Root of unity

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Chapter 1

Glossary of eld theory

Field theory is the branch of mathematics in which elds are studied. This is a glossary of some terms of the subject.
(See eld theory (physics) for the unrelated eld theories in physics.)

1.1 Denition of a eld

A eld is a commutative ring (F,+,*) in which 01 and every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse. In a eld
we thus can perform the operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The non-zero elements of a eld F form an abelian group under multiplication; this group is typically denoted by F ;
The ring of polynomials in the variable x with coecients in F is denoted by F[x].

1.2 Basic denitions

Characteristic The characteristic of the eld F is the smallest positive integer n such that n1 = 0; here n1 stands
for n summands 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1. If no such n exists, we say the characteristic is zero. Every non-zero
characteristic is a prime number. For example, the rational numbers, the real numbers and the p-adic numbers
have characteristic 0, while the nite eld Zp has characteristic p.

Subeld A subeld of a eld F is a subset of F which is closed under the eld operation + and * of F and which,
with these operations, forms itself a eld.

Prime eld The prime eld of the eld F is the unique smallest subeld of F.

Extension eld If F is a subeld of E then E is an extension eld of F. We then also say that E/F is a eld extension.

Degree of an extension Given an extension E/F, the eld E can be considered as a vector space over the eld F,
and the dimension of this vector space is the degree of the extension, denoted by [E : F].

Finite extension A nite extension is a eld extension whose degree is nite.

Algebraic extension If an element of an extension eld E over F is the root of a non-zero polynomial in F[x],
then is algebraic over F. If every element of E is algebraic over F, then E/F is an algebraic extension.

Generating set Given a eld extension E/F and a subset S of E, we write F(S) for the smallest subeld of E that
contains both F and S. It consists of all the elements of E that can be obtained by repeatedly using the operations
+,,*,/ on the elements of F and S. If E = F(S) we say that E is generated by S over F.

Primitive element An element of an extension eld E over a eld F is called a primitive element if E=F(), the
smallest extension eld containing . Such an extension is called a simple extension.

2
1.3. HOMOMORPHISMS 3

Splitting eld A eld extension generated by the complete factorisation of a polynomial.

Normal extension A eld extension generated by the complete factorisation of a set of polynomials.

Separable extension An extension generated by roots of separable polynomials.

Perfect eld A eld such that every nite extension is separable. All elds of characteristic zero, and all nite elds,
are perfect.

Imperfect degree Let F be a eld of characteristic p>0; then F p is a subeld. The degree [F:F p ] is called the
imperfect degree of F. The eld F is perfect if and only if its imperfect degree is 1. For example, if F is a
function eld of n variables over a nite eld of characteristic p>0, then its imperfect degree is pn .[1]

Algebraically closed eld A eld F is algebraically closed if every polynomial in F[x] has a root in F; equivalently:
every polynomial in F[x] is a product of linear factors.

Algebraic closure An algebraic closure of a eld F is an algebraic extension of F which is algebraically closed.
Every eld has an algebraic closure, and it is unique up to an isomorphism that xes F.

Transcendental Those elements of an extension eld of F that are not algebraic over F are transcendental over F.

Algebraically independent elements Elements of an extension eld of F are algebraically independent over F if
they don't satisfy any non-zero polynomial equation with coecients in F.

Transcendence degree The number of algebraically independent transcendental elements in a eld extension. It is
used to dene the dimension of an algebraic variety.

1.3 Homomorphisms
Field homomorphism A eld homomorphism between two elds E and F is a function
f: EF
such that, for all x, y in E,
f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y)
f(xy) = f(x) f(y)
f(1) = 1.
These properties imply that f(0) = 0, f(x1 ) = f(x)1 for x in E with x 0, and that f is injective. Fields, together with
these homomorphisms, form a category. Two elds E and F are called isomorphic if there exists a bijective
homomorphism
f : E F.
The two elds are then identical for all practical purposes; however, not necessarily in a unique way. See, for
example, complex conjugation.

1.4 Types of elds

Finite eld A eld with nitely many elements.

Ordered eld A eld with a total order compatible with its operations.

Rational numbers
4 CHAPTER 1. GLOSSARY OF FIELD THEORY

Real numbers

Complex numbers

Number eld Finite extension of the eld of rational numbers.

