fulfill all of a youths dreams.

Falling Action
Blas tells Dodong about his plan to marry Tona.

Conclusion
Dodong wants to keep Blas from marrying Tona, but he cannot do anything
about it. He feels sorry for Blas.

c. Theme
The story focuses on the consequences of marrying at an early age and starting a
family.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Carlos P. Romulo's
contributions to the development of Philippine literature.

Who is Carlos P. Romulo?

What are his contributions to the development of Philippine literature?

Carlos P. Romulo

Carlos P. Romulo was a Filipino diplomat, statesman, journalist, and soldier. \

He was born on January 14, 1898 in Intramuros, Manila and grew up in

Camiling, Tarlac.

He was the first Filipino journalist who was awarded with the Pulitzer Prize in
Journalism. He was also the first Asian who served as the president of the
United Nations General Assembly.

"I am a Filipino" is one of the many essays written by Carlos P. Romulo. It was
published in The Philippines Herald in August 1941.

He also wrote the book entitled I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, in which he
narrated his personal experiences as an aide-de-camp to General Douglas
 MacArthur in Corregidor. This book was followed by a sequel, I See the
Philippines Rise, a journalistic account of the Philippine War in 1944.

Among his other famous literary works are Mother America: A Living Story of
Democracy, a discussion of his political ideals about American democracy in
the Philippines, and I Walked with Heroes, his autobiography.

He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 1982.

He died on December 15, 1985.

About the Essay I am a Filipino

I am a Filipino is one of the valuable contributions of Carlos P. Romulo to

Philippine literature. Analyzing it would help one understand what he thinks

of the Filipino and what it means to be one.

In the essay, the author speaks of the pride and dignity of the Filipino race,
which is something he wants the future generation to uphold and cultivate.

The essay also explains the Filipino identity as a product of the fusion of
Western culture (Spanish and American) and Eastern culture (Japanese
occupation and Malayan roots).

Carlos P. Romulo stresses that the fight for freedom sprung up from ones
pride of being a Filipino. He takes pride in the bravery and sacrifices of the
heroes who fought for freedom like Lapu-Lapu , Diego Silang, Jose Rizal ,
Gregorio del Pilar, Antonio Luna, and Manuel L. Quezon.

He also emphasizes the beauty of the Philippines as blessed with bountiful

natural resources and colorful history and culture.

Curriculum Vitae
PERSONAL INFORMATION

Date of Birth: January 14, 1898

Place of Birth: Legaspi No. 19, Intramuros, Manila

Mothers Name: Maria Cabrera Pea

Fathers Name: Gregorio Besacruz Romulo

EDUCATION

MASTER OF ARTS 1919 1921

Philosophy
Columbia University

BACHELOR OF ARTS 1916 1918

Liberal Arts and Sciences
University of the Philippines

HIGH SCHOOL
1st 2nd year, Tarlac National High School 1912 1914

3rd 4th year, Manila High School 1914 1916

Intramuros

ACADEMIC ACTIVITIES

Editor-in-Chief, Varsity News 1917 1918

University of the Philippines

University of the Philippines Dramatic Club 1916 1918

Editor-in-Chief, 1916 Annual 1915 1916

Manila High School

President, Cryptia Debating Club 1916, Second Semester

Chief Justice, Cryptia Moot Court 1915, First Semester

Manila High School
POSITIONS HELD

Promoted to the rank of Major General, 1984

Philippine Armed Forces

Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1969 1984

Department of Foreign Affairs
President Ferdinand E. Marcoss Cabinet

Trustee 1963 1968

International Rice Research Institute

Secretary of Education 1962 1968

Department of Education
President Diosdado P. Macapagals and President
Ferdinand E. Marcoss Cabinet

President, University of the Philippines 1962 1968

President, Philippine Academy of Sciences 1962

and Humanities

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister 1959 ?

Plenipotentiary to Cuba and Brazil
(with residence in Washington, D.C.)
President Carlos P. Garcias Cabinet

President, Security Council January 1957, December 1957,

United Nations July 1980, September 1981

Special and Personal Envoy 1954 1955

(with rank of Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary) of the President
of the Philippines to the United States
President Ramon F. Magsaysays Cabinet

Philippine Ambassador to the United States 1955 1962

President Ramon F. Magsaysays and President
Carlos P. Garcias Cabinet
Philippine Ambassador to the United States 1952 1953
President Elpidio R. Quirinos Cabinet

Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1950 1952

Department of Foreign Affairs
President Elpidio R. Quirinos Cabinet

President, Fourth Regular Session 1949 1950

United Nations General Assembly

Chairman, Ad Hoc Political and Security Committee 1948 1949

Third Regular Session United Nations General Assembly

Permanent Delegate, Philippine Mission to the 1946 May 1953

United Nations (with the rank of Ambassador)
President Manuel A. Roxass and President
Elpidio R. Quirinos Cabinet

Member, United Nations Human Rights Commission 1946 1948

Signatory, United Nations Charter 1945

Accompanied General Douglas MacArthur October 1944

and the liberating forces in the Leyte Landing

Promoted to the rank of September 1944

Brigadier General, United States Army

Acting Secretary of Public Instruction 1944 1945

Department of Public Instruction

Resident Commissioner of the Philippines 1944 1946

to the United States President Sergio S. Osmeas Cabinet

Secretary of Information and Public Relations 1943 1944

Department of Information and Public Relations
President Manuel L. Quezons War Cabinet

Promoted to General Douglas MacArthurs June 1942

Aide-de-Camp

Promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel March 1942

Major, Philippine Army Reserve 1941 1942
commissioned to the United States Army

Publisher/Editor 1937 1941

DMHM Newspapers Debata, Monday Mail,
The Herald, and Mabuhay

Third Vice-President 1937 1938

Board of Rotary International

Founder, Boy Scouts of the Philippines, 1936

with Joseph E. H. Stevenot, Arsenio N. Luz,
Vicente P. Lim, Manuel R. Camus, Jorge B. Vargas,
and Gabriel A. Daza

Editor 1934 1937

The Philippines Herald

Member, Board of Regents 1931 1934

University of the Philippines

Member, Philippine Independence Mission, 1933

with Senate President and Head of the Philippine
Mission Manuel L. Quezon, Speaker of the House
Manuel Roxas, Senator Sergio Osmea, Senator Pedro
Sabido, Resident Commissioners to the United States
Pedro Guevara and Camilo Osias, Representative Francisco
Varona, and Emiliano Tria Tirona

Editor-in-Chief 1930 1934

TVT Publications The Tribune (English),
La Vanguardia (Spanish), and the Taliba (Tagalog)

Chairman, English Department ? 1930

College of Liberal Arts, University of the Philippines

Coach, University of the Philippines Debate Team 1928

Editor 1928
The Philippines Herald

Editor 1927
Manila Tribune
Member, Philippine Independence Mission, 1922
with Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and Speaker
of the House Sergio Osmea (joint chairmen), Secretary
of the Interior Maximo Kalaw, and Judge Juan Sumulong

Assistant Editor 1921 1928

The Philippines Herald

Private Secretary 1921 1928

to Senate President Manuel L. Quezon

Assistant Professor, English Department 1921 ?

College of Liberal Arts, University of the Philippines

Assistant Editor 1917 1919

Citizen

City Editor 1917

Cable-News

Cub Reporter 1914 1916

Cable-News

Cub Reporter 1914

Senate Doings (column title), The Manila Times

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the contributions of
Francisco Arcellana to Philippine literature by analyzing his literary works.

Who is Francisco Arcellana? What are his contributions to Philippine literature?

Francisco Arcellana
Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino teacher and a contemporary writer. He is
one of the prominent Filipino fictionists in English.

He is known for innovating and exploring new literary forms and

experimenting with different techniques in short story writing.

He was a member of the group The Veronicans, which was composed of

influential Filipino writers who aimed to use sensible literature in order to
create a greater impact on the Philippines.
 He was also the first director of the University of the Philippines Creative
Writing Center.

Some of his well-known literary works are the short stories "The Man Who
Would Be Poe," "Death in a Factory," "A Clown Remembers," "The Mats," and
"Lina."

In 1990, he was awarded as the National Artist for Literature.

His short stories "Flowers of May," "Christmas Gift," and "The Mats," were
adapted as screenplays.

Analyzing a writer's literary works will help in identifying his contributions to

Philippine literature.

Example:

Below are details regarding Francisco Arcellana's "The Mats."

a. Setting
The short story is set in the afternoon until evening at the house of the Angeles
family.

b. Plot

Exposition
Mr. Angeles comes from a periodic inspection trip in Mariveles. During the
trip, he writes to his family and gets them excited about the exceptionally
beautiful and colorful mats he bought from an artist.

Rising Action
Upon arriving, he gives the mats one by one to his children. Each mat is
woven with his childs name and symbols. They are all happy to receive the
mats.

Climax
There are three mats that are to be unfolded. In a loud voice, he offers the
three mats to his dead children named Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion.

Falling Action
Nana Emilia, anguished, said he should not have bought mats for them, but
Mr. Angeles insists that they must be remembered.
 Conclusion
The children feel the tension and see the grief in the face of Mr. Angeles and
the sadness of Nana Emilia. The father unfolds the three mats in silence.

c. Theme
Coping with the death of a loved one is a struggle. Commemorating his or her life is
painful, but it must be faced with courage and faith.

Explanation:

Francisco Arcellana presented the story using a distinct style. He focused on the
characters' actions and dialogues to reveal the innermost feelings and motives of the
characters, which set the dramatic tone of the short story.

Report errors in this content

Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino fictionist who demonstrated his craftsmanship in

writing great literary pieces such as "The Mats," a story that highlights Filipino family
values and pictures an interesting character coping with the death of loved ones. In
this short story, he uses writing techniques such as emphasizing the characters
actions and dialogues to reveal their inner motives and emotions.

N.V.M. Gonzalez

Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez is an award-winning Filipino poet, essayist, fictionist,

journalist, editor, and teacher of creative writing.

He is the first president of the Philippine Writers Association.

He is also honored as one of the great Filipino writers who advanced literary
traditions and culture.

He was a recipient of the following awards: The Republic Cultural Heritage Award,
the Jose Rizal Pro-Patria Award, the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature,
and the National Artist Award for Literature in 1997.

