1590 JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 27, NO.

11, JUNE 1, 2009

Sub-Minute Response Time of a Hollow-Core

Photonic Bandgap Fiber Gas Sensor
Rosalind M. Wynne, Member, IEEE, Banafsheh Barabadi, Kevin J. Creedon, and Alfonso Ortega

AbstractA hollow-core photonic bandgap (PBG) fiber sensing
configuration for optical absorption spectroscopy of multiple-com-
ponent gas samples absent of a vacuum environment is presented.
Pressure-driven sensor response times that are shorter in dura-
tion compared to diffusion-limited filling times for fiber lengths
1 m are reported. Reduced filling times that approach the sub-
minute regime are possible for a 2 meter length of commercially
available PBG fiber with a 12.5 micron core diameter at a pres-
sure 15 Psi. The spectroscopy measurements were limited to the
near-IR region for sample gases that include acetylene and carbon
dioxide. Using the techniques presented, the detection of concen-
trations 100 ppm for acetylene gas at pressures 15 Psi is pos-
sible.
Index TermsGas sensing, hollow-core photonic bandgap fiber,
spectroscopy.
I. INTRODUCTION
XAMPLES of optical absorption spectroscopy for the
E sensing of gases [1] and detection of biomolecules in
liquids [2] using microstructured optical fibers have previ-
the inlet of the fiber relative to the outlet pressure at the distal
end. The filling gas displaces the resident gas in a piston-like
fashion without the assistance of a vacuum. The measured filling
times for a 2 m length of PBG fiber were in good agreement with
the estimated filling times. The filling times were significantly
enhanced by the pressure differential along the length of the
fiber. For a pressure differential of 14.7 Psi, the filling time for
2 m of fiber was approximately 120 s, whereas diffusion filling
would take 120 000 s.
A PBG fiber based spectroscopic sensor that simultaneously
detects multiple-component gases is presented in this paper.
The fiber system was loaded via a pressure-driven gas-filling
method with acetylene, C H and carbon dioxide, CO gases at
varied concentrations. These gases were selected because they
possessed spectral absorption characteristics that are compat-
ible with light sources that were used in the proposed sensing
arrangement. Gas-loading techniques are described that demon-
strated sub-minute filling times for PBG fiber lengths
allows access to the filled fiber for manipulation and compact
m and

packaging. The strong overlap of the optical field with the gas,
ously been reported. Potential applications for gas sensing
which were both confined to the hollow-core region with the gas
hollow- core photonic bandgap (PBG) fibers include moni-
was exploited to enhance detector sensitivity over long lengths
toring methane in hazardous environments [3], sensing low
with a 27 m PBG fiber.
concentrations of ammonia for the semiconductor manufac-
Evidence of simultaneous detection of a mixture of two
turing industry [4] and for absolute wavelength referencing
gases (50%CO and 5%C H ), demonstrated the selectivity
with acetylene [5], [6]. Early fiber gas-loading techniques
capacity of the configuration. Enhanced sensor response-times
involved filling methods that operate at pressures that rely on
that are a function of filling-pressure, fiber length and gas
diffusion and vacuum conditions to fill the fiber which leads to
viscosity are presented in this article. Filling times that are
limited response times on the order of minutes for lengths
practical for sensing applications are also emphasized. The
m [4], [7], [8].
peak broadening characteristics of the absorption lines were
The pressure-driven method reported here is proposed as an
investigated to determine the pressure limitations that must be
alternative approach for filling PBG fibers at a much higher rate
considered for enhanced sensitivity and spectroscopic resolu-
than the diffusion method. In the present method, the sample
tion. The measurements from our sensing scheme are reported
gas fills the PBG fiber as a result of the increased pressure at
and are in agreement with standard spectroscopic information
on acetylene and carbon dioxide absorption characteristics [6],
Manuscript received October 30, 2008; revised March 17, 2009. Current ver- [9], [10], [11].
sion published May 20, 2009. This work was supported in part by the U.S. Office
of Naval Research Award No. N00014-06-1-0479.