Algebraic numbers The eld of algebraic numbers is the smallest algebraically closed extension of the eld of
rational numbers. Their detailed properties are studied in algebraic number theory.

Quadratic eld A degree-two extension of the rational numbers.

Cyclotomic eld An extension of the rational numbers generated by a root of unity.

Totally real eld A number eld generated by a root of a polynomial, having all its roots real numbers.

Formally real eld

Real closed eld

Global eld A number eld or a function eld of one variable over a nite eld.

Local eld A completion of some global eld (w.r.t. a prime of the integer ring).

Complete eld A eld complete w.r.t. to some valuation.

Pseudo algebraically closed eld A eld in which every variety has a rational point.[2]

Henselian eld A eld satisfying Hensel lemma w.r.t. some valuation. A generalization of complete elds.

Hilbertian eld A eld satisfying Hilberts irreducibility theorem: formally, one for which the projective line is not
thin in the sense of Serre.[3][4]

Kroneckerian eld A totally real algebraic number eld or a totally imaginary quadratic extension of a totally real
eld.[5]

CM-eld or J-eld An algebraic number eld which is a totally imaginary quadratic extension of a totally real
eld.[6]

Linked eld A eld over which no biquaternion algebra is a division algebra.[7]

Frobenius eld A pseudo algebraically closed eld whose absolute Galois group has the embedding property.[8]

1.5 Field extensions

Let E / F be a eld extension.

Algebraic extension An extension in which every element of E is algebraic over F.

Simple extension An extension which is generated by a single element, called a primitive element, or generating
element.[9] The primitive element theorem classies such extensions.[10]

Normal extension An extension that splits a family of polynomials: every root of the minimal polynomial of an
element of E over F is also in E.
1.6. GALOIS THEORY 5

Separable extension An algebraic extension in which the minimal polynomial of every element of E over F is a
separable polynomial, that is, has distinct roots.[11]

Galois extension A normal, separable eld extension.

Primary extension An extension E/F such that the algebraic closure of F in E is purely inseparable over F; equiv-
alently, E is linearly disjoint from the separable closure of F.[12]

Purely transcendental extension An extension E/F in which every element of E not in F is transcendental over
F.[13][14]

Regular extension An extension E/F such that E is separable over F and F is algebraically closed in E.[12]

Simple radical extension A simple extension E/F generated by a single element satisfying n = b for an element
b of F. In characteristic p, we also take an extension by a root of an ArtinSchreier polynomial to be a simple
radical extension.[15]

Radical extension A tower F = F0 < F1 < < Fk = E where each extension Fi /Fi1 is a simple radical
extension.[15]

Self-regular extension An extension E/F such that EFE is an integral domain.[16]

Totally transcendental extension An extension E/F such that F is algebraically closed in F.[14]

Distinguished class A class C of eld extensions with the three properties[17]

1. If E is a C-extension of F and F is a C-extension of K then E is a C-extension of K.

2. If E and F are C-extensions of K in a common overeld M, then the compositum EF is a C-extension of
K.
3. If E is a C-extension of F and E>K>F then E is a C-extension of K.

1.6 Galois theory

Galois extension A normal, separable eld extension.

Galois group The automorphism group of a Galois extension. When it is a nite extension, this is a nite group of
order equal to the degree of the extension. Galois groups for innite extensions are pronite groups.

Kummer theory The Galois theory of taking n-th roots, given enough roots of unity. It includes the general theory
of quadratic extensions.

ArtinSchreier theory Covers an exceptional case of Kummer theory, in characteristic p.

Normal basis A basis in the vector space sense of L over K, on which the Galois group of L over K acts transitively.

Tensor product of elds A dierent foundational piece of algebra, including the compositum operation (join of
elds).
6 CHAPTER 1. GLOSSARY OF FIELD THEORY

1.7 Extensions of Galois theory

Inverse problem of Galois theory Given a group G, nd an extension of the rational number or other eld with G
as Galois group.

Dierential Galois theory The subject in which symmetry groups of dierential equations are studied along the
lines traditional in Galois theory. This is actually an old idea, and one of the motivations when Sophus Lie
founded the theory of Lie groups. It has not, probably, reached denitive form.

Grothendiecks Galois theory A very abstract approach from algebraic geometry, introduced to study the analogue
of the fundamental group.