Some of his published works are Seven Hills Away (1947), Children of the Ash-
Covered Loam and Other Stories (1954), and The Bamboo Dancers (1949), which
appeared in Russian translation in 1965 and 1974.

Seven Hills Away is a collection of short stories that sketch the daily lives of the
Filipino kaingeros in his hometown province, Mindoro.

The Bamboo Dancers is a diasporic novel that features the challenges faced by
Filipinos in America.
Carefully analyzing the works of a writer will help in determining what his works have
contributed to literature.

Example:

"Children of the Ash-Covered Loam" is a short story that depicts Filipino family
practices and beliefs in a rural setting.

a. Setting

The story is set in a provincial place where kaingin is a common practice.

b. Plot

Exposition

The story begins one sunny afternoon when Tarangs father arrives with a pig to be
taken care of by Tarang, a seven-year-old boy.

Rising Action

Tia Orang, an old midwife, sees Tarang and tells him to inform his mother of her
passing by.

Climax

Tatay and Nanay, Tarangs parents, together with their neighbors are all set for
performing religious rites after kaingin (burning of trees). They believe that these
practices will take away all evil spirits and will give them a bountiful harvest. Tatay
lays the pullets neck and lets the streaks of blood drop on the ash-covered loam.

Falling Action

After the clearing of the land, Tia Orang visits the family and performs hilot on Nanay
and tells her that she is ready to bear a child. She also shares stories of evil ones and
spirits.

Conclusion
Tarang, half-awake, hears the noise outside, gets up, and accidentally strikes a tree
stump with his big toe. The hurt does not concern him, for he is more interested in
seeing how life emerge from the land as the rice grains peek through the dirt.

c. Theme

Death forms new life. Death and new formations of life are recurring motifs in the
story. When a living thing dies, a new life emerges. The story paints a cycle of life and
death for the family. The kaingin practice and the killing of the pullet as a ritual are
some forms of deaths that the family believes will bring new life like a bountiful
harvest and another child.

Explanation:

The use of words such as kaingin, hilot, Nanay, and Tatay is part of N.V.M. Gonzalez's
writing style, as even his other works showcase terms that are unique to the setting
of the story. Analyzing a story will help readers see details such as this that will give
them ideas regarding the writer's contributions to Philippine literature.

N.V.M. Gonzalez is known as a local colorist writer. Local color is a literary technique
that features the unique regional traditions of people and emphasizes the ordinary
events in their lives. This is used by N.V.M Gonzalez to present the sociocultural
dimensions of Filipino families and farmers in the provinces. In "Children of the Ash-
Covered Loam," words that show local color include kaingin, hilot, Nanay, and Tatay.

Edith L. Tiempo

Edith L. Tiempo was a Filipino writer in English. She was a poet, fiction writer, and
literary critic.

She was known for using intricate and witty representations to portray significant
human experiences.

Some of her well known poems are "The Return," a poem that describes the
characteristics of old age, "Lament for the Littlest Fellow," a poem that presents a
metaphor to describe the plight of a submissive wife under her domineering
husband, and "Bonsai," a poem that gives a look at how tangible objects could be
keepers of memories and emotions.

As a fictionist, she was known for her moral profoundness. One of her remarkable
short stories, "The Black Monkey," won third prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial
Award. "The Black Monkey," which is set during the time when guerrillas were
fighting against the Japanese during World War II, narrates the tormenting encounter
of a woman with a monkey.
She also wrote the novel A Blade of Fern, which depicts the problems of Filipino
miners of Nibucal in southern Philippines.

She was awarded as the National Artist for Literature in 1999.

She founded with her husband the Silliman University National Writers Workshop,
which produced great young writers of her time.

Analyzing the literary work of a writer would help in determining what her
contributions are to literature.

Example:

Below is an excerpt of Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return."

The Return

If the dead years could shake their skinny legs and run

As once he had circled this house in thirty counts,

he would go thru this door among those old friends and they would not shun

Him and the tales he would tell, tales that would

bear more than the spare

Testimony of willed wit and his grey hairs.

And he would live in the whispers and locked heads.

Wheeling around and around turning back was where he started:

The turn to the pasture, a swift streak under a boys running;

The swing, up a few times and he had all the earth he wanted;

The tower trees, and not so tall as he had

imagined;
The rocking chair on the porch, you pushed it and it started rocking,

Rocking, and abruptly stopped. He, too, stopped in the doorway, chagrined.

He would go among them but he would not tell, he could be smart,

He, an old man cracking the bones of his embarrassment apart.

Explanation:

Old age is the subject of the given poem. This poem describes the life of an old man
who loved to travel in his youth. The phrases dead years, skinny legs, and thirty
counts denote the physical weakness and isolation that the old man feels. The old
man wants to visit his friends to bond with them and share to them his travel stories
and experiences. Hopelessly, he sees only the things associated with old age:
irritability and illness, rocking chair, pasture, and the tower tree.

The themes or messages of the poem are:

Time is irreversible, and memories can only be remembered and cherished.

Old people face physical weakness and emotional challenges such as feelings of
isolation, sadness, and frustration.

Old age is an inevitable period in human growth and development.

Authors Style

Edith L. Tiempo used a very contemplative style in writing the poem "The Return."
The theme and the subject of the poem are very serious. Her narrative tone and
vivid visual imagery allow readers to think deeply about old age and evoke emotions
of nostalgia and sadness from the old mans perspective.

Edith L. Tiempo is one of the foremost Filipino contemporary writers in English who
is known for her style and substance. Her language is considered descriptive but
without scrupulous detailing. Her literary works are hailed for their artistic
representation of significant human experiences.

F. Sionil Jose

Francisco Sionil Jose, widely known as F. Sionil Jose, was born on December 3, 1924
in Rosales, Pangasinan.
His life and most of his works are influenced by Dr. Jose P. Rizal.

He edited various literary and journalistic publications, and he founded the

Philippine PEN, an organization of poets, playwrights, and novelists.

He opened Solidaridad Publishing House in 1965. A year after, he founded Solidarity,

a magazine that produces content mainly focused on "current affairs, ideas, and the
arts."

He was a recipient of numerous awards. Some of which are the Ramon Magsaysay
Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communications in 1980, the Pablo
Neruda Centennial Award in 2004, and the Officer in the French Order of Arts and
Letters in 2014.

He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2001.

F. Sionil Jose's Literary Works

F. Sionil Joses are generally written in English and are translated to more than
twenty languages and produced worldwide.

Among his most celebrated works is the Rosales Saga. It is a series of novels that are
set from the Spanish colonial period to the proclamation of Martial Law in the 1970s.
This saga includes the following novels: Po-on, Tree, The Pretenders, Mass, and My
Brother, My Executioner.

He has also written several short stories, including the notable "The God Stealer". It
is a story about the friendship of Philip Latak, an Ifugao, and Sam Christie, an
American who wanted to buy a bulol, a sculpture of an Ifugao god. The story depicts
the relationship and truths about the colonizer and the colony.

Waywaya: Eleven Filipino Short Stories is a compilation of short stories about pre-
Hispanic Philippine society.

In 2004, he published the childrens book The Molave and Other Childrens Stories.

To identify a writer's contributions to Philippine literature, it is important to analyze

and take a close look at his literary works.

Example:

In a nutshell, F. Sionil Joses "The God Stealer" tells the story of Philip Latak and Sam
Christie. Philip was residing in the city for years against his familys wishes. Sam, his
colleague, was an American who wanted a bulol, an Ifugao god sculpture, as a
souvenir before he gets back to Boston. Philip stole his grandfathers bulol for Sam,
as he felt indebted to repay Sams kindness. Then Philips grandfather died, and he
no longer wanted to come with Sam back in the city.
Explanation:

The story tackles one of the many effects of colonization, that is, losing ones identity.
Philip represents the Philippines, while Sam represents America. Philips way of
offering the bulol to Sam out of gratitude shows how he tried to denounce his roots
by embracing a new one, thus losing himself in the process.

Virgilio S. Almario

Virgilio S. Almario, popularly known by his pen name Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist
known for his poetry and literary criticism. He was proclaimed National Artist for
Literature in 2003.

Almario, together with poets Rogelio Mangahas and Lamberto E. Antonio, pioneered
the second modernist movement in Filipino poetry. In his own words, he defines
modernist poetry as sparing, suggestive, and restrained in emotion; its vocabulary
and subject are immersed in the now. Among his poetry collections are Makinasyon
at Ilang Tula (1968), his very first collection; Peregrinasyon at Iba Pang Tula (1970),
which won first prize in poetry in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards; Doktrinang
Anakpawis (1979); Mga Retrato at Rekwerdo (1984); and Muli Sa Kandungan ng Lupa
(1994).

Almarios earliest works of literary criticism were published in the Dawn, the weekly
organ of the University of the East. Some of those works were later included in Ang
Makata sa Panahon ng Makina (1982), now considered as the first book of literary
criticism in Filipino. His other critical works include Taludtod at Talinghaga (1965),
which tackles the traditional Tagalog prosody; and Balagtasismo Versus Modernismo
(1984), in which he presents the two main directions of the Tagalog Poetry.

Almario performed significant deeds in the field of Philippine literature. He founded

the Galian sa Arte at Tula (GAT) with the other poets Teo Antonio and Mike Bigornia
in 1970; and the Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika, at Anyo (LIRA), an organization of
poets who write in Filipino, in 1985. From 1986 to 1992, he served as chairman of the
Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas (UMPIL), considered to be the biggest
umbrella organization of writers. From 1998 to 2001, he served as executive director
of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). In 2013 he became the
chairman of the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF).

Example:
High Zoociety

Ni Rio Alma

Masdan ang tagak sa likod ng kalabaw,

Parang birheng-birheng manang

Na di-madapuan ng langaw

Sa ibabaw ng karosa patungong simbahan;

At ang mga dekadenteng gansa sa gilid ng lawa,

Maluluma ang mga donyang nakahilata

Habang ibinibilad ang kuto at muta.

Hayun ang mga maryakaprang paawit-awit,

Parang mga binibining umiikot ang puwit,

Sa bulwagang hitik sa masalapit makikisig;

At ang mga burukratang unggoy

Sa tuktok ng mala-palasyong kahoy,

Pulu-pulutong kung magpulong

Kung paanong mas lalapad ang papel at tumbong.