R. M. Wynne is with the Department of Electrical and Computer En-
gineering, Villanova University, Villanova, PA 19085-1681 USA (e-mail: II. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
rosalind.wynne@villanova.edu, rwynne@ece.villanova.edu).
B. Barabadi was with Department of Mechanical Engineering, Villanova Uni-
versity, Villanova, PA 19085-1681 USA. She is now with the Department of A. Absorption Spectroscopy
Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332
USA (e-mail: banafsheh.barabadi@villanova.edu). Absorption spectroscopy exploits the characteristic absorp-
K. J. Creedon was with Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Villanova University, Villanova, PA 19085-1681 USA. He is now with Lincoln
tion of radiation that corresponds to the wavelengths associated
Laboratory at MIT, Lexington, MA 02420 USA. (e-mail: kevin.creedon@vil- with the excitation of atoms in the sample. The characteristic ab-
lanova.edu). sorption spectra are usually well defined making the detection
A. Ortega is with James R. Birle Professor of Energy Technology, Associate method highly selective. The sensitivity of wavelength selective
Dean for Graduate Studies and Research, Villanova University, College of En-
gineering, Villanova, PA 19085 USA (e-mail: alfonso.ortega@villanova.edu). spectroscopy is dependent on the path length of the absorption
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JLT.2009.2019258 process in the sample, concentration of the sample and the line
0733-8724/$25.00 2009 IEEE
WYNNE et al.: HOLLOW-CORE PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBER GAS SENSOR
Fig. 1. Schematic figure of the Single-Viscosity Model.
strength of the absorbing species. Typical detection limits for bi-
ological and environmental regulatory atomic absorption spec-
troscopy methods range from a few tenths of a part per million
down to a few tenths of a part per billion [12]. Selectivity qual-
ities can be compromised by spectral interference (i.e., absorp-
tion lines from different samples overlap). The sensor robust-
ness or ruggedness can be assessed by investigating the effects
of sensor performance due to minor changes in environmental
conditions.
Gas absorption characteristics are typically governed by
Beers Law in (1). It defines the relationship between the
measured intensity of peaks of the absorption spectra to the
physical conditions of the gas sample [13]. The absorption is
represented by the expression
(1)
(2)
where is the partial pressure (in atmospheres) of the gas
sample which is the pressure scaled by the gas concentration,
is the PBG fiber length in centimeters, and is the strength
of the absorption at . S in (2) defines the line strength in units
of cm atm at a specific optical frequency for a temperature
of 296 K. The line strengths obtained from reference spectra in
[11] were scaled by cm per atmosphere [14]. The
normalized absorption line shape function is where is the
line center. The absorbance is expressed as .
B. Pressure-Driven Filling
The convection methods that are discussed in this article
are referred to as the pressure-driven methods of filling the
hollow-core PBG fibers as oppose to the traditional diffusion
method.
The diffusion method is typically governed by the difference
between the concentration of the filling gas at the opening to the
fiber and the gas inside the fiber. The concentration gradient pro-
motes the diffusion of gas molecules into the PBG fiber. The rate
is controlled by a classical binary diffusion model [15] where
the most important parameter is the binary diffusion coefficient.
From simple diffusion theory, the characteristic diffusion time
scale can be estimated as the fiber length squared divided by the
diffusion coefficient [1].
The pressure-driven method of filling reported in this article is
proposed for filling fibers at a higher rate relative to the diffusion
method. In the present method, the filling gas enters the fiber as
a result of the inlet pressure of the fiber being higher than the
outlet pressure.
1) Assumptions: In the pressure-driven model it was as-
sumed, for simplification, that the initial gas in the hollow core
and the filling gas have the same viscosity. Therefore, gas A
and gas B are treated as the same gas (i.e., a single-viscosity).
(See Fig. 1.)
