Engineering material(notes)

Chapter=1 introduction

1.1 Classification of Engineering Materials

Basically Engineering Materials Can be classified into two categories-

1-Metals

2-Non-Metals

1-Metals

Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of differentially oriented fine crystals.
Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such as mercury
are also in liquid state at normal temperature. All metals are having high thermal and electrical
conductivity. All metals are having positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Means resistance of
metals increase with increase of temperature.

Examples of metals Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum, Iron, Zinc, Lead, Tin etc.

Metals can be further divided into two groups-

Ferrous Metals All ferrous metals are having iron as common element. All ferrous materials are having
very high permeability which makes these materials suitable for construction of core of electrical
machines. Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring Steel etc.

Non-Ferrous Metals- All non-ferrous metals are having very low permeability. Example: Silver, Copper,
Gold, Aluminum etc.

2-Non-Metals

Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exist in amorphic or mesomorphic forms. These
are in both solid & gases forms at normal temperature.

Normally all non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.

Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc.

As these non-metals are having very high resistivity which makes them suitable for insulation purpose in
electrical machines.
Difference between Metals and Non Metals

Sl. No. Property Metals Non-Metals

1. Structure All metals are having crystalline structure All Non-metals are having
amorphic & mesomorphic structure

2. State Generally metals are solid normal temperature State varies material to
material. Some are gas state and some are in solid state at normal temperature.

3. Valance electrons and conductivity Valance electrons are free to move within
metals which makes them good conductor of heat & electricity Valence electrons are tightly
bound with nucleus which are not free to move. This makes them bad conductor of heat & electricity

4. Density High density Low density

5. Strength High strength Low strength

6. Hardness Generally hard Hardness is generally varies

7. Malleability Malleable Non malleable

8. Ductility Ductile Non ductile

9. Brittleness Generally non brittle in nature Brittleness varies material to material

10. Lustre Metals possess metallic lustre Generally do not possess metallic
lustre (Except graphite & iodine)

Other classification of engineering materials:

Engineering materials can also be classified as below-

1-Metals and Alloys

2-Ceramic Materials

3-Organic Materials

1-Metals and Alloys

Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are have number of differentially oriented fine crystals. Normally
major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such as mercury are also
in liquid state at normal temperature.

Pure metals are having very low mechanical strength, which sometimes does not match with the
mechanical strength required for certain applications. To overcome this draw back alloys are used.
Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together. Alloys are having
good mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance. Example: Steels, Brass, Bronze,
Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys etc.

2-Ceramic Materials

Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids. These are made of inorganic compounds such as Oxides,
Nitrides, Silicides and Carbides. Ceramic materials possess exceptional Structural, Electrical, Magnetic,
Chemical & Thermal properties. These ceramic materials are now extensively used in different
engineering fields.

Examples: Silica, glass, cement, concrete, garnet, Mgo, Cds, Zno, SiC etc.

3-Organic Materials

All organic material are having carbon as a common element. In organic materials carbon is chemically
combined with oxygen, hydrogen and other non-metallic substances. Generally organic materials are
having complex chemical bonding.

Example: Plastics, PVC, Synthetic Rubbers etc.

1.2 properties of material:

1.2.1 Physical Properties of Materials:
To finalize the material for an engineering product or application, we should have the knowledge of
physical properties of materials. The physical properties of a material are those which can be observed
without change of the identity of material. Some of these typical properties of a material are listed
below-

1-Density

2-Specific gravity

3-State Change temperatures

4-Coefficients of thermal expansion

5-Specific Heat

6-Latent heat

7-Fluidity

8-Weld ability
9-Elasticity

10-Plasticity

11-Porosity

12-Thermal conductivity

13-Electrical Conductivity

1-Density of Materials:

Density of a material or substance is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is represented as the ratio
of mass with volume of a material. It is denoted by . Its unit in SI system is Kg/m3.

If, m is the mass of material in Kg, V is the volume of materiel in meter3.

Then the Density of material,

2-Specific Gravity of Materials:

It is defined as the ratio of density of material with respect to density of a reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation generally water is considered as a reference substance.

State Change Temperatures

Generally a substance is having three states called solid state, liquid state, gaseous state. State change
temperature is the temperature at which the substance changes from one state to another state.

State change temperature are of following types-

Melting point - It is the temperature (in C or K) at which the substance changes from solid state to liquid
state.

Boiling point - It is the temperature (in C or K) at which the substance changes from liquid state to
gaseous state.

Freezing point - It is the temperature (in C or K) at which a liquid changes from liquid to solid state.
Theoretically it is equal to the melting point. However, practically there may observed some difference.

3-Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:

When a material is heated, it expends, due to which its dimensions change. Coefficient of thermal
expansion, represents the expansion in material with increase of temperature. Thermal expansion
coefficients are three types
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion:

The change in length of an object due change in temperature is related by Coefficient of linear thermal
expansion. It denoted by L

Where, l is the initial length of object, l is the change in length, t is the change in the
temperature. Unit of L is per C.

Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion:

The change in area of an object due change in temperature is related by Coefficient of Area thermal
expansion. It denoted by A

Where, l is the initial length of object, A is the change in length, t is the change in the
temperature. Unit of A is per C

Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion:

The change in volume of an object due change in temperature is related by Coefficient of volume
thermal expansion. It denoted by V

Where, l is the initial length of object, V is the change in length, t is the change in the
temperature. Unit of A is per C

3-Specific Heat of Materials:

Specific heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit
mass of material by 1C. It is denoted by S.

Where, m is the mass of material in Kg. Q is the amount of heat given to material in Joule. t is rise in
temperature. Unit of specific heat in SI system is, Joule/Kg C

4-Latent Heat of Materials:

Latent Heat of a material is defined as the amount of heat required / released by change the unit mass of
material from one state to another state (Phase change). It is denoted by L. Latent heat is given by,

Where, Q is the amount of heat required / released by material (in joule), m is the mass of material (in
Kg). Unit of Latent heat in SI system is Joule / Kg.

5-Fluidity of Materials:

It is a property of material which represents that how easily a material can flow in liquid state. It is the
reciprocal to viscosity of liquid material.

6-Weld Ability of Materials:

 It is the property of a material which presents that how easily the two pieces of material can be welded
together by applying pressure or heat or both.

7-Elasticity of Materials:

It is the property of a material by which it regains its original dimensions on removal of load or force.

8-Plasticity of Materials:

When we keep on increasing the load beyond limit of elasticity material retains it molded state. This
property of material is called plasticity.

9-Porosity of Materials:

When a material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases with in the material. When the
material is solidifies these gases get evaporate and leave behind voids. The Porosity of material
represents the quantity of voids in solid materials.

10-Thermal Conductivity of Materials:

It is the property of a material which represents that how easily the heat can be conducted by material.

The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the amount of heat transmitted by unit
thickness of material normal to the unit area surface in unit time when the temperature gradient across
the material piece is unity in steady state condition.

Its unit in SI system is watts per meter per K.

11-Electrical Conductivity of Materials:

It is the property of material which represents that how easily the electricity can be conducted by the
material. It is denoted by . It is the reciprocal of resistivity of material. It unit is mho/meter.

1.2.2-Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the knowledge of
Mechanical properties of materials. The mechanical properties of a material are those which effect the
mechanical strength and ability of material to be molded in suitable shape. Some of the typical
mechanical properties of a material are listed below-

1-Strength

2-Toughness

3-Hardness
4-Hardenability

5-Brittleness

6-Malleability

7-Ductility

8-Creep and Slip

9-Resilience

10-Fatigue

1-Strength:

It is the property of material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of material in presence of
external forces or load. Material which we finalize for our engineering product, must have suitable
mechanical strength to be capable to work under different mechanical forces or loads.

2-Toughness:

It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without fracturing. Its
numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. It unit is Joule/ m3. Value of
tough ness of a material can be determines by stress-strain characteristics of material. For good
toughness material should have good strength as well as ductility. For example: brittle materials, having
good strength but limited ductility are not tough enough. Conversely, materials having good ductility but
low strength are also not tough enough. Therefore, to be tough, material should be capable to withstand
with both high stress and strain.

3-Hardness:

It is the ability of material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress. There are various
measure of hardness scratch Hardness, indentation hardness and rebound hardness

Scratch Hardness:

Scratch Hardness is the ability of material to oppose the scratch to outer surface layer due to external
force.

Indentation Hardness:

It is ability of material to oppose the dent due to punch of external had and sharp object.

Rebound Hardness:
Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is determined by the height of bounce of a
diamond tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height on the material.

4-Hardenability:

It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is determined by the
depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI unit of hardenability is meter (similar to length).
Hardenability of material is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of material.

5-Brittleness:

Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to a force or load.
When a brittle material is subjected to a stress is observes very less energy and gets fractures without
significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of material is temperature
depended. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become brittle at low temperature.

6-Malleability:

Malleability is property of solid material which indicates that how easily a materials gets deformed under
compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to be formed in the form of
a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity of material.
Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise of temperature, the malleability of material
increases.

7-Ductility:

Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a materials gets deformed under
tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get stretched into a wire by
pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and temperature
dependent. With rise of temperature, the ductility of material increases.

8-Creep and Slip:

Creep is the property of material which indicates the tendency of material to move slowly and deform
permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress. It results due to long time exposure to
large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that are
subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of atoms.