Naghaharit matitikas na osot agila,

Nagkikikil lang ng kukot pangil tuwing umaga

Para isakmal sa karnet isuob na barya

Kaya tumatambok ang tiyan at bulsa.

Samantala, matatalinong kuwagoy naghihilik,

Malalaki nga ang matay lagi namang pikit,

Marahil, bagong paraiso ang laman ng panaginip.

Di tulad ng buwayang laging abala

Sa paghanap ng kahit butiking mabiktima,

Bundat nay lagi pa ring nakanganga.

Pero higit na mag-ingat sa hunyangot ahas

Na sa damuhan ay nagkalat;

Tuwing maghuhunos ng kulay at balat,

Pakay ay kay-hirap madalumat.

(Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Virgilio S. Almario)

Explanation:

The poem "High Zoociety" is part of the collection Doktrinang Anakpawis (1979).
Published during the martial law years (19721981), the poem and the rest of the
collection are considered committed poetry, that is, of social awareness and
concern. The title is a play on the term "High Society," which refers to the rich and
powerful.

"High Zoociety" has eight stanzas following this pattern of number of lines: 4-3-3-4-4-
3-3-4. It uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as "tugmang karaniwan," wherein the
last word of each line has the same sound. The second, fifth, and seventh stanzas
use "tugmang patinig," wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel
wound. On the other hand, the rest of the stanzas use "tugmang katinig," wherein
the last words of the lines end in a consonant preceded by the same vowel sound.
However, the poem has no regular meter.
Virgilio S. Almario, or Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist known for his works of modernist
poetry and literary criticism on Filipino poetry, which are valuable contributions to
Philippine literature.

Alejandro R. Roces as a Filipino Writer

Alejandro R. Roces was a Filipino literary writer. He was born on July 13, 1924.

He was a playwright, an essayist, and a short story writer. He was also a columnist at
the Philippine Star, the Manila Times, and the Manila Chronicle.

He attended the Ateneo de Manila University for his primary and secondary
education and the University of Arizona where he earned his degree in fine arts. He
pursued further studies at the following institutions: Far Eastern University (masters
degree); Ateneo de Manila University, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, St.
Louis University, and Tokyo University in Japan (doctorate).

Alejandro R. Roces was known for his short story "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers," a
story about an American soldier in the Philippines who brags about his drinking
habits, but becomes overly drunk after drinking lambanog offered by a Filipino
farmer.

From 1961 to 1965, he served as the Secretary of Education under the regime of
former president Diosdado Macapagal. He has also served as chairman of the Movie
and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) in 2001.

His other literary works are "My Brothers Peculiar Chicken," a story which talks
about two brothers who were arguing whether the chicken they caught was a hen or
a rooster; Something to Crow About, the first Filipino zarzuela in English about a man
named Kiko who earns a living by means of cockfighting; and Fiesta, a collection of
essays about various Philippine festivals.

Alejandro R. Roces was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2003.

He died on May 23, 2011.

Read the synopsis of My Brothers Peculiar Chicken below, one of Alejandro R.

Roces notable works.

Synopsis:

Kiko and his brother found a peculiar chicken. They argued whether it was a hen or a
rooster. Kiko believed that it was a rooster, while his brother thought otherwise.
Kikos brother emphasized that it could not be a rooster as the chicken has neither
wattles nor comb. Their parents took turns in looking at the chicken and had
different thoughts about it; thus, they ended up arguing like their children. Kiko and
his brother asked the chieftain about it, and he thought that it was a bird of a
different kind. They also asked Mr. Eduardo Cruz, someone who studied poultry
raising, and he suggested examining the insides of the chicken, to which Kiko
refused. They both agreed to bring the chicken to a cockpit and have it fight with a
rooster from Texas. However, the rooster performed a love dance around the
peculiar chicken. It turned out that the peculiar chicken was waiting for a chance to
attack. It stubbed its spur into the rooster, and won. Kikos brother was convinced
that the chicken was a rooster. However, when he was holding the chicken, it
suddenly quivered and laid an egg.

Humor is a literary device which aims to make the audience or readers laugh or be
amused. Alejandro R. Roces employed humor in most of his works. There are various
types of humor. Some of which are exaggeration/hyperbole, surprise, and sarcasm.

Sarcasm is a literary device used to mock. In the story, the chicken crowed and Kiko
triumphantly asked his brother if he heard it. Kiko then mocked his brother by saying
I suppose you are going to tell me now that hens crow and that carabaos fly.

Exaggeration/Hyperbole is a literary device used to make an event appear better or

worse than what it really is. In the story, Kikos brother shared how they were almost
whipped for arguing too much.

Surprise is a literary device commonly found in unlikely situation or an unexpected

turn of events. As the brothers ran from the mob, Kikos brother was convinced that
the chicken was a rooster based on how it defeated its opponent, until it laid an egg.

Alejandro R. Roces was best known for his short stories, "My Brothers Peculiar
Chicken" and "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers." He employed humor in most of his
works, usually tackling the Filipinos fascination of cockfighting.

Personal Life

Lumbera, who was called Beny when he was a young boy, was born in Lipa, Batangas
on April 11, 1932. His parents had passed away before he turned five.

Beny and his older sister were raised by Eusebia Teru, their paternal grandmother.

When Eusebia died, Beny came to live with his godparents, Enrique and Amanda
Lumbera.
Beny showed natural aptitude for English. In sixth grade, his writing impressed his
teacher so much that she once asked him, in an accusatory tone, if he did write his
composition himself. In his third year in high school, his teacher gave him difficult
works of literature to read.

Lumbera took a degree in journalism at the University of Santo Tomas in 1950 and
graduated cum laude in 1954. A year before his graduation, his first published work,
the poem Frigid Moon, appeared in the Sunday magazine of the Manila Chronicle.

On a full scholarship granted by the Fulbright Committee, Lumbera obtained his

masters and doctorate degrees at Indiana University.

Literary Background

Lumbera writes in English and Filipino. Below are some of his works.

Poetry Collections

Likhang Dila, Likhang Diwa (1993)

Balaybay: Mga Tulang Lunot at Manibalang (2002)

Critical Works

Abot Tanaw: Sulyap at Suri sa Nagbabagong Kultura at Lipunan (1987)

Writing the Nation/Pag-Akda ng Bansa (2000)

Tagalog Poetry, 15701898: Tradition and Influences in Its Development (2001)

Librettos

Tales of the Manuvu (1977)

Rama Hari (1980)

Sa Sariling Bayan: Apat na Dulang May Musika (2003)

Lumbera is a strong advocate of the Filipino language. According to him, the gap
between the well-educated Filipinos and the majority cannot be bridged until Filipino
becomes their true lingua franca.

Lumbera has received numerous awards for his work. The most notable ones were
the Special Prize from the Palanca Awards for his poetry collection Sunog sa Lipa at
Iba Pang Tula in 1975, the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and
Creative Communication Arts in 1993, and the Philippine Centennial Literary Prize for
Drama in 1998.

Lumbera received the title of National Artist for Literature in 2006.

A Eulogy of Roaches

by Bienvenido Lumbera

Blessed are the cockroaches.

In this country they are

the citizens who last.

They need no police

to promulgate their peace

because they tolerate

each others smell or greed.

Friends to dark and filth,

they do not choose their meat.

Although they neither sow

nor reap, a daily feast

is laid for them in rooms

and kitchens of their pick.

The roaches do not spin,

and neither do they weave.

But note the russet coat

the sluggards wear: clothed

at birth, roaches require

no roachy charity.

They settle where they wish

and have no rent to pay.

Eviction is a word

quite meaningless to them

who do not have to own

their dingy crack of wall.

Not knowing dearth or taxes,

they increase and multiply.

Survival is assured

even the jobless roach;

his opportunities

pile up where garbage grows.

Dying is brief and cheap

and thus cannot affright.

A whiff of toxic mist,

an agile heel, a stick

the swift descent of pain

is also final death.

Their annals may be short,

but when the simple poor

have starved to simple death,

roaches still circulate

in cupboards of the rich,

the strong, the wise, the dead.

(Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Dr. Bienvenido S. Lumbera.)

Analysis of the Poem

Published in 1965, A Eulogy of Roaches is a piece of Bagay poetry. Its subject, the
roaches, represents a deeper meaning. However, the poet merely focuses on giving
precise visual images of the subject and not on explicitly stating its representations.

The poet uses imagery, a literary technique in which figurative language is used to
appeal to the readers physical senses. An example is the poets description of
roaches as friends to dark and filth.

Also, the poet uses juxtaposition, a literary technique in which two (or more) ideas
are placed side by side for comparison and contrast. In the last two stanzas, the poet
draws both a comparison and a distinction between the roaches life and the life of
the poor: that the poor die simply of starvation, but the roaches still go on living their
short lives in the cupboards of the rich, the strong, the wise, the dead.

Bienvenido S. Lumbera is a poet, critic, and librettist. He has made valuable

contributions in the development of Philippine literature especially in the vernacular
language. He has published works in English and Filipino and received numerous
awards including the National Artist for Literature title in 2006.

Literary Texts of Different Regions and Genres, 21st Century Literature from the
Philippines and the World

Poetry

Philippine Literature during the American Occupation of the Philippines (18981940)

With English as the medium of instruction in public schools, Filipino literary works in
English were produced. In the first decade, poetry and prose in English appeared in
student publications like the UP College Folio and The Coconut of Manila High
School. By the 1930s and 1940s, Filipino writers in English came into their own.

Philippine Literature in the 21st Century (2001 up to the present)

This body of literature includes digital writings, graphic novels, textula, hypertext,
and other emerging literary genres at present.

In this lesson, you will compare and contrast Amador T. Daguios poem Man of
Earth and a piece of textula by Frank Rivera.

At 20, the poet Amador T. Daguio wrote Man of Earth in 1932. According to Dr.
Gemino Abad, a well-known Filipino poet and critic, Man of Earth marks a turning
point in Filipino poetry. Daguios poem words in English are reinvented to establish a
native idiom.

Textula is poetry written and read on a mobile phone. It is popularized by the

playwright Frank Rivera, who came to be known as the makata sa cell phone. His
works of textula and other poems are performed in different occasions, such as
rallies, school programs, and contests; published in newspapers; heard on radio; and
shared on social media or through text messaging.