1591
In the gas regimes of interest, the filling rates were governed
by a classical laminar flow. However, the regimes were fol-
lowing unsteady fluid dynamics theory [16], [17], in which the
filling gas displaced the resident gas in a piston-like fashion.
Since the flow of gas through the fiber was assumed to be
fully developed, one-dimensional, and laminar, all reasonable
assumptions for the present problem, first order estimates were
made of the filling time relative to the pressure differential. It
was also assumed that there was no mixing of the gases as gas
A filled up the fiber and displaced gas B. The distal end of the
fiber was exposed to the ambient such that the outlet pressure
was fixed. The fiber was connected to a fixed-pressure gas
cylinder such that, the inlet pressure was also fixed throughout
the experiment. The properties of the gases, such as viscosity
and density were assumed to be constant. The density gradient
of the gas is not significant for the range of pressures or volume
of gas used to fill the PBG fiber lengths. The gradient may,
however, affect the spectroscopic linewidths which can not be
analyzed with the current system due to the broadening effects
of multiple phenomena. The viscosity of acetylene, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and air were taken as Nsm
Nsm Nsm
Nsm respectively [18], [19]. The diameter of the hollow core
was 12.5 m.
2) Single-Viscosity Model: A fluid dynamic model based on
the flow of gas in a tubular region is shown in Fig. 1.
A control surface is assumed around both gases, not including
the fiber. The volume inside the control surface is called control
volume. Writing a force balance on the entire control volume
gives
(3)
Substituting the formulation of each force in (3), we have
(4)
where are the pressures for gases A and B, is the sur-
face area of the tube, is the shear stress applied on the tube
from the fluid, is the perimeter of the tube (i.e., ), and is
the length of the tube. In (4), the interna pressure, surface area,
length, and perimeter of the tube are known. The shear stress,
is determined and expressed in terms of the other known pa-
rameters [20], [21].
With the assumption of laminar flow, where is the diameter
of the tube, is the viscosity of the gas and is the average
velocity of gas, then the pressure difference can be written as
(5)
Therefore, the characteristic time for filling the fiber, , can
be written as
(6)
The expression for the filling time in (6) shows that for the
case in which the viscosity of the filling gas and the initial gas
1592
Fig. 2. PBG fiber gas loading system is shown where one of the gas housing
components is connected to a gas cylinder for filling the PBG fiber. (Single mode
optical fiber: SMF and Multi-mode optical fiber: MMF.).
are similar,the filling time is linearly dependent on viscosity.
Similarly, increased viscosity results in longer filling times.
Also, depends inversely on the pressure difference and fiber
core diameter. It is strongly dependent on the fiber length such
that the length and the core diameter of the fiber are significant
factors in the filling time.
III. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
A. Fiber Filling Apparatus
Sections of PBG fiber (Corning PBG-1550) with a
transmission window between 1480-nm and 1640-nm were
prepared and inserted into the gas system. The coating of
the fiber was mechanically stripped and was cleaved using a
Fujikara CT-04 cleaver. Initially, the prepared fiber ends
were placed into two separate hermetically sealed aluminum
housing components with a gas-filling or evacuation port. (See
Fig. 2) A light source was launched into the PBG fiber via a
butt-coupled conventional single mode fiber. The transmitted
light was coupled out of the PBG fiber through to a butt-cou-
pled conventional multi-mode fiber. The output light was then
transmitted to an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA). A small
gap ( m) was formed between the butt-coupled fiber
ends to allow gas to enter/exit the hollow core of the fiber.
Losses due to the butt-coupled PBG fiber were less than dB
relative to the transmission baseline of an unfilled system for
each configuration [22].
Light from a broadband source centered at 1550 nm wave-
length was directed into and out of the hollow core of the
fiber. The alignment conditions were monitored using a camera
system to image the hollow core region at the fiber output and
verify that the light was launched into the hollow core at the
fiber input.