1.8 References
[1] Fried & Jarden (2008) p.45

[2] Fried & Jarden (2008) p.214

[3] Serre (1992) p.19

[4] Schinzel (2000) p.298

[5] Schinzel (2000) p.5

[6] Washington, Lawrence C. (1996). Introduction to Cyclotomic elds (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-
94762-0. Zbl 0966.11047.

[7] Lam (2005) p.342

[8] Fried & Jarden (2008) p.564

[9] Roman (2007) p.46

[10] Lang (2002) p.243

[11] Fried & Jarden (2008) p.28

[12] Fried & Jarden (2008) p.44

[13] Roman (2007) p.102

[14] Isaacs, I. Martin (1994). Algebra: A Graduate Course. Graduate studies in mathematics. 100. American Mathematical
Society. p. 389. ISBN 0-8218-4799-6. ISSN 1065-7339.

[15] Roman (2007) p.273

[16] Cohn, P. M. (2003). Basic Algebra. Groups, Rings, and Fields. Springer-Verlag. p. 427. ISBN 1-85233-587-4. Zbl
1003.00001.

[17] Lang (2002) p.228

Adamson, Iain T. (1982). Introduction to Field Theory (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
28658-1.

Fried, Michael D.; Jarden, Moshe (2008). Field arithmetic. Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete.
3. Folge. 11 (3rd revised ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-77269-9. Zbl 1145.12001.

Lam, Tsit-Yuen (2005). Introduction to Quadratic Forms over Fields. Graduate Studies in Mathematics. 67.
American Mathematical Society. ISBN 0-8218-1095-2. MR 2104929. Zbl 1068.11023.

Lang, Serge (1997). Survey of Diophantine Geometry. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-61223-8. Zbl 0869.11051.

Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-
Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556, Zbl 0984.00001
1.8. REFERENCES 7

Roman, Steven (2007). Field Theory. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. 158. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-
27678-5.
Serre, Jean-Pierre (1989). Lectures on the Mordell-Weil Theorem. Aspects of Mathematics. E15. Translated
and edited by Martin Brown from notes by Michel Waldschmidt. Braunschweig etc.: Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn.
Zbl 0676.14005.

Serre, Jean-Pierre (1992). Topics in Galois Theory. Research Notes in Mathematics. 1. Jones and Bartlett.
ISBN 0-86720-210-6. Zbl 0746.12001.

Schinzel, Andrzej (2000). Polynomials with special regard to reducibility. Encyclopedia of Mathematics and
Its Applications. 77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66225-7. Zbl 0956.12001.
Chapter 2

Root of unity

+i

1 0 +1

The 5th roots of unity in the complex plane

In mathematics, a root of unity, occasionally called a de Moivre number, is any complex number that gives 1 when
raised to some positive integer power n. Roots of unity are used in many branches of mathematics, and are especially
important in number theory, the theory of group characters, and the discrete Fourier transform.

8
2.1. GENERAL DEFINITION 9

In eld theory and ring theory the notion of root of unity also applies to any ring with a multiplicative identity element.
Any algebraically closed eld has exactly n nth roots of unity if n is not divisible by the characteristic of the eld.

2.1 General denition

An nth root of unity, where n is a positive integer (i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, ), is a number z satisfying the equation[1][2]

z n = 1.

Without further specication, the roots of unity are complex numbers, and subsequent sections of this article will
comply with this. However the dening equation of roots of unity is meaningful over any eld (and even over any
unital ring) F, and this allows considering roots of unity in F. Whichever is the eld F, the roots of unity in F are either
complex numbers, if the characteristic of F is 0, or, otherwise, belong to a nite eld. Conversely, every nonzero
element in a nite eld is a root of unity in that eld. See Root of unity modulo n and Finite eld for further details.
An nth root of unity is primitive if it is not a kth root of unity for some smaller k:

z k = 1 (k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1).

2.2 Elementary properties

Every nth root of unity z is a primitive ath root of unity for some a where 1 a n. In fact, if z1 = 1 then z is a
primitive rst root of unity, otherwise if z2 = 1 then z is a primitive second (square) root of unity, otherwise, ..., and,
as z is a root of unity, one eventually nds a rst a such that za = 1.
If z is an nth root of unity and a b (mod n) then za = zb . In fact, by the denition of congruence, a = b + kn for
some integer k, and

z a = z b+kn = z b z kn = z b (z n )k = z b 1k = z b .