9-Resilience:

Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by applying
stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy
that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation. It can be
determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from zero to elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m3.
10-Fatigue:

Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of material. When a material is
subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold value but much below the
strength of material (ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit, microscopic cracks begin to form
at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reached to a critical size. This crack propagates
suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure effects the fatigue very much. Square
holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where the fatigue crack initiates.

1.2.3 Electrical Properties of Engineering Materials:

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the knowledge of
Electrical properties of materials. The Electrical properties of a material are those which determine
ability of material to be suitable for a particular Electrical Engineering Application. Some of the typical
Electrical properties of engineering materials are listed below-

1-Resistivity

2-Conductivity

3-Temperature coefficient of Resistance

4-Permittivity

5-Thermoelectricity

1-Resistivity:

It the property of material which resists the flow of electric current through material. It is the reciprocal
of conductivity.

It is dented by . Resistivity of a material of a conductor can be determined as below

Where, R is the resistance of conductor in

A is the cross sectional area of conductor in m2

l is the length of the conductor in meter

SI unit of resistivity of is -meter. Resistivity of some materials is listed below

Sl. No. Element Resistivity at 20C in - m

1 Silver 1.59 10-8

2 Copper 1.7 10-8

3 Gold 2.44 10-8

4 Aluminum 2.82 10-8

5 Tungsten 5.6 10-8

6 Iron 1.0 10-7

7 Platinum 1.1 10-7

8 Lead 2.2 10-7

9 Manganin 4.82 10-7

10 Constantan 4.9 10-7

11 Mercury 9.8 10-7

12 Carbon (Graphite) 3.5 10-5

13 Germanium 4.6 10-1

14 Silicon 6.4 102

15 Glass 1010 to 1014

16 Quartz (fused) 7.5 1017

2-Conductivity:

It is the property of material with allow the flow of electric current through material. It is a parameter
which indicates that how easily electric current can flow through the material. It is denoted by .
Conductivity of material is the reciprocal of resistivity. Conductivity of material can be determined by,

Its SI unit is 1/(-meter) or /meter.

3-Dielectric Strength:

It is the property of material which indicates the ability of material to withstand at high voltages.
Generally it is specified for insulating material to represent their operating voltage. A material having
high dielectric strength can withstand at high voltages. Generally, it is represented in the unit of KV/cm.
Dielectric strength of some insulating materials are listed below-

Sl. No. Material Dielectric Strength [KV(max.)/cm]

1 Air 30
2 Porcelain 80

3 Paraffin Wax 120

4 Transformer oil 160

5 Bakelite 220

6 Rubber 280

7 Paper 500

8 Teflon 600

9 Glass 1200

10 Mica 2000

4-Temperature Coefficient of Resistance:

The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material indicates the change in resistance of material
with change in temperature. Resistance of conductor changes with change of temperature.

The rise in resistance of a material with rise in temperature depends on following things,

R2 - R1 R1

R2 - R1 t2 - t1

Property of material of conductor:

Where, R1 is the resistance of conductor at temperature of t1C and R2 is the resistance of conductor at
temperature of t2C.

Hence, from above, R2 - R1 R1 (t2 - t1)

Or, R2 - R1=1 R1 (t2 - t1) R2=R1 [1+1 (t2 - t1)]

Where, 1 is temperature coefficient of resistance of material at temperature of t1C. Its unit is /C.
Temperature coefficient of resistance of material is also depends on temperature. Temperature
coefficient of some materials are listed below,

Sl. No. Element Temperature Coefficient of Resistance in /C

1 Manganin 0.00002

2 Constantan 0.00017

3 Nichrome 0.0004
4 Mercury 0.0009

5 Silver 0.0038

6 Copper 0.00386

7 Annealed copper 0.000393

8 Platinum 0.003927

9 Aluminum 0.00429

10 Carbon ( Graphite) - 0.0005

11 Germanium - 0.05

12 Silicon - 0.07

5-Thermoelectricity:

If the junction, formed by joining to two metals, is heated, a small voltage in the range of millivolt is
produced. This effect is called thermoelectricity or thermoelectric effect. This effect forms the basis of
operation of thermocouples and some temperature based transducers. This effect can be used to
generate electricity, to measure the temperature and to measure the change is temperature of objects.

1.2.4-Magnetic Properties of Engineering Materials:

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should have the knowledge of
magnetic properties of materials. The magnetic properties of a material are those which determine the
ability of material to be suitable for a particular magnetic Application. Some of the typical magnetic
properties of engineering materials are listed below-

1-Permeability

2-Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis

3-Coercive force

4-Reluctance

1-Permeability:

It is the property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily the magnetic flux is build up in
material. Some time is also called as the magnetic susceptibility of material.
It is determined by the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force producing this magnetic flux
density. It is denoted by .