The gas-loading procedure required that the fiber be purged
with nitrogen to remove residual gases in the PBG fiber and
to obtain a spectroscopic baseline reading for comparative pur-
poses. The gas sample was then admitted to the gas housing at
a designated pressure that was monitored by a pressure trans-
ducer. Pressures were measured above ambient pressure at room
temperature. The sample gas flowed through the PBG fiber and
vented to atmospheric pressure at the second butt-coupled sec-
tion. The transmitted output was measured by the OSA at 0.2
nm resolution. The spectral information was recorded at regular
JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 27, NO. 11, JUNE 1, 2009
time intervals to monitor the filling dynamics of the PBG fiber
lengths. The sweep time was small (e.g., 1 second) compared to
measurement intervals and was constant for all measurements.
Experiments were performed with C H and CO gas samples.
The gas concentrations were certified by the manufacturer. The
investigated fiber lengths were 0.3 m, 0.7 m, 1 m, 1.9 m and
27 m.
B. Spectroscopic Measurements
Spectroscopic data were collected for the different fiber con-
figurations. The normalized absorption peaks of the character-
istic spectra were monitored to observe the filling times, pres-
sure broadening of peaks and bend sensitivity of the gas-filled
fiber.
Simultaneous detection of individual gases in a mixture using
a 27 m length of PBG fiber was spectroscopically confirmed.
The measured spectra are consistent with existing reference
spectra for the sample gases [11]. The 27 m PBG fiber was
assembled in the arrangement described in Section III.A.
The gas mixture consisted of 5% C H and 50% CO with a
balance of nitrogen. The absorption line strengths of CO are
significantly less (by nearly 3 orders of magnitude) than C H
in the spectral region of interest. The absorption behavior is
highlighted by the growth rate of the absorption peaks as the
fiber was filled with the gas mixture. Initially, the C H peaks
were pronounced and then mostly disappeared into the noise
region by the time the CO peaks were fully realized. (See
Fig. 3.) Not only can the two gases be identified spectroscop-
ically but the concentration of each gas can be estimated by
comparing absorbance measurements to a calibrated reference.
For example, the absorbance of a normalized CO peak at
1571.12 nm for a 50% concentration is dB. When this
value is compared to an absorbance of dB for a 100%
concentration, a ratio of 0.461 is produced that is consistent
with the ratio of 0.5 for the two concentrations.
Considerations should be made for pressure limitations that
are important for spectroscopic accuracy in terms of peak
width. It was apparent that the filling dynamics were a function
of pressure. Absorption peaks typically experience linewidth
broadening at relatively high pressures ( 15 Psi). The pres-
sure broadening was determined by fitting the peak data to a
Lorenztian lineshape and measuring the change in the linewidth
due to increased pressure. The peak broadening measurements
and linewidth expansion as a function of pressure are listed in
Table I
The broadened absorption peaks for acetylene exhibited rel-
atively wide linewidths. Measurement standards approximate
typical linewidths to be 140 pm for tunable laser schemes [10]
at 1528.03 nm for pressures near 15 Psi (above atmospheric
pressure). Detection schemes that use broadband light sources
typically produce wide linewidths in comparison to schemes
that use tunable laser diodes. The relative absorption based
on broadband light sources is usually low compared to laser
sources. In order to have a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio the
spectrometer resolution was sacrificed. The measured linewidth
of the peaks is usually governed by the spectral resolution of
the spectrometer [23]. The optical spectrum analyzer that was
employed in this study had a resolution of 0.2 nm in order to
WYNNE et al.: HOLLOW-CORE PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBER GAS SENSOR
Fig. 3. Transmission spectrum of an unfilled PBG (a) T = 0 (noise level 
0 90 dB). Normalized transmission of 5% C H and 50% CO gas mixture at a
pressure of 17 Psi; length 27 m at time = T, (b) T = 20 minutes, (c) T = 4:5
hr and (d) T = 9 hr (noise level0 26 dB).
measure relative absorption lines that were relatively strong.