Poetic Terms

Allusion Using this literary device, the writer refers to a significant person, place,
thing, or idea in culture, history, literature, or politics briefly and indirectly.
Apostrophe With this literary device, the writer addresses someone or something
that is not present in his work.

End rhyme This rhyme occurs in the last syllables of verses.

Lyric poetry This traditional poetry is characterized by its brevity, emotional

intensity, and musical quality.

Example 1:

Man of Earth

By Amador T. Daguio

Pliant is the bamboo;

I am man of earth.

They say that from the bamboo

We had our first birth.

Am I of the body,

Or of the green leaf?

Do I have to whisper

My every sin and grief?

If the wind passes by,

Must I stoop, and try

To measure fully

My flexibility?
I might have been the bamboo,

But I will be a man.

Bend me then, O Lord,

Bend me if you can.

Explanation:

The lyric poem has a varied rhythm. It is composed of four stanzas, each one with
five to seven syllables.

The poem contains end rhymes.

The poem contains an allusion to a Philippine creation myth that tells that the first
man and woman came from a bamboo. The speaker is aware of his own pagan
heritage.

The poem uses apostrophe. The speaker addresses a spiritual being he calls Lord
in the last two lines of the fourth stanza.

Example 2:

A Textula

By Frank Rivera

Merong himala, hindi totoong wala

Ituro may mali, alam natiy tama

Kahit walang sagot itong panalangin

Hindi tumitigil ang ating paghiling.

Walang nagturo na tayoy makibaka

Ngunit suliraniy ating binabata

Kahit may pangakong laging napapako

Sa anumang init, handa ring mapaso.

Sa ating pusoy may awit ng pag-asa

Kahit titik nitoy hindi makabisa

Ang katotohanay lalaging totoo

Basta maniwalang mayroong milagro.

(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)

Explanation:

The poem is a piece of lyric poetry. It is composed of three stanzas, and each stanza
has four lines. It has a regular meter; each line consists of twelve syllables.

The poem uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as tugmang karaniwan, wherein the
last word of each line has the same sound. Except the last two lines of the first
stanza, the rest of the poem uses tugmang patinig, wherein the last words of the
lines have the same vowel sound.

Both Amador T. Daguios and Frank Riveras poems are lyric poetry, and they show
traditional elements. Both poems use end rhymes. However, Daguios poem has no
regular meter, while Riveras poem has.

FICTION

Literary elements These devices are inherent in a literary text. Some examples are
the characters, setting, conflict, plot, and theme of a short story.

Literary techniques These devices are used deliberately by a writer in his or her
work to convey a particular meaning. Dialogue is an example.

The literary meaning of a work is conveyed through its elements and the literary
techniques that the writer used. In a short story, for instance, the writer weaves a
story, putting elements and techniques together in a specific arrangement to convey
its meaning.
Consider Francisco Arcellanas short story "The Mats." Arcellana focused on the
characters actions and dialogues to reveal their innermost feelings, which can be
clues to the literary meaning of the work.

"The Mats" (A Summary)

By Francisco Arcellana

The short story "The Mats" is about the Angeles family. As the title suggests, their
story unfolds like the unfolding of a sleeping mat. It begins with Emilia and her
children waiting excitedly for Mr. Jaime Angeless return from a business trip. In a
letter, Mr. Angeles told his wife that he had asked a mat weaver to make decorative
sleeping mats for each one in the family. To some degree, the children knew what
those mats would look like because their mother kept one herself. This mat was a
gift from Emilias mother. It had been a witness to the couples wedding night as well
as to the illnesses and even deaths in the family. Then the day came when Mr.
Angeles arrived home at last. The family had a long dinner. The table was cleared
right after, and Mr. Angeles had a cigar. When it was time to untie the mats, Mr.
Angeles cut the cord that held the bundle with scissors. He began unfolding the mats
one by one. He handed the first one to Emilia; the second one to himself; the third
one to his eldest, Marcelina; the fourth one to his son, Jose; and three more to his
children Antonia, Juan, and Jesus. Each mat had the name of the family member on it
as well as something special like the cadena de amor on Emilias mat, a lyre on
Marcelinas, and the symbol of Aesculapius on Joses. Then Emilia noticed the other
three mats that were not yet unfolded. In a different voice, Mr. Angeles told her that
they were for those who were not there. Emilia was speechless, and the children fell
silent. Mr. Angeles unfolded the first of three remaining mats; it revealed a name
that the children knew, but it seemed strange to them. Nana Emilia told her
husband, "You know, Jaime, you didnt have to. You didnt have to." To this Mr.
Angeles only said, "Do you think Id forgotten? Do you think I had forgotten them? Do
you think I could forget them?" Then he called out the names of his dead children,
namely, Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion, as if they were there to get the mats
themselves. Emilia pleaded with him to stop. To this he only said, "Is it fair to forget
them? Would it be just to disregard them?" The children wanted to turn away from
their father, but they did not. Emilia held back her frustration. Mr. Angeles unfolded
the remaining mats in silence.

Literary Meaning of "The Mats"

It is shown through the characters Emilia and her husband that coping with the
death of loved ones is a struggle. Emilia seemed to lead a normal life from the
beginning of the story until the moment her husband told her that he had the mat
weaver made three mats for their three dead children. Forced to remember their
dead children, she could only hold back from feeling frustration perhaps with her
husband. On the other hand, Mr. Angeles dealt with the death of his children in a
way that he knew how, that is, remembering them on special occasions even if that
made his wife and children uncomfortable.

The literary devices, elements and techniques, that are present in a work like a short
story, bring about the literary meaning of the work. This meaning can be about
people or life in general.

DRAMA

Drama

Drama is a literary work that tells a story through actions and dialogues. It is usually
performed on stage.

Elements

Characters These actors set the scene and flow of the story.

Dialogues These are conversations between the characters.

Plot This is the series of events that take place.

Stage directions These statements tell the actors how they should look, move, and
speak. They also give the director a picture of how the setting looks like, and what
music and other sounds would set the mood of the play.

Philippine Drama in English During the Postwar Period (19461960)

By the 1940s and 1950s, dramas in English had been performed on stage in the
Philippines. During that time, three notable Filipino dramatists emerged. They were
Severino Montano, Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, and Alberto S. Florentino.

Severino Montano (19151980) established the Arena Theatre at the Philippine

Normal College in 1952. Almost two hundred performances were staged there from
1953 to 1964. Among those performances were the staging of Montanos four major
dramas, namely, Parting at Calamba (1953), Sabina (1953), The Ladies and the
Senator (1953), and The Love of Leonor Rivera (1954).

Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero (19101995) was a prolific playwright. He wrote over a

hundred plays; most of them were staged. His plays portray the educated middle
class. Among his popular works are Wanted: A Chaperone (1940), The Three Rats
(1948), and Condemned (1943).

Alberto S. Florentino (1931 ) became known for his drama The World Is An Apple. It
won first prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature in 1954 and was
published in the Sunday Times Magazine that same year. The play as well as the
others like Cavort with Angels (1959) and Oli Impan (1959) is set in Tondo slums.

During the period, the theater was moribund in the cities, however. One reason is
that the language used, which was English, made the plays only accessible to the
educated Filipinos.

"The World Is an Apple" by Alberto S. Florentino is a one-act play. As the term

suggests, a one-act play is composed of only one act or part. Its story has a few
characters; it is condensed and has a single effect.

Florentinos play only has three characters, namely, Gloria, Mario, and Pablo. The
story takes place one evening in an improvised home in Intramuros. Gloria and
Mario are a poor couple. Their poverty forces Marios hand both literally and
figuratively. So, he returns to his old life of stealing and joins his old friend Pablo for
a heist.

The World Is An Apple: A Synopsis

It is payday, and Mario comes home without any money to give his wife Gloria for
their sick daughter named Tita. At first, he tells his wife that he spent all of his money
on a few drinks with his friends. However, Gloria does not believe him because he
does not look intoxicated. Then Mario attempts to lie the second time by telling her
that he spent it all on a woman. Once again, Gloria does not believe him because she
knows Mario loves their daughter very much that he could not have done it. Finally,
Mario tells her that he lost his job a week ago and that he has been looking for a new
one ever since. Gloria is shocked to hear the news and worried that Mario would not
be able to find a job soon. Mario, however, assures her that it will not take long for
him to get a new job.

Gloria then asks Mario why he lost his job. Mario relates that he was accused of
pilfering (stealing a small amount of something) at work. He took an apple that rolled
out of a broken crate and thought of giving it to their child. The people at his work
kept the apple, though, for evidence. Gloria wants Mario to ask those people for a
second chance, but Mario is convinced that they want to throw him out so that they
could bring their own men into the job. When Gloria suggests that Mario complain,
he does not want to do so for fear of those people finding out about his police
record. Then he tells Gloria that he has found a good job. He is to be a night
watchman for a company. Gloria is thankful to God, though she feels uncertain
because she will be alone at night without Mario by her side.

Then comes Pablo, Marios friend. Mario becomes nervous, and Gloria is not very
happy to see him. Pablo asks about their childs condition and offers money to Gloria
so that she can take her to a doctor, but Gloria refuses it. She is convinced that Pablo
has come to lead Mario back to his old ways. Soon enough, she discovers that Mario
has indeed decided to go back to stealing for their sake. She tries to stop him from
going, but Mario leaves with Pablo anyway. Before he leaves, he tells Gloria to take
care of their daughter and herself, and he will take care of himself. The story ends
with Gloria shouting Marios name as she watches him walk away with Pablo.

The three notable Filipino dramatists in English of the Postwar Years are Severino
Montano, Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, and Alberto Florentino. They produced relevant
dramas during the period. However, because their works were written in English,
they could only reach out to the educated class.

Creative Nonfiction

It is a major genre of literature. It refers to narratives of real events told in a literary

style.

Kinds of Creative Nonfiction

Memoir - This account is narrowly focused on a single event in a persons life.

Biography - This is a detailed account of a persons life written by another person.

Autobiography - This is a written account of the life of a person written by the subject
himself or herself.

Diary - This is a collection of discrete accounts of a persons experiences and

thoughts each day.
Essay - This writing features any subject that the writer personally comments about
or describes.