Therefore, given a power za of z, it can be assumed that 1 a n. This is often convenient.

Any integer power of an nth root of unity is also an nth root of unity:

(z k )n = z kn = (z n )k = 1k = 1.

Here k may be negative. In particular, the reciprocal of an nth root of unity is its complex conjugate, and is also an
nth root of unity:

1
= z 1 = z n1 = z.
z
Let z be a primitive nth root of unity. Then the powers z, z2 , ..., zn1 , zn = z0 = 1 are all distinct. Assume the contrary,
that za = zb where 1 a < b n. Then zba = 1. But 0 < b a < n, which contradicts z being primitive.
Since an nth-degree polynomial equation can only have n distinct roots, this implies that the powers of a primitive
root z, z2 , ..., zn1 , zn = z0 = 1 are all of the nth roots of unity.
From the preceding, it follows that if z is a primitive nth root of unity:

z a = z b a b (mod n).

If z is not primitive there is only one implication:

10 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

ab (mod n) = z a = z b .

An example showing that the converse implication is false is given by:

n = 4, z = 1, z 2 = z 4 = 1, 2 4 (mod 4).

Let z be a primitive nth root of unity and let k be a positive integer. From the above discussion, zk is a primitive ath
root of unity for some a. Now if zka = 1, ka must be a multiple of n. The smallest number that is divisible by both n
and k is their least common multiple, denoted by lcm(n, k). It is related to their greatest common divisor, gcd(n, k),
by the formula:

k n = gcd(k, n) lcm(k, n),

i.e.

n
lcm(k, n) = k .
gcd(k, n)

Therefore, zk is a primitive ath root of unity where

n
a= .
gcd(k, n)

Thus, if k and n are coprime, zk is also a primitive nth root of unity, and therefore there are (n) (where is Eulers
totient function) distinct primitive nth roots of unity. (This implies that if n is a prime number, all the roots except
+1 are primitive.)
In other words, if R(n) is the set of all nth roots of unity and P(n) is the set of primitive ones, R(n) is a disjoint union
of the P(n):

R(n) = P(d),
d|n

where the notation means that d goes through all the divisors of n, including 1 and n.
Since the cardinality of R(n) is n, and that of P(n) is (n), this demonstrates the classical formula

(d) = n.
d|n

2.3 Group properties

2.3.1 Group of all roots of unity

The product and the

( 1 )mmultiplicative inverse of two roots of the unity are also roots of unity. In fact, if xm = 1 and
n k
y = 1, then x = 1, and (xy) = 1, where k is the least common multiple of m and n.
Therefore, the roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication. This group is the torsion subgroup of the
circle group
2.4. TRIGONOMETRIC EXPRESSION 11

2.3.2 Group of nth roots of unity

The product and the multiplicative inverse of two nth roots of the unity are also nth roots of unity. Therefore, the nth
roots of unity form a group under multiplication.
Given a primitive nth root of unity , the other nth roots are powers of . This means that the group of the nth roots
of unity is a cyclic group. It is worth to remark that the term of cyclic group originated from the fact that this group
is a subgroup of the circle group.

2.3.3 Galois group of the primitive nth roots of unity

Let Q() be the eld extension of the rational numbers by a primitive nth root of unity. As every nth root of unity
is a power of , the eld Q() contains all nth roots of unity.
If k is an integer, k is a primitive nth root of unity if and only if k and n are coprime. In this case, the map

7 k
induces an automorphism of Q(), which maps every nth root of unity to its kth power. Every automorphism of
Q() is obtained in this way, and these automorphisms form the Galois group of Q() over the eld of the rationals.
The rules of exponentiation imply that the composition of two such automorphisms is obtained by multiplying the
exponents. It follows that the map

k 7 ( 7 k )
denes a group isomorphism of the units in the ring of integers modulo n onto the group of automorphisms of Q().

2.4 Trigonometric expression

De Moivres formula, which is valid for all real x and integers n, is

(cos x + i sin x)n = cos nx + i sin nx.