This resolution is much larger than the Doppler linewidth of
molecular absorption lines that is typically on the order of
nm. The measured linewidth broadening may also be due to
the dynamic nature of the pressure-driven gas-filling process
1593
TABLE I
LINEWIDTH MEASUREMENTS AS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE
which may be controlled with appropriate modification of the
gas-filling system to regulate the internal gas pressure of the
filled fibers.
C. Filling Time Results
Using the pressure-driven gas-filling method described in
Section II-B, extremely short filling times were demonstrated
for a variety of PBG fiber lengths compared to diffusion based
filling methods [7]. The data were fitted to an exponential curve
to approximate the time constants for the filling rate. Complete
filling was assumed when 95% of the reference light source
is absorbed (i.e., ). Fiber lengths of 2 m exhibited
filling times of seconds and seconds for
pressures of 13.5 and 8 Psi, respectively. (See Figs. 4 and 5.)
The early region that developed in the 050s time period in
Fig. 5 was evidence that weak absorption line strengths require
a sufficient amount of sample gas to fill the fiber in order to
overcome the detector noise-levels. The data also demonstrated
that filling times significantly increased with fiber length which
verified that the fibers were being filled with the sample gases.
For instance, a fiber length of 0.3 m has a s compared
to a s for a length of 1 m for a concentration of 100%
C H at a pressure of 15 Psi. This behavior was observed for
all of the trials indicating that filling rates are non-linearly
dependent on fiber length according to (6). The influence of
pressure on filling time was also evident. For example, the
filling time constant can be significantly reduced to s
at 15.08 Psi from s at 10.28 Psi for a fixed fiber length
of 0.3 m. (See Figs. 6 and 7.) Additional filling data are listed
in Table II. A comparison of the average gas-filling time, 3?, is
given as a function of concentration for a) a 0.3 m fiber length
at a pressure of 15 Psi, b) a 0.7 m fiber length at a pressure of
14.5 Psi, and c) a 27 m fiber length at a pressure of 17 Psi. The
fiber length and pressure were significant factors in the filling
time as predicted by (6).
The gas concentration and composition are also important,
since both parameters influence the viscosity of the gas. Filling
times for CO , with a viscosity of 14.86 kg m s , are longer
than that for C H that has a viscosity of 10.09 kg m s
[18]. Experimental errors of 5%38% for the single-viscosity
values indicate that the difference between the sample gas (gas
A) and the displaced gas (gas B) viscosities significantly influ-
ences , the experimental fill rate. For example, 100% C H
1594
Fig. 4. Normalized transmission of 100% C H line at 1540.01 nm as a func-
= 28
tion of time at a pressure of 13.35 Psi; length of 1.9 m;  s.
Fig. 5. Normalized transmission of 100% C H line at 1542.82 nm as a func-
= 40
tion of time at a pressure of 8 Psi; length of 1.9 m;  s.
Fig. 6. Normalized transmission of 100% C H line at 1530.39 nm as a func-
= 1 75
tion of time at a pressure of 10.28 Psi in a PBG fiber of length 0.3 m;  : s.
samples for a 27 m fiber length yielded an error of 33% since
the displaced gas was air. Reduced concentrations of 50%C H
have viscosity values that approach the value of the displaced
gas which resulted in a smaller error of 5%. For some cases, the
displaced gas was not always air which accounts for the vari-
ation in the reported error. This observation indicates that the
JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 27, NO. 11, JUNE 1, 2009
Fig. 7. Normalized transmission of 100% C H line at 1530.39 nm as a func-
= 0 93
tion of time at a pressure of 15.08 Psi; length of 0.3 m;  : s.