Philippine Creative Nonfiction

The American Occupation (18981940)

The essay in English proved to be an influential medium. The first volume of essays
was Life and Success (1921) by Zoilo Galang. The earliest travel writing was Notas de
Viaje (1930) by Maria Paz Mendoza-Guazon. The essay Literature and Society by
Salvador Lopez sparked a debate on socially relevant literature versus aesthetic
value. It won in the first Commonwealth Literary Awards in 1940.

The Japanese Occupation (19411945)

Because of censorship, only a few essays in English were published. Horizons from
My Nipa Hut, published in 1941, is a collection of humorous essays by Francisco B.
Icasiano. I Am a Filipino, the most famous essay of Carlos P. Romulo, was published
the same year.

1960s and 1970s

Literary journalism came into its own. It appeared in some publications like the
Philippines Free Press and the Philippine Graphic. It attracted some of the best
Filipino writers. Nick Joaquin, who sometimes used the pen name Quijano de Manila,
was the most prolific among those writers.

1990s

A few autobiographies and memoirs were published like Memorys Fictions: A

Personal History (1993) and Postscript to a Saintly Life (1994) by Bienvenido Santos.
Also, there were works on wars like Living With the Enemy: A Diary of the Japanese
Occupation (1999) by Pacita Pestao-Jacinto, and Breaking the Silence (1996) by
Lourdes Reyes Montinola.

Also, published in this period were travel writings by Filipino women like Sylvia
Mayugas Earth, Fire & Air (1992) and Kerima Polotans Adventures in a Forgotten
Country (1999).
Early 21st Century

This period saw the publication of collections of short essays and narratives of young
writers. Their works were Wala Lang (2004) by Bud Tomas; Love, Desire, Children,
Etc.: Reflections of a Young Wife (2005) by Rica Bolipata-Santos; The King of Nothing
To Do (2006) by Luis Katigbak; and Stressed in the City (2007) by April T. Yap.

Creative nonfiction refers to narratives of real events told using a literary style of
writing. Some of its forms are the memoir, the biography, the autobiography, the
diary, and the essay. In Philippine Literature, the essay is the most common form of
creative nonfiction.

In this lesson, you will learn about popular fiction and three of its genres, namely,
the science fiction, chick literature, and ghost stories.

Popular fiction, also called genre fiction, refers to works of literature that are
intended for the masses or large audience. Its main purpose is to appeal to the
general public. Below are a few features of popular fiction:

Its story is plot-driven.

Its characters are mostly stock figures.

Its setting is either familiar or exotic.

Its language is closer to everyday spoken language.

It contains a lot of dialogues.

Science fiction, also called sci-fi, at its core, deals with science and technology. It is
often lumped with the fantasy and horror genres under the broader term
speculative fiction. As this term suggests, sci-fi writers are often preoccupied by the
question what if.

Pocholo Goitias short story An Introduction to the Luminescent is an example of

science fiction. It was published in Philippine Speculative Fiction volume 1 in 2005.
The story is set in the year 2105 in a mall described as an ultrasaur, a massive
structure that towers at two kilometers and stretches at half kilometer. Magenta,
one of the characters, is a member of La Luminosa, a group of biogenetically
engineered people that live in the mall. This mall is protected by clone warriors that
hover in the air using devices called gravity disruptors.
Chick literature, or chick lit, is written by women who write for women. The usual
target readers are young and single women, especially in their 20s or 30s. The
stories deal with real life, usually love and relationships, and they are written in a
light-hearted tone.

Tara Serings Getting Better is an example of chick literature. The novella was
published in the October 2002 issue of Cosmopolitan Philippines, a magazine that
targets contemporary women and that mostly features topics regarding
relationships, beauty, fashion, and health. Told in the second person point of view,
the story tackles the life of a single woman named Karenhow she was as a
girlfriend, how she dealt with cheating, and how she moved on.

Ghost stories are part of Filipino pop culture. They are a specific kind of stories in the
horror fiction genre. As the name suggests, a ghost story features a ghost as one of
its characters. Like any story in the horror fiction genre, a ghost story is meant to
scare its reader.

Joel P. Saluds The Haunting at Concha Cruz Drive is an example of a ghost story. It
was published in True Philippine Ghost Stories Book 1 in 2002. It tells the story of
three friends driving along a road named Concha Cruz Drive which is known to be
haunted by ghosts of a young couple who were victims of drag racing accident.

Popular fiction refers to works of literature whose main purpose is to appeal to the
general public. It includes the science fiction genre, chick literature, and ghost
stories.

Literary Texts of Different Regions and Genres, 21st Century Literature

from the Philippines and the World

New and Emerging Literary Forms in the 21st Century

Literary Genre

This refers to a type or category of literature. It has a specific form,

content, and style. The four main genres of literature are poetry, fiction,
nonfiction, and drama. Under each of those genres are different genres. For
example, fiction includes speculative fiction, fantasy, and science fiction.
Literary Technique

This is a literary device deliberately used by a writer to convey a specific

idea or meaning. An example is motif, an object or idea that is repeated in
a literary work. Another literary technique is the use of figurative
language, an example is personification, a figure of speech in which an
inanimate object is given human qualities.

Introduction

Many works of literature produced at present are characterized by the

writers use of unconventional techniques. For instance, the illustrated
novel, the graphic novel, and doodle-fiction present narratives using
pictures or images. The illustrated novel presents images that tell some
parts of the story, while the other parts are told in words. The graphic
novel tells a story in comic book format. A work of doodle fiction contains
doodles and hand-written graphics.

Besides the illustrated novel, the graphic novel, and doodle-fiction, there
are other literary forms or genres emerging at present, such as the flash
fiction, slipstream, metafiction, and magic realism.

Flash Fiction

Flash fiction is known for its extreme brevity. A typical work of flash fiction
is only a few hundred words long. Examples are the stories in Fast Food
Fiction: Short Short Stories To Go (2003), edited by Noelle Q. de Jesus. The
collection features stories written by well-known Filipino writers like
Gemino H. Abad, Gregorio Brillantes, Jose Dalisay, Jr., Jessica Zafra, and
Lakambini Sitoy.

Slipstream

Slipstream, or the fiction of strangeness, features elements of fantasy,

science fiction, and serious fiction. For many, works of slipstream are
difficult to categorize because of their similarities with speculative fiction.
The collection Philippine Speculative Fiction, edited by Dean Francis Alfar
and Nikki Alfar, contains stories that are slipstream fiction.

Metafiction

Metafiction is about fiction itself. A work of metafiction can be a story

about a writer who writes a story or a story about another work of fiction.
Some works of metafiction by Filipinos are the novel Ilustrado (2010) by
Miguel Syjuco and Hari Manawari (2011) by German Gervacio.

Magic Realism

Magic realism is a fiction genre in which magical elements are blended with
reality. It is characteristic of the stories by Latin American writers like
Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Jorge Luis Borges, and Isabel Allende. The short
story The Death of Fray Salvador Montano, Conquistador of Negros by the
Filipino writer Rosario Cruz Lucero has elements of magic realism.

Many works of literature at present are characterized by the writers use of

unconventional techniques. They can be categorized under different genres
like flash fiction, slipstream, metafiction, and magic realism.

Literary Works by Writers from Luzon

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

analyze selected literary works by writers from Luzon,

identify the context of a given literary text,

relate the context of a literary text to its meaning, and

situate or place the literary text in the context of the region where the writer is
from and of the nation.

As a reader, why do you have to make sense of the context of a literary work?

How is each literary work representative of the region where the writer is from
and of the nation?

The literary works in this lesson are by writers from Luzon. The writers used the
Filipino cultural elements below:
Kundiman - This is a genre of Tagalog folk love songs that express an intense
longing for a beloved, a cause, or the motherland. They are usually played in
minor chord, giving them a sad, melancholic sound.

Kambubulag - This is the Kapapampangan term for a type of native moth. It

comes from the root word bulag meaning blind, and there are Filipino
superstitions about becoming blind after encountering moths.

Mikael de Lara Co is a writer and musician. He was born in Makati City and
graduated with a degree in Environmental Science from Ateneo de Manila
University. His English and Filipino poetry collections have received awards
including Palanca Awards and the Meritage Press Holiday Poetry Prize. He was
also a member of the Los Chupacabras band. At present, he works for the
Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office at the
Malacaang.

Example:

Kundiman (An Excerpt)

By Mikael de Lara Co

I ate alone. I grew old. I grew older.

I said hold in my own language

again and again, hawak, kapit,

tahan na, uwi na. Then strained

to hear all the engines in this city

droning in A minor. A knife

scraped against marble. A stick

rattled towards stillness. A minor.

All the lullabies ever hummed

coming together to vibrate

in the saddest of frequencies.

Your keys dangled by the sink.

Somewhere a chord is diminished

to static. Kundiman means

the opposite of if ever.

(Reproduced by permission of Mikael de Lara Co)

Explanation:

Co used diction to create a specific tone for Kundiman (2014). He used Tagalog
words and phrases: kundiman; hawak (hold); kapit (hold on); tahan na (stop
crying); and uwi na (go home now). These words, which have an emotional ring
to them like the words in a kundiman, create a mood reminiscent of Filipino
sentimentality. Also, the mention of the A minor chord evokes sad, longing
feelings that contribute to the sentimental tone of the poem.

Catherine Batac Walder hails from Pampanga. She graduated from the University
of the Philippines and moved to Europe in 2005 to pursue a Master of
Philosophy degree. Her works have been featured in local publications including
Inquirers Youngblood, Philippines Free Press, and Philippine Speculative Fiction
8. Also an avid reader, her letters have been published in international
magazines like Readers Digest and Time. She is now a blogger and a full-time
mother based in South East England.

Example:

The Kambubulag (An Excerpt)

By Catherine Batac Walder

I cant believe that woman, Delia said.

What woman? Odessa asked.

Oh, one I met while smoking just now. Kept asking if we passed Kambubulag
Road on the way here. Never heard of the road, I told her. She said its four
kilometers from the hotel and mentioned how we should be careful because we
might encounter the kambubulag. Most residents here have resigned
themselves to the fact that they have more chances of dying on that road than
any other non-resident. But as anyone would say, if its your time, then it is, she
said [. . .]