Setting x = 2/n gives a primitive nth root of unity:

( )n
cos 2 2
n + i sin n = cos 2 + i sin 2 = 1,
but for k = 1, 2, , n 1,

( )k
cos 2 n + i sin n = 1
2
n + i sin n = cos 2k 2k

This formula shows that on the complex plane the nth roots of unity are at the vertices of a regular n-sided polygon
inscribed in the unit circle, with one vertex at 1. (See the plots for n = 3 and n = 5 on the right.) This geometric
fact accounts for the term cyclotomic in such phrases as cyclotomic eld and cyclotomic polynomial; it is from the
Greek roots "cyclo" (circle) plus "tomos" (cut, divide).
Eulers formula

eix = cos x + i sin x,

which is valid for all real x, can be used to put the formula for the nth roots of unity into the form

k
e2i n 0 k < n.
It follows from the discussion in the previous section that this is a primitive nth-root if and only if the fraction k/n is
in lowest terms, i.e. that k and n are coprime.
12 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

The 3rd roots of unity

2.5 Algebraic expression

The nth roots of unity are, by denition, the roots of the polynomial xn 1, and are thus algebraic numbers. As
this polynomial is not irreducible (except for n = 1), the primitive nth roots of unity are roots of an irreducible
polynomial of lower degree, called cyclotomic polynomial, and often denoted n . The degree of n is the Eulers
totient function, which counts (among other things) the number of primitive nth roots of unity. The roots of n are
exactly the primitive nth roots of unity.
Galois theory can be used to show that cyclotomic polynomials may be solved in terms of radicals, and thus that
the roots of unity may be expressed as expressions involving integers and the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and the extraction of roots. (For more details see Cyclotomic elds, below.)
For n = 1, the cyclotomic polynomial is 1 (x) = x 1 Therefore, the only primitive rst root of unity is 1, which
is a non-primitive nth root of unity for every n greater than 1.
We have 2 (x) = x + 1. Thus 1 is the only primitive second (square) root of unity, which is also a non-primitive
nth root of unity for every even n greater than 2.
The only real roots of unity are 1 and 1; all the others are non-real complex numbers.
We have 3 (x) = x2 + x + 1. Thus the primitive third (cube) roots of unity are the roots of this quadratic equation
and are

1 + i 3 1 i 3
, .
2 2

As 4 (x) = x2 + 1, the two primitive fourth roots of unity are i and i.

2.5. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION 13

Plot of z3 1, in which a zero is represented by the color black.

As 5 (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1, the four primitive fth roots of unity are the roots of this quartic polynomial,
which may be explicitly solved in terms of radicals, giving the roots

{  }
u 51 
10 + 2u 5 
+vi  u, v {1, 1} .
4 4 

As 6 (x) = x2 x + 1, there are two primitive sixth roots of unity, which are the negatives (and also the square
roots) of the two primitive cube roots:

{ }
1+i 3 1i 3
, .
2 2

Gauss proved that a primitive nth root of unity can be expressed using only square roots, additions, subtractions
multiplications and division, if and only if it is possible to construct with compass and straightedge the regular n-gon.
This is the case if and only if n is either a power of two or the product of a power of two and Fermat primes that are
all dierent.
14 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

Plot of z5 1, in which a zero is represented by the color black.

As 7 is not a Fermat prime, the 7th roots of unity are the rst that require cube roots. There are six primitive 7th roots
of unity; thus their computation involves solving a cubic polynomial, and therefore computing a cube root. The three
real parts of these primitive roots are the roots of a cubic polynomial; thus they may be expressed in terms of square
and cube roots. However, as these three roots are real, we are in the case of casus irreducibilis, and any expression
of these real parts in terms of radicals involves necessarily some nonreal complex number.
As 8 (x) = x4 + 1, , the four primitive eighth roots of unity are the square roots of the primitive fourth roots, i.
They are thus

2 2
i .
2 2
See heptadecagon for the real part of a 17th root of unity.

2.6 Periodicity
If z is a primitive nth root of unity, then the sequence of powers
2.7. SUMMATION 15

, z1 , z0 , z1 ,

is n-periodic (because z j + n = z j z n = z j 1 = z j for all values of j), and the n sequences of powers

sk: , z k(1) , z k0 , z k1 ,

for k = 1, , n are all n-periodic (because z k(j + n) = z kj ). Furthermore, the set {s1 , , sn} of these sequences is a
basis of the linear space of all n-periodic sequences. This means that any n-periodic sequence of complex numbers

, x , x0 , x1 ,

can be expressed as a linear combination of powers of a primitive nth root of unity:

xj = Xk z kj = X1 z 1j + + Xn z nj
k

for some complex numbers X1 , , Xn and every integer j.