Hence, = B/H

Where, B is the magnetic flux density in material in Wb/m2

H is the magnetizing force of magnetic flux intensity in Wb/ Henry-meter

SI unit of magnetic permeability is Henry / meter

Permeability of material is also defined as, =0 r

Where, 0 is the permeability of air or vacuum, and 0=4 10-7 Henry / meter and r is the relative
permeability of material. r = 1 for air or vacuum.

A material selected for magnetic core in electrical machines should have high permeability, so that
required magnetic flux can be produced in core by less ampere- turns.

2-Retentivity:

When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, its grains get oriented in the direction
of magnetic field. Which results in magnetization of material in the direction of external magnetic field.
Now, even after removal of external magnetic field, some magnetization exists, which is called residual
magnetism. This property of material is called Magnetic retentively of material. A hysteresis loop or B-H
cure of a typical magnetic material is shown in figure below. Magnetization Br in below hysteresis loop
represents the residual magnetism of material.

3-Coercive Force:

Due to retentivity of material, even after removal of external magnetic field some magnetization exists in
material. This magnetism is called residual magnetism of material. To remove this residual
magnetization, we have to apply some external magnetic field in opposite direction. This external
magnetic motive force (ATs) required to overcome the residual magnetism is called coercive force of
material. In above hysteresis loop, - Hc represents the coercive force.

The material having large value of residual magnetization and coercive force are called magnetically hard
materials. The material having very low vale of residual magnetization and coercive force are called
magnetically soft materials.

4-Reluctance:

It is a property of magnetic material which resists to buildup of magnetic flux in material. It is denoted by
R. Its unit is Ampere-turns / Wb.

Reluctance of magnetic Material is given by,

A magnetic material suitable for core of electrical machines should have low reluctance.

1.2.5-Chemical Properties of Materials:

Being an Engineers it importance to have the knowledge of chemical properties of engineering materials.
Because most the engineering materials come into contact of other materials react chemically to each
other. Due to this chemical reaction they may suffers from chemical deterioration. Some of the chemical
properties of engineering materials are listed below

1-Chemical composition

2-Atomic bonding

3-Corrosion resistance

4-Acidity or Alkalinity

1-Chemical Composition:

The chemical composition of engineering material indicates the elements which are combined together
to form that material. Chemical composition of material effects the properties of engineering material
very much. The strength, hardness, ductility, brittleness, corrosion resistance, weldability etc. depend on
chemical composition of material.

Hence, we should also have the knowledge of chemical composition of engineering material. For
Example the Chemical compositions of some materials are listed below-

Sl. No. Material Chemical Composition

1. Steel Fe, Cr, Ni

2. Brass Cu = 90%, Ni = 10%

3. Bronze 90% Cu, 10% Ni

4. Invar Fe = 64%, Ni = 36%

5. Gun Metal Cu = 88%, Tin = 10%, Zn = 2%

6. German Silver Cu = 50%, Zn = 30%, Ni = 20%

7. Nichrome Ni = 60%, Cr = 15%, Fe = 25%

8. Phosphor Bronge Cu = 89 95.50% , Tin = 3.50 -10%, P = 1%

9. Manganin Cu = 84%, Mn = 12%, Ni = 4%

10. Constantan Cu = 60%, Ni = 40%

2-Atomic Bonding:

Atomic bonding represents how atoms are bounded to each other to form the material. Many
properties, such as melting point, boiling point, thermal conductivity & electrical conductivity of
materials are governed by atomic bonding of materials. Hence, to understand the properties of
materials, it is very important to study the atomic bonding of materials. Atomic bonds in materials are of
following types,

Ionic bond from by exchanging of valence electrons between atoms.

Covalent bonds from by sharing of electrons between atoms.

Metallic bonds found in metals.

3-Corrosion Resistance:

Corrosion is a gradual chemical or electrochemical attack on a metal by its surrounding medium. Due to
the corrosion, metal starts converted into an oxide, salt or some other compound. Corrosion of a metals
is effected by many factors such as air, industrial atmosphere, acid, bases, slat solutions & soils etc.
Corrosion has a very adverse effect on material. Due to corrosion, the strength & life of material is
reduced, which results.

Corrosion resistance of a material is the ability of material to resist the oxidation in atmospheric
condition. Generally the pure metal such as iron, copper, aluminum etc. get corroded in slowly in
atmosphere. To avoid the corrosion of these metal in pure form, we use these metals in the form of
alloys such as stainless steel, brass, bronze, German silver, Gunmetal etc.

4-Acidity or Alkalinity:

Acidity or Alkalinity is very important chemical property of engineering materials. Material is acetic or
Alkane, it is decided by the ph value of material. Ph value of material varies from 0 to 14. Ph value of 7 is
considered to be neutral. Ordinary water is having ph value of 7. The material which are having ph value
below 7 are called Acetic & Materials which are having ph value greater than 7 are called alkane. Acidity
of Alkalinity of material indicates that how the react with other materials.