(Reproduced by permission of Catherine Batac Walder)

Explanation:

In The Kambubulag (2013) the writer used a Filipino cultural symbol of bad luck,
the kambubulag, to create the fictional urban legend of the Kambubulag Road.
Old folk legends of the moth being a harbinger of death is prevalent in Luzon. It
signals the reader to regard the woman and her superstition as out of the
ordinary.

Context is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the
authors life, language, society, and culture.

Diction is the choice of words that suit the writers intended purpose.

Kundiman and kambubulag folk tales are part of Filipino folk literature. They can
be a source of inspiration, or they can be used as literary devices. Also, writing a
poem or a story around those cultural symbols reawakens interest in those
literary forms.

Literary Works by Writers from Visayas and Mindanao

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

analyze selected literary works by writers from Visayas and Mindanao,

identify the context of a given literary text,

relate the context of a literary text to its meaning, and

situate or place the literary text in the context of the region where the writer is
from and of the nation.

As a reader, why do you have to make sense of the context of a literary work?

How is each literary work representative of the region where the writer is from
and of the nation?

Merlie M. Alunan was born in Dingle, Iloilo and graduated with a Creative Writing
degree from Siliman University. She is Professor Emeritus at the University of the
Philippines and promotes writing in the mother tongue. Her poems are in
English, Cebuano, and Waray. At present, she resides in Tacloban City.

Example:

Old Women in Our Village (An Excerpt)

By Merlie M. Alunan

Old women in my village say

the sea is always hungry, they say,

thats why it comes without fail

to lick the edges of the barrier sand,

rolling through rafts of mangrove,

smashing its salt-steeped flood

on guardian cliffs, breaking itself

against rock faces, landlocks, hills,

reaching through to fields, forests,

grazelands, villages by the water,

country lanes, towns, cities where

people walk about in a dream,

deaf to the wind shushing

the seas sibilant sighing

somedaywecome

somedaywe come

someday . . . .

Only the old women hear

the ceaseless warning, watching

the grain drying in the sun,

or tending the boiling pot

or gutting a fish for the fire, fingers

bloody, clothes stained, scent of the ocean

rising from the mangled flesh into their lungs.

Nights, as they sit on their mats

rubbing their knees, waiting for ease

to come, and sleep, they hear the sea

endlessly muttering as in a dream

someday someday someday . . . .

Nudging the old men beside them,

their matesempty-eyed seafarer,

each a survivor of storms, high waves,

and the seas vast loneliness,

now half-lost in their old age

amid the household clutter

old women in my village

nod to themselves and say,

one uncharted day, the sea

will open its mouth and drink in

a child playing on the sand,

a fisherman with his nets,

great ships laden with cargo,

and still unsated, they say,

suck up cities towns villages

one huge swallow to slake its hunger.

As to when or how it would happen,

who knows, the women say, but this much

is trueno plea for kindness can stop it

nodding their heads this way and that,

tuning their ears to the endless mumbling . . . .

somedaywecomewecomewecome

somedaywecomewecomewecome

somedaysomedaysomeday
(Reproduced by permission of Prof. Merlie M. Alunan)

Explanation:

The imagery in Old Women in Our Village (2012) is heightened through the use
of sound devices. For instance, the cacophony in the first stanza implies strong
feelings, like in the line against rock faces, landlocks, hills. Then euphony in the
next stanza evokes pleasant feelings as in the line the seas sibilant sighing. This
suggests an impending disaster, which is echoed in the rest of the poem.

Gutierrez Mangansakan II, an advocate of the Moro culture, is a filmmaker and

writer from Pagalungan, Maguindanao. In 2001, his film House under the
Crescent Moon won the grand prize for video documentary from the Cultural
Center of the Philippines Prize for Independent Film and Video. Since then, he
has made films that focus on the plight of women and children. Also, he was the
editor of Children of the Ever-Changing Moon (2007), a collection of essays by
young Moro writers. He became a fellow at the University of Iowas International
Program in 2008.

Mangansakan wrote a short story entitled A Harvest of Sorrows for the

collection Peace Mindanao edited by Jaime An Lim, a multi-awarded writer, it is
also published by UST Publishing House in 2013. The story features a narrator
whose experience mirrors Mangansakans experience in relief work. For him, the
issue and images of refugees and displacement have always been a consistent
element in both his films and writing.

Example:

A Harvest of Sorrows

by Gutierrez Mangansakan II

A Harvest of Sorrows begins with the narrators arrival at an evacuation center

at 9 AM in a remote village in Mindanao. He has come to give away several sacks
of rice to the refugees in the center. The refugees have fled their homes because
fighting broke out in their villages. At the center he meets his friend Ayesha, the
social worker who is in charge of supervising relief operations. Ayesha tells him
that a woman in the center gave birth to a stillborn child, and the father does not
know it yet. The father, together with the other men, has gone back to the village
to guard the rice fields, where crops are ready for harvest in ten days. Later,
while the narrator and Ayesha are having coffee, the latter announces that the
father will be sent for and that the child will be buried after the noon prayer.

Electronic Literature

Electronic literature refers to works commonly published and shared on the Web.
Unlike traditional printed literature, it has features that could only be presented
through multimedia.

Kinds of Electronic Literature

Hyperpoetry This is a kind of graphic poetry, which combines words with images. It
has no standard lines or verses, but its words are arranged in a way that it creates
meaning and visual effect.

Hyperfiction This contains hyperlinks. When readers click on a hyperlink, they go to

another Web page that contains the next part of a story.

Photo poem This uses real-life images or electronically generated images as

representation of the textual poem.

Silent comics These have no verbal dialogues. The dialogues are presented through
symbols.

Textula This poem is intended to be shared through the SMS.

Blog This Web site is where a person writes about his or her personal opinions,
activities, and experiences.

Vladimeir Gonzales

Filipino fictionist and playwright Vladimeir Gonzales is known for his short stories in
Filipino, as well as his works of nonfiction compiled in his books Isang Napakalaking
Kaastigan and A-side/B-side: ang mga Piso sa Jukebox ng Buhay Mo.

He has also published several hyperfiction works in his site, vladgonzales.net_. One
of them is entitled Mga Tala ng Buhay ni Edward Elric, Dating State Alchemist, bilang
State University Instructor 1. A work of fan fiction, the story features Edward Elric
from the Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Elric is the youngest alchemist
working for the state of Amestris. In Gonzaless story he has come to the Philippines
through a magical portal.
Access to parts of the story is through the embedded hyperlinks on the human
transmutation circle, which is used by Elric in the original story to resurrect his
mother. The hyperlinks are signs of metals in alchemy. To begin reading the story,
one clicks on the hyperlink of Tin and goes clockwise.

The hyperlinks lead to these portions:

Example:

Ang Transmutation Circle (An Excerpt)

By Vladimeir Gonzales

Hindi kaagad naalala ni Ed ang mga huling naganap bago siya mapunta sa Pilipinas.
Lumipas pa ang ilang araw bago magkaroon ng saysay ang mga naganap sa kanya.
Oo, napunta na siya sa kabilang panig ng lagusan upang muling mabuhay ang
kapatid niyang si Al sa orihinal nitong katawan, at hindi ang katawang bakal na
matagal nitong pinaglagian bilang kapalit sa pagtatangkang resureksyon ng kanilang
ina. Wala nang alchemy sa mundong nakita niya

pagkagising. Si Edward Elric na datiy isang alchemist ay si Edward Aquino na, isang
estudyante ng Fine Arts sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas. Sa pamilyang Aquino, siya lang
daw ang nalinya sa kursong may kaugnayan sa Sining. Ito ang nakuha niya mula sa
mga pira-pirasong sermon ng kanyang ina sa mundong napuntahan niya. Ang
kanyang ama, tulad ng sa mundong pinanggalingan niya ay nawawala. Kapag
tinatanong niya sa kanyang ina kung nasaan ang kanyang ama, lagi lang siyang
minumura nito. Malayo sa inang nakagisnan niyat tinangkang buhayin.

Naging katulad siya ng maraming mag-aaral. Mas nakaaangat nga lang ang hilig sa
pag-aaral lalo na sa kanyang mga major. Sa mga lumipas na taon ng kanyang buhay
undergrad, nakilala siya sa kanilang kolehiyo sa kanyang mga eskulturat installation
pieces. Pinakapopular ang ginawa niyang serye ng mga installation art na
gumagamit ng mga sipilyo, kubyertos at picture frames na nakapaloob sa ibat ibang
baryasyon ng transmutation circles. Para sa mga kritiko, ang kanyang mga piyesay
isang dekonstruksyon ng kalikasan ng tao, isang paghihimay ng mga batayang
pagpapahalaga, ng mabutit masama, ng liwanag at dilim, sa isang dinamikong
mundong hinahati ng noon, ng ngayon, ng bukas; para kay Ed, simpleng
pagpapaalala lang ito ng mundong kanyang iniwanan, ng mundo kung saan naroon
si Al, ang kaibigang si Winry, ang mga kaibigang state alchemist. Magkaiba man ang
mga dahilan, ito ang nagbigay-daan kay Ed upang makalabas siya ng Pilipinas at
makabisita sa iba pang mga bansa sa kanyang bagong mundo. Naging laman siya ng
mga diyaryot magasin, ng telebisyon at radyo. Nabansagan siyang isa sa mga
pinakamahusay na artista ng kanyang panahon.

Nagtapos siya ng kanyang undergraduate degree nang walang karangalan. Dahil sa

paglibot ng kanyang installation pieces sa ibat ibang bansay nakatanggap siya ng
forced drop sa ibang mga asignaturat na-underload din nang ilang beses. Bukod
doon ay hindi pa niya maipasa-pasa ang kanyang Math 1 (naiwan din yata sa
kabilang dimensyon ang kanyang husay at interes dito). Pero kahit na walang
anumang laude na natanggap, nakapasok naman siya sa kanilang kolehiyo bilang
isang university instructor. Isang taon pa lang siyang nagtuturoy nagkaasawa na
siyat nagkaroon ng anak. Co-teacher niya sa departamentot isang fresh grad din
ang kanyang naging kabiyak. Sa puntong itoy nakaramdam nang kaunting
kapanatagan si Ed, halos katumbas ng ligayang naramdaman niya noong nagawaran
siya ng titulong state alchemist.