This is a form of Fourier analysis. If j is a (discrete) time variable, then k is a frequency and Xk is a complex
amplitude.
Choosing for the primitive nth root of unity

z = e2i/n = cos(2/n) + isin(2/n)

allows xj to be expressed as a linear combination of cos and sin:

xj = k Akcos(2jk/n) + k Bksin(2jk/n).

This is a discrete Fourier transform.

2.7 Summation
Let SR(n) be the sum of all the nth roots of unity, primitive or not. Then

{
1, n=1
SR(n) =
0, n > 1.

For n = 1 there is nothing to prove. For n > 1, it is intuitively obvious from the symmetry of the roots in the complex
plane. For a rigorous proof, let z be a primitive nth root of unity. Then the set of all roots is given by zk , k = 0, 1,
, n 1, and their sum is given by the formula for a geometric series:

n1
zn 1
zk = = 0.
z1
k=0

Let SP(n) be the sum of all the primitive nth roots of unity. Then

SP(n) = (n),

where (n) is the Mbius function.

In the section Elementary facts, it was shown that if R(n) is the set of all nth roots of unity and P(n) is the set of
primitive ones, R(n) is a disjoint union of the P(n):
16 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

R(n) = P(d),
d|n

This implies

SR(n) = SP(d).
d|n

Applying the Mbius inversion formula gives

(n)
SP(n) = (d) SR .
d
d|n

In this formula, if d < n, then SR(n/d) = 0, and for d = n: SR(n/d) = 1. Therefore, SP(n) = (n).
This is the special case cn(1) of Ramanujans sum cn(s), dened as the sum of the sth powers of the primitive nth
roots of unity:

n
a
cn (s) = e2i n s .
a=1
gcd(a,n)=1

2.8 Orthogonality
From the summation formula follows an orthogonality relationship: for j = 1, , n and j = 1, , n

n

k
z jk z j = n j,j
k=1

where is the Kronecker delta and z is any primitive nth root of unity.
The n n matrix U whose (j, k)th entry is

Uj,k = n 2 z jk
1

denes a discrete Fourier transform. Computing the inverse transformation using gaussian elimination requires O(n3 )
operations. However, it follows from the orthogonality that U is unitary. That is,

n
Uj,k Uk,j = j,j ,
k=1

and thus the inverse of U is simply the complex conjugate. (This fact was rst noted by Gauss when solving the
problem of trigonometric interpolation). The straightforward application of U or its inverse to a given vector requires
O(n2 ) operations. The fast Fourier transform algorithms reduces the number of operations further to O(n log n).

2.9 Cyclotomic polynomials

Main article: Cyclotomic polynomial
2.9. CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 17

The zeroes of the polynomial

p(z) = z n 1
are precisely the nth roots of unity, each with multiplicity 1. The nth cyclotomic polynomial is dened by the fact
that its zeros are precisely the primitive nth roots of unity, each with multiplicity 1.

(n)
n (z) = (z zk )
k=1

where z1 , z2 , z3 , ,zn are the primitive nth roots of unity, and (n) is Eulers totient function. The polynomial
n(z) has integer coecients and is an irreducible polynomial over the rational numbers (i.e., it cannot be written as
the product of two positive-degree polynomials with rational coecients). The case of prime n, which is easier than
the general assertion, follows by applying Eisensteins criterion to the polynomial

(z + 1)n 1
,
(z + 1) 1
and expanding via the binomial theorem.
Every nth root of unity is a primitive dth root of unity for exactly one positive divisor d of n. This implies that

zn 1 = d (z).
d|n

This formula represents the factorization of the polynomial zn 1 into irreducible factors.

z1 1 = z 1
z2 1 = (z 1)(z + 1)
z3 1 = (z 1)(z2 + z + 1)
z4 1 = (z 1)(z + 1)(z2 + 1)
z5 1 = (z 1)(z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1)
z6 1 = (z 1)(z + 1)(z2 + z + 1)(z2 z + 1)
z7 1 = (z 1)(z6 + z5 + z4 + z3 + z2 +z + 1)
z8 1 = (z 1)(z + 1)(z2 + 1)(z4 + 1)

Applying Mbius inversion to the formula gives

( n )(d) ( d )( n )
n (z) = zd 1 = z 1 d ,
d |n d |n

where is the Mbius function.