TABLE II
3
COMPARISON OF AVERAGE GAS-FILLING TIME,  , AS A FUNCTION OF
CONCENTRATION FOR (A) 0.3 M FIBER LENGTH AT A PRESSURE OF 15 PSI,
(B) 0.7 M FIBER LENGTH AT A PRESSURE OF 14.5 PSI, AND (C) 27 M FIBER
LENGTH AT A PRESSURE OF 17 PSI
single-viscosity pressure-driven model provides an approximate
order-of-magnitude for the filling time but it is not very precise
and requires consideration of the case of different viscosities
that describe gas A and gas B.
IV. ANALYSIS
Theoretical results for detector sensitivity were calculated
with regard to minimum detectable gas concentrations that were
related to the measured absorption peaks. (See Table III.) The
minimum concentrations are based on the parameters used in
this study and theoretical approximations of shot noise contri-
butions [13]. Practical detection limits rely heavily on the actual
signal-to-noise ratio of the investigated systems which leads to
WYNNE et al.: HOLLOW-CORE PHOTONIC BANDGAP FIBER GAS SENSOR
TABLE III
THEORETICAL MINIMUM DETECTABLE CONCENTRATIONS
Fig. 8. Trends of absorption versus fiber length for different concentrations of
C H .
minimum concentration levels of 120 ppm for C H . Detec-
tion sensitivity is typically limited by source fluctuations in ad-
dition to the detector noise with detectable absorption limits at
relative absorptions on the order of to [23]. These
detection limits can be enhanced by adopting a narrow band-
width light source (e.g., laser) such that as the source linewidth
decreases the detection limits are reduced and the smallest ob-
servable signal is significantly larger than limits based on con-
ventional broadband source spectroscopy. Lasers with relatively
high intensities can increase the signal-to-noise ratio to suppress
the detector noise that restricts sensitivity.
The relationship between PBG fiber length and measured ab-
sorbance was examined and compared for C H at gas concen-
trations of 100%, 50% and 5% (in mixture). The data followed
linear trends which is an indication that Beers law from (1) gov-
erned the absorption process for the PBG fiber configuration.
(See Fig. 8.) The sensor was calibrated with specific concentra-
tions of the sample gases. The calibration verified that the de-
vice absorbance levels are proportional to the gas concentration
levels. The linear fit of the data produced slopes that are propor-
tional to the concentration of the sample C H gas.
Bend losses for a 27 m gas-filled PBG fiber appeared to be
negligible. The losses are negligible and independent of bend
radii, in general, for Corning PBG-1550. Measurements were
obtained for bend loss were dB per millimeter of bend
radius for radii in the range of 5 mm to 75 mm.
Based on the initial findings of pressure-driven fiber filling re-
ported here, several early observations can be made with regard
to its practical application, especially in comparison to tradi-
tional diffusion filling methods. The traditional diffusion filling
method, as for example reported in [1], depends on the diffusion
1595
of the filling gas molecules into the gas resident in the fiber, usu-
ally air at ambient conditions. In [1] the authors measured the
filling rate of acetylene into air, in a microstructured fiber with
a length of 10 cm and diameter of 10.5 m. From simple diffu-
sion theory [15], the characteristic diffusion time scale can be
estimated as the fiber length squared divided by the diffusion
coefficient. The length and diffusion coefficient used in [1] are
respectively 10 cm and 0.17552 cm s . Their experimentally
measured filling time was approximately 300 s, which is very
much in line with the order of magnitude of the characteristic
diffusion time scale.
In the gas regimes of interest, the filling rates are governed
by a classical laminar but unsteady fluid dynamics theory, in
which the filling gas displaces the resident gas in a piston-like
fashion. With the viscosity of acetylene taken as Ns
m ; flowing in a tube with diameter 12.5 m and length of 10
cm (as in [1]), the time scale for filling is calculated to be three
orders of magnitude smaller than that observed by reference [1]
in diffusion driven filling. For the parameters of the experiment
in [1] where acetylene gas was introduced to the system at 15
psi above the ambient pressure, pressure filling would take 0.3
s, as compared to 300 s using diffusion.