(Reproduced by permission of Vladimeir Gonzales)

Frank Rivera

Frank Rivera, a playwright, received recognition for a number of his plays like
Ambon, Ulan, Baha: Sarsuwelang Pinoy (2003) and Oyayi, Ang Zarzuela (2004). Also,
he received awards for the Makata sa Cellphone (2005), a collection of poetry which
includes his popular textula. For his works of textula, he was dubbed as the makata
sa cell phone.

Example:

A Textula (2013)

by Frank G. Rivera

Bayang mahilig sa ganda

Inuuna ang postura

Walang laman ang bituka

Kundi gasgas na pag-asa.

Si MEGAN YOUNG nang manalo

Nagbunyi ang Pilipino

May dala sanang asenso

Magkakapag-asa tayo.

Nagkagyera sa Mindanao

Kaban ng bayan ninakaw

Sa Bagyoy daming pumanaw

MISS WORLD, salamat sa araw.

(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)

Explanation:

This textula has three stanzas, each of which has four lines. Each line has eight
syllables, which set a regular rhythm.

The poem uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as tugmang karaniwan, wherein the
last word of each line has the same sound. Also, the poem uses tugmang patinig,
wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel sound, and tugmang
katinig, wherein the last words of the lines have the same consonant sound.

Literary Genres, Traditions, and Forms from Different Cultures

English Literature

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

name some well-known English writers and their works as well as the body of English
literature to which they belong; and

analyze a few selected literary works representative of English literature.

Epic poem - This is a long narrative poem usually about a hero and his deeds. A well-
known example is Beowulf.

Sonnet - This poem has fourteen lines that follow a rhyme scheme. A well-known
example is Sonnet 18 of William Shakespeare. It starts with the famous line, Shall I
compare thee to a summers day?

Drama - This piece of writing tells a story through dialogue, and it is performed on
stage. A well-known example is The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde.

Novel - This is a long prose narrative usually about fictional characters and events,
which are told in a particular sequence.

English Literature

English literature is one of the richest, most developed, and most important bodies
of literature in the world. It encompasses both written and spoken works by writers
from the United Kingdom.

Old English Literature (600 - 1100)

Old English, the earliest form of the English language, was spoken by the Anglo-
Saxons, a Germanic tribe living in Britain during the fifth century. One significant
work written in Old English is Beowulf, the longest epic poem in Old English. It is
known for its use of kennings, which are phrases or compound words used to name
persons, places, and things indirectly.

Middle English Literature (1100 - 1500)

Middle English is a blend Old English and Norman French, the French dialect spoken
by the Normans (people of Normandy). The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer,
the father of English literature, is a fine example of literature written in Middle
English.

Elizabethan Literature (1558 - 1603)

The Elizabethan period is the golden age of English literature. Also, it is the golden
age of drama. Known as the Bard of Avon, William Shakespeare wrote his plays
during the period. His best plays include Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Othello, and
The Merchant of Venice. Also, he wrote 154 sonnets, many of which are the best
loved and the most widely-read poems in the English literature.

The Romantic Period (1800 - 1837)

This period is the golden age of lyric poetry. Poetry became the expression of the
poets personal feelings and emotions. A few notable works of poetry of the period
are Songs of Innocence and of Experience by William Blake, Lyrical Ballads by William
Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems by
John Keats, Don Juan by Lord Byron, and Ode to the West Wind by Percy Bysshe
Shelley.

The Victorian Period (1837 - 1900)

The period saw the rise of the novel. Charles Dickens, considered to be the greatest
English novelist of the 19th century, wrote Great Expectations. This novel was
published as a serial in a weekly periodical from December 1860 to August 1861.

Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning each wrote fine poetry during the
period. Tennysons In Memoriam A.H.H. is a requiem for his friend Arthur Henry
Hallam. It is widely considered to be one of the great poems of the 19th century.
Browning, who is known for his dramatic monologues, wrote the famous poem My
Last Duchess. In a dramatic monologue, the poet addresses an audience through an
assumed voice.

Oscar Wilde is the best dramatist of the period. He wrote the masterpiece The
Importance of Being Earnest.

Twentieth Century (1900 - 2000)

William Butler Yeats and Thomas Stearns Eliot wrote Modernist poems during the
period. Yeats wrote The Tower, The Winding Stair, and New Poems, all of which are
known to have potent images. Eliots masterpieces are The Love Song of J. Alfred
Prufrock and The Waste Land.
Virginia Woolf in her story Mrs. Dalloway and James Joyce in his work Ulysses use
stream of consciousness, a literary technique in which the flow of thoughts of a
character is described in words.

American Literature

name some well-known American writers of the 19th and 20th centuries and their
works; and

analyze a few selected literary works representative of American Literature.

American Literature

American literature refers to all works of literature in English produced in the United
States.

The 19th Century

William Cullen Bryant (1794 - 1878) became famous for Thanatopsis (1817). This
poem marked a new beginning for American poetry.

Washington Irving (1783 - 1859) was known for Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of
Sleepy Hollow, the first American short stories. They were part of his work The
Sketch Book, the first American work to become successful internationally.

Edgar Allan Poe (1809 - 1849) became famous for his macabre stories like The Fall of
the House of Usher (1839) and The Cask of Amontillado (1846). Also, he wrote The
Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841), the first detective story, and the poem Raven
(1845), with which he achieved instant fame.

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 - 1864) became known for his symbolical tales like The
Hollow of the Three Hills (1830) and Young Goodman Brown (1835). Also, he wrote
the gothic romance The Scarlet Letter (1850).
Walt Whitman (1819 - 1892) became well-known for Leaves of Grass, first published
in 1855. In this poetry collection, Whitman showed the experiences of the common
man.

Emily Dickinson (1830 - 1886) wrote odd poems. She mostly used the imperfect
rhyme and avoided regular rhythms. A collection of her poems, Poems by Emily
Dickinson, came out in 1890.

The 20th Century

Robert Frost (1874 - 1963) wrote poems with traditional stanzas and a blank verse, a
verse in iambic pentameter with no rhyme. His poems portray ordinary people in
everyday situations like Mending Wall, "The Road Not Taken," and After Apple-
Picking, both of which were published in 1914.

E. E. cummings (1894 - 1962) was known for his unconventional punctuation and
phrasing. His poems were compiled in Complete Poems (1968).

Ezra Pound (1885 - 1972) was a leader of the Imagists, who emphasized the use of
direct and sparse language and precise images in writing poetry. Two of his works
are Ripostes (1912) and Lustra (1916).

Sherwood Anderson (1876 - 1941) wrote prose using everyday speech. His best
works appeared in Winesburg, Ohio (1919) and Death in the Woods (1933).

Ernest Hemingway (1899 - 1961) was known for his succinct writing, which was
widely imitated. His writing was very straightforward and objective - not verbose and
sentimental. Two of his finest stories are The Killers (1927) and The Short Happy
Life of Francis Macomber (1936).

Allen Ginsberg (1926 - 1997) was known for his work Howl (1956), a poem with
incantatory rhythms and raw emotion. He was one of the Beat poets, who aimed to
bring poetry back to the streets.
Anne Sexton (1928 - 1974) became known for her confessional poetry, a kind of
poetry that deals with the private experiences of the speaker. Her work Live or Die
(1966) won a Pulitzer Prize.

American literature is a rich body of literature. It refers to all works of literature in

English published in the United States, which has produced many great writers
through the centuries.

European Literature

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

name some writers and their literary works under European Literature, and

analyze a few selected literary works representative of the literature it belongs.

European Literature, also called Western Literature, refers to literature in the Indo-
European languages including Latin, Greek, the Romance languages, and Russian. It
is considered as the largest body of literature in the world.

Latin Literature

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 BCE43 BCE) was the greatest Roman orator. The first part
of the Golden Age of Latin Literature (70 BCAD 18) is named after him, the
Ciceronian period (7043 BC). Using Latin as a literary medium, he was able to
express abstract and complicated thoughts clearly in his speeches. One of his well-
known speeches is Pro Cluentio.

Virgil (70 BCE19 BCE), the greatest Roman poet, was known for Aeneid, an epic
poem. He wrote it during the Augustan Age (43 BCAD 18), the second part of the
Golden Age.

Greek Literature
Homer is known for the The Iliad and the The Odyssey. These epics are about the
heroic achievements of Achilles and Odysseus, respectively.

Sophocles (496 BC406 BC) was a tragic playwright. He was known for Oedipus the
King, which marks the highest level of achievement of Greek drama.

Italian Literature

Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch (13041374) perfected the Italian sonnet, a major

influence on European poetry. Written in the vernacular, his sonnets were published
in the Canzoniere.

Giovanni Boccaccio (13131375) is known for Decameron, a classic Italian

masterpiece. The stories were written in the vernacular.

Spanish Literature

Two well-known Spanish writers of Siglo De Oro (15001681) are Miguel de

Cervantes (15471616) and Lope de Vega (15621635).

Miguel de Cervantes was known for his novel Don Quixote, one of the most widely
read works of Western Literature. Its titular characters name is the origin of the
word quixotic, meaning hopeful or romantic in a way that is not practical.

Lope de Vega, an outstanding dramatist, wrote as many as 1800 plays during his
lifetime, including cloak and sword drama, which are plays of upper middle class
manners and intrigue.

French Literature

Gustave Flaubert (18211880), a novelist, was a major influence on the realist school.
His masterpiece, Madame Bovary (1857), marked the beginning of a new age of
realism.

Guy de Maupassant (18501893) is considered as the greatest French short story

writer. A Naturalist, he wrote objective stories which present a real slice of life.

Russian Literature

Leo Tolstoy (18281910) is known for his novels War and Peace (18651869) and
Anna Karenina (18751877). A master of realistic fiction, he is considered as one of
the worlds greatest novelists.

Anton Chekhov (18601904) is a master of the modern short story and a Russian
playwright. His works such as, "The Bet" and "The Misfortune" reveal his clinical
approach to ordinary life.
European Literature refers to literatures in the Indo-European languages. It is
considered as the largest body of literature in the world.

Latin American Literature

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

name some well-known Latin American writers of the 20th century and their works,
and

analyze two selected literary works representative of the period.

Latin American Literature

Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries
like Chile, Argentina, Mexico, Cuba, Guatemala, Colombia, and Peru.