So the rst few cyclotomic polynomials are

1 (z) = z 1
2 (z) = (z2 1)(z 1)1 = z + 1
3 (z) = (z3 1)(z 1)1 = z2 + z + 1
4 (z) = (z4 1)(z2 1)1 = z2 + 1
5 (z) = (z5 1)(z 1)1 = z4 + z3 + z2 + z + 1
6 (z) = (z6 1)(z3 1)1 (z2 1)1 (z 1) = z2 z + 1
7 (z) = (z7 1)(z 1)1 = z6 + z5 + z4 + z3 + z2 +z + 1
8 (z) = (z8 1)(z4 1)1 = z4 + 1
18 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

If p is a prime number, then all the pth roots of unity except 1 are primitive pth roots, and we have

zp 1 k
p1
p (z) = = z .
z1
k=0

Substituting any positive integer 2 for z, this sum becomes a base z repunit. Thus a necessary (but not sucient)
condition for a repunit to be prime is that its length be prime.
Note that, contrary to rst appearances, not all coecients of all cyclotomic polynomials are 0, 1, or 1. The rst
exception is . It is not a surprise it takes this long to get an example, because the behavior of the coecients
depends not so much on n as on how many odd prime factors appear in n. More precisely, it can be shown that if n
has 1 or 2 odd prime factors (e.g., n = 150) then the nth cyclotomic polynomial only has coecients 0, 1 or 1. Thus
the rst conceivable n for which there could be a coecient besides 0, 1, or 1 is a product of the three smallest odd
primes, and that is 357 = 105. This by itself doesn't prove the 105th polynomial has another coecient, but does
show it is the rst one which even has a chance of working (and then a computation of the coecients shows it does).
A theorem of Schur says that there are cyclotomic polynomials with coecients arbitrarily large in absolute value. In
particular, if n = p1 p2 pt, where p1 < p2 < < pt are odd primes, p1 + p2 > pt, and t is odd, then 1 t occurs
as a coecient in the nth cyclotomic polynomial.[3]
Many restrictions are known about the values that cyclotomic polynomials can assume at integer values. For example,
if p is prime, then d p(d) if and only d 1 (mod p).
Cyclotomic polynomials are solvable in radicals, as roots of unity are themselves radicals. Moreover, there exist more
informative radical expressions for nth roots of unity with the additional property[4] that every value of the expression
obtained by choosing values of the radicals (for example, signs of square roots) is a primitive nth root of unity. This
was already shown by Gauss in 1797.[5] Ecient algorithms exist for calculating such expressions.[6]

2.10 Cyclic groups

The nth roots of unity form under multiplication a cyclic group of order n, and in fact these groups comprise all of
the nite subgroups of the multiplicative group of the complex number eld. A generator for this cyclic group is a
primitive nth root of unity.
The nth roots of unity form an irreducible representation of any cyclic group of order n. The orthogonality relationship
also follows from group-theoretic principles as described in character group.
The roots of unity appear as entries of the eigenvectors of any circulant matrix, i.e. matrices that are invariant
under cyclic shifts, a fact that also follows from group representation theory as a variant of Blochs theorem.[7] In
particular, if a circulant Hermitian matrix is considered (for example, a discretized one-dimensional Laplacian with
periodic boundaries[8] ), the orthogonality property immediately follows from the usual orthogonality of eigenvectors
of Hermitian matrices.