V. CONCLUSION
Optical absorption spectroscopy based on a hollow-core PBG
fiber was demonstrated on fiber lengths as long as 27 m and
while presenting relatively short gas-filling periods. Detection
of concentrations as low as 50 ppm C H were observed for a
27 m hollow-core PBG fiber. The gas loading system was filled
with acetylene and carbon dioxide gases at pressures ranging
from 2 Psi to 17 Psi (above atmospheric pressure). Absorption
spectra were observed to be consistent with the 1550 nm region
characteristic peaks of acetylene and carbon dioxide. The pre-
sented results reveal sub-minute filling times that are conducive
to fast detector response times for fiber lengths m for pres-
sures Psi. Multiple gas components in a mixture were si-
multaneous sensed in a 27 m PBG fiber demonstrating inherent
selectivity qualities of sensing systems that are based on optical
absorption spectroscopy.
These promising results show that pressure-driven filling is
significantly faster than diffusion methods. It is recommended
that the initial pressure-driven model be modified to be a
more accurate model considering actual viscosities for the
initial gas and the filling gas. The dynamic nature of the pres-
sure-driven gas-filling process may cause uncharacteristically
wide linewidths. It is possible to reduce the gas pressure of the
system ( Psi) after the fiber length has been completely filled
to reduce the pressure broadening effects. A pressure reduction
post filling with a relative change of 10 may increase the overall
sensor response time by a factor of 2 which is still significantly
faster than diffusion rates. A modified pressure-driven process
that will address these recommendations will be presented in
future work. The findings in this paper may contribute to the
advancement of PBG fiber based absorption spectroscopy. PBG
fiber devices that can demonstrate fast response times, high
sensitivity and high selectivity detection in a compact rugged
device may be an improvement on existing schemes.
1596
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Dr. Constantine Megaridis at
the University of Illinois at Chicago for his helpful discussions.
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tion. New York: Springer, 2003, vol. 6471, pp. 369372.
Rosalind M. Wynne (M04) received the B.S. degree in physics from Norfolk
State University, Norfolk, VA, in 1999, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrese in elec-
trical engineering from Boston University, Boston, MA, in 2001 and 2005, re-
spectively.
She recently received a tenure-track Assistant Professor position at Villanova
University, Villanova, PA, in the Department of Electrical and Computer En-
gineering. Her current research interests include developing fiber optic sen-
sors based on microstructured optical fiber technology for chemical sensing and
biomedical applications.
Dr. Wynne is also a member of the International Society for Optical Engi-
neering (SPIE) and the National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE).
Banafsheh Barabadi received the B.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from
K.N.T University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 2005 and the M.Sc.degree
in mechanical engineering from Villanova University, Villanova, PA, in 2008.
She is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree at Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta.
Her interests are in miscro/nano fluidics and heat transfer and MEMS appli-
cations.
Kevin J. Creedon received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from Vil-
lanova University, Villanova, PA, in 2008.
He currently holds an assistant staff position in the Laser Technology and
Applications Group at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, MA. His research
interests include laser beam combining, optical computing and digital signal
processing.
Alfonso Ortega received the B.S. degree in mechanical engineering from the
University of Texas at El Paso in 1976, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in me-
chanical engineering from Stanford University, Stanford, CA, in 1978 and 1986,
respectively.
He is the Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Research for the College
of Engineering at Villanova University, Villanova, PA and the James R. Birle
Professor of Energy Technology in the Department of Mechanical Engineering.
His research is in the area of convective heat transfer in complex forced and
buoyant flows, especially those arising in air cooling of electronics and cooling
of turbo-machinery. He has published extensively on air-cooling of electronics,
convective and conjugate heat transfer in complex flows, and experimental mea-
surements in the thermal sciences.
Dr. Ortega is a Fellow of the ASME. He is the former Chairman of the
ASME/IEEE ITHERM Symposium (1994), the IEEE SEMITHERM Sym-
posium (1994), and recipient of the 2002 IEEE SEMITHERM Significant
Contributor Award.