The Vanguardia

The Vanguardia (avant-garde in English) took place in Latin America between

approximately 1916 and 1935. It collectively referred to different literary
movements. Four of those were the following:

Creacionismo, founded by Vicente Huidobro (18931948), a Chilean poet, in 1916

Ultraismo, introduced to South America by Jorge Luis Borges (18991986), an

Argentine writer, in 1921

Estridentismo, founded in Mexico City by Manuel Maples Arce (18981981), a

Mexican writer, in 1921

Surrealism, which is said to have started in Argentina when the Argentinian poet
Aldo Pellegrini (19031973) launched the first Surrealist magazine in 1928

Surrealism, an art form that combines unrelated images or events in a very strange
and dreamlike way, became a major influence in Latin American Literature
throughout the 20th century.
Pablo Neruda (19041973), a Chilean poet, wrote Residence on Earth (1933), a
collection of poetry inspired by surrealism.

Octavio Paz (19141998), a Mexican poet, wrote poems with surrealist imagery. His
major works were published in Freedom Under Parole (1960).

Jorge Luis Borges (18991986) was known for his fantastic stories, published later as
a collection entitled Ficciones (1944).

Alejo Carpentier (19041980), a Cuban writer, wrote The Kingdom of This World
(1949), a novel of the magic realism genre, in which elements of fantasy or myth are
included matter-of-factly in seemingly realistic fiction.

Miguel Angel Asturias (18991974), a Guatemalan writer, wrote the novel The
President (1946). This novel along with Carpentiers novel introduced magic realism.

The Boom Novels

These were essentially modernist novels, which appeared in the second half of the
20th century. They had features that were different or absent from the works of the
regionalist writers of the past. (Regionalist writers were those that used local color,
which refers to interesting information about a particular place or its people.)

The boom novels were the following:

The Death of Artemio Cruz (1962) by Carlos Fuentes (19282012), a Mexican writer

Hopscotch (1963) by Julio Cortazar (19141984), an Argentine fictionist

The Time of the Hero (1963) by Mario Vargas Llosa, a Peruvian writer

One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (19272014), a

Colombian fictionist
Post-Boom Writers

These writers included a host of women who published works in the last twenty
years of the 20th century. Three of them were Isabel Allende, a Chilean writer who
wrote The House of Spirits (1982); Diamela Eltit, a Chilean writer who wrote E.
Luminata (1983); and Luisa Valenzuela, an Argentine writer who wrote Black Novel
with Argentines (1990).

Asian Literature

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

name some major works and their writers in three major national literatures of Asian
literature, namely, Chinese, Japanese, and Indian, and

analyze a few selected literary works representative of the literature it belongs.

Asian Literature

Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia.

Chinese Literature

This body of works is in Chinese. It has more than 50 000 published works in a wide
range of topics.

Du Fu (712770) is considered as Chinas greatest poet. He was known for his works
of lshi. A lshi has eight lines, each of which has five or seven syllables following a
strict tonal pattern. It became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty (618907 CE),
the golden age of art and literature in Chinese history.

Li Bai (701762), also called Li Po, rivaled Du Fu for the title of Chinas greatest poet.
Unlike Du Fu, he wrote less formal verse forms. A famous drinker, he frequently
celebrated drinking in his poetry.

Japanese Literature

This body of works is mostly in Japanese, except the early writings which were
written in Chinese.
Kakinomoto Hitomaro, Japans first literary figure, was known for his works of tanka
and chka. The tanka, the basic form of Japanese poetry, has five lines in five-seven-
five-seven-seven syllable pattern. On the other hand, the chka has alternating lines
of five and seven syllables and ends with an extra line of seven syllables. Having no
definite length, it can have from seven lines to 150. Hitomaros works were included
in Manysh, the oldest anthology of Japanese poetry which was produced during
the Nara Period (710784).

Matsuo Bash (16441694) was regarded as the supreme haiku poet. Emerged from
the early Tokugawa period (16031770), the haiku is composed of three lines with
five-seven-five syllable pattern. It originated from the hokku, the first three lines of a
renga, a poem usually with a hundred linked verses. Bashs verses appear with his
travel accounts like The Narrow Road to the Deep North (1694).

Indian Literature

This body of works is produced in India in a variety of vernacular languages like

Sanskrit, Hindi, Punjabi, Tamil, and Urdu.

The Mahabharata is an Indian epic written in Sanskrit. It is the longest poem in

history with about 100 000 couplets. It is traditionally ascribed to an Indian sage
named Vyasa. The Hindus regard the epic as both a text about dharma (the Hindu
moral law) and a history. Bhagavadgt, the most celebrated of its episodes, gives
spiritual guidance.

The Ramayana is another Indian epic in Sanskrit. The sage Valmiki was traditionally
regarded as its author. It is shorter than Mahabharata, with some 24 000 couplets.

The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian animal fables. Originally written in Sanskrit,

it is a mixture of prose and verse. The stories are attributed to Vishnusharman, a
learned Brahmin.

In this lesson, you will learn about some well-known African writers in English and
their works.

African Literature

The literary works of African writers in English are part of the African literature. This
body of works refers to the ones not only produced in Afro-Asiatic and African
languages, but also to those works by Africans in English, French, and other
European languages.
A few of the common themes in the works of African writers are the oppression of
African people by the colonizers, the European influences on the native African
culture, racial discrimination, and pride in African past and resilience.\

Chinua Achebe (19302013) This Nigerian writer was known for his novel Things
Fall Apart (1958), considered as the best known African novel of the 20th century. It
deals with emergent Africa, where native communities, like Achebes Igbo
community, came in contact with white missionaries and its colonizers. The novel is
the first in sometimes called The African Trilogy. It was followed by No Longer at
Ease, published in 1960, and then Arrow of God in 1964.

Wole Soyinka This Nigerian writer received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986,
becoming the first black African to receive such award. As a playwright, he wrote the
satire A Dance of the Forests (1963), his first important play that depicts the
traditions of his people, the Yoruba. It was staged in 1960 during the Nigerian
independence celebrations. Also, he wrote fiction and poetry.

Example

The Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka

Wole Soyinkas poem The Telephone Conversation first appeared in his collection
Modern Poetry from Africa (1963). As the title suggests, the poem is about a
telephone conversation between an African man and a white woman. Considering to
rent the apartment owned by the white woman, the African man confesses, saying I
hate a wasted journeyI am African. Then as the conversation goes, the woman
shows her true colors. She asks, HOW DARK? then follows it up with another
question, ARE YOU LIGHT/ OR VERY DARK. Then asks again, ARE YOU DARK? OR
VERY LIGHT? Then the African man clarifies the question, saying You meanlike
plain or milk chocolate? Then he settles on this response West African sepia...
Down in my passport. Perhaps, out of ignorance, the woman says that she does not
know the color. To simplify, the African man says, Like brunette. Confirming what
she already thinks about the African man, the woman says THATS DARK, ISNT IT?
Towards the end of the poetry, the African man tries to describe the colors of the
different parts of his body to the woman. The poem ends with an invitation from the
African man for the white woman, saying Madam . . . wouldnt you rather/ see for
yourself?

Nadine Gordimer (19232014) This South African writer received the Nobel Prize
for Literature in 1991. She was known for her works that dealt with the effects of
apartheid on her country. Apartheid was a system in which people of color had less
political and economic rights than that of the white people, so the former was forced
to live separately from the latter. An ardent opponent of such system, she wrote
novels that focused on the oppression of nonwhite characters like A World of
Strangers (1958), The Late Bourgeois World (1966), Burgers Daughter (1979), and
Julys People (1981), all of which were banned in her country.

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie This Nigerian writer is known for her widely-acclaimed
novels Purple Hibiscus (2003), Half of a Yellow Sun (2006), and Americanah (2013), all
of which won awards. The story of Purple Hibiscus is told through a fifteen-year-old
girl named Kambili as she together with her family endured domestic violence in the
hands of her father. The story of Half of a Yellow Sun took place during the Nigerian
Civil War or Biafran War (19671970). Lastly, Americanah tells the story of a young
Nigerian woman that came to the US to study and to stay for work.

Example:

A Private Experience by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

A Private Experience is one of the short stories in the authors collection The Thing
Around Your Neck published in 2009. It tells the story of two women, one named
Chika and the other unnamed. Chika is an Igbo, one of the largest ethnic groups of
Africa, and an outward Christian (she wears a rosary that her mother gave her, but
she does not pray or believe in God). On the other hand, the unnamed woman is a
Hausa, another large African ethnic group, and a devout Muslim. They cross paths
during a riot at a market in the city of Kano, northern Nigeria. Both confused and
scared, they ran away from the market and hid in a small, abandoned store. Stuck
together, the two women start to talk and eventually learn more things about each
other. Chika tells the woman that her sister Nnedi was with her at the market and
that they are both university students. She learns that the woman sells onions for a
living. The two women become closer when the woman shows Chika her breasts
with cracked nipples. Chika, who is studying medicine, examines the breasts and
learns that the woman has just had her fifth child. She then advises the woman to
rub some lotion on her nipples after feeding her baby and to put the nipple and the
areola into the babys mouth while it feeds. The womans eldest daughter, Halima,
was at the bus stop selling groundnuts when the confusion began. At the mention of
her daughters name, the woman cries. As she wipes her tears away, she says, Allah
keep your sister and Halima in safe place. After more than three hours, Chika
ventures out into the street to go home, anxious to see her sister and her auntie.
She leaves the woman and promises to come back for her and her daughter.
However, when she sees and smells a recently burned body in the street, she gets
terrified and runs back to the small store, accidentally cutting her leg. The woman at
the store cleans the wound and wraps it with her scarf. Chika stays there with the
woman until morning when it is safe to leave the store.

Explanation:

In different parts of the narrative, the narrator gives a brief glimpse of what happens
in the future. For instance, after Chika shuts the windows of the small store where
she and the unnamed woman are hiding, the narrator tells the reader what Chika
will find out eventuallythat Chika will see the burned cars and will learn that the
riot started when some Muslims chopped off an Igbo mans head for driving over a
Koran with his car. Another instance is that after Chika mentions her sisters name to
the woman, the narrator tells the reader what Chika will later dothat Chika will go
to hospital mortuaries to look for her sister, but she will never find her.