2.11 Cyclotomic elds

Main article: Cyclotomic eld

By adjoining a primitive nth root of unity to Q, one obtains the nth cyclotomic eld Q(exp(2i/n)). This eld con-
tains all nth roots of unity and is the splitting eld of the nth cyclotomic polynomial over Q. The eld extension
Q(exp(2i/n))/Q has degree (n) and its Galois group is naturally isomorphic to the multiplicative group of units of
the ring Z/nZ.
As the Galois group of Q(exp(2i/n))/Q is abelian, this is an abelian extension. Every subeld of a cyclotomic eld
is an abelian extension of the rationals. It follows that every nth root of unity may be expressed in term of k-roots,
with various k not exceeding (n). In these cases Galois theory can be written out explicitly in terms of Gaussian
periods: this theory from the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae of Gauss was published many years before Galois.[9]
Conversely, every abelian extension of the rationals is such a subeld of a cyclotomic eld this is the content of a
theorem of Kronecker, usually called the KroneckerWeber theorem on the grounds that Weber completed the proof.
2.12. RELATION TO QUADRATIC INTEGERS 19

2.12 Relation to quadratic integers

0 1 1 2

In the complex plane, the red points are the fth roots of unity, and the blue points are the sums of a fth root of unity and its complex
conjugate.

For n = 1, 2, both roots of unity 1 and 1 belong to Z.

For three values of n, the roots of unity are quadratic integers:

For n = 3, 6 they are Eisenstein integers (D = 3).

For n = 4 they are Gaussian integers (D = 1): see imaginary unit.

For four other values of n, the primitive roots of unity are not quadratic integers, but the sum of any root of unity
with its complex conjugate (also a nth root of unity) is a quadratic integer.
For n = 5, 10, neither of non-real roots of unity (which satisfy a quartic equation) is a quadratic integer, but the sum
z + z = 2 Rez of each root with its complex conjugate (also a 5th root of unity) is an element of the ring Z[1 + 5/2]
(D = 5). For two pairs of non-real 5th roots of unity these sums are inverse golden ratio and minus golden ratio.
For n = 8, for any root of unity z + z equals to either 0, 2, or 2 (D = 2).
For n = 12, for any root of unity, z + z equals to either 0, 1, 2 or 3 (D = 3).

2.13 See also

Argand system
Circle group, the unit complex numbers
Group scheme of roots of unity
Primitive root modulo n
Dirichlet character
Ramanujans sum
Kummer ring
Witt vector
Teichmller character
20 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

In the complex plane, the corners of the two squares are the eighth roots of unity

2.14 Notes
[1] Hadlock, Charles R. (2000). Field Theory and Its Classical Problems, Volume 14. Cambridge University Press. pp. 8486.
ISBN 978-0-88385-032-9.

[2] Lang, Serge (2002). Roots of unity. Algebra. Springer. pp. 276277. ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4.

[3] Emma Lehmer, On the magnitude of the coecients of the cyclotomic polynomial, Bulletin of the American Mathematical
Society 42 (1936), no. 6, pp. 389392.

[4] Landau, Susan; Miller, Gary L. (1985). Solvability by radicals is in polynomial time. Journal of Computer and System
Sciences. 30 (2): 179208. doi:10.1016/0022-0000(85)90013-3.

[5] Gauss, Carl F. (1965). Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Yale University Press. pp. 359360. ISBN 0-300-09473-6.

[6] Weber, Andreas; Keckeisen, Michael. Solving Cyclotomic Polynomials by Radical Expressions (PDF). Retrieved 2007-
06-22.

[7] T. Inui, Y. Tanabe, and Y. Onodera, Group Theory and Its Applications in Physics (Springer, 1996).

[8] Gilbert Strang, "The discrete cosine transform, SIAM Review 41 (1), 135147 (1999).

[9] The Disquisitiones was published in 1801, Galois was born in 1811, died in 1832, but wasn't published until 1846.
2.15. REFERENCES 21

2.15 References
Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-
Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556, Zbl 0984.00001
Milne, James S. (1998). Algebraic Number Theory. Course Notes.

Milne, James S. (1997). Class Field Theory. Course Notes.

Neukirch, Jrgen (1999). Algebraic Number Theory. Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften. 322.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-65399-8. MR 1697859. Zbl 0956.11021.

Neukirch, Jrgen (1986). Class Field Theory. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-15251-2.
Washington, Lawrence C. (1997). Cyclotomic elds (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-
94762-0.
Derbyshire, John (2006). Roots of Unity. Unknown Quantity. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.
ISBN 0-309-09657-X.

2.16 Further reading

Storer, Thomas (1967). Cyclotomy and dierence sets. Chicago: Markham Publishing Company. Zbl 0157.03301.
22 CHAPTER 2. ROOT OF UNITY

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