Earthquake Source Mechanics

Lecture 5
Earthquake Focal Mechanism

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 What is Seismotectonics?
Study of earthquakes as a tectonic component,
divided into three principal areas.
1. Spatial and temporal distribution of seismic
activity
a) Location of large earthquakes and global
earthquake catalogues
b) Temporal distribution of seismic activity
2. Earthquake focal mechanisms
3. Physics of the earthquake source through
analysis of seismograms

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 Location of large earthquakes and the
global earthquake catalogues
Historically of crucial importance in the development
of plate tectonics theory
a It was the recognition of a continuous belt of seismicity across
the North Atlantic (together with profiles measured by marine
geophysicists) that allowed Ewing & Heezen to predict the
existence of a worldwide system of mid-ocean rifts
Goter extended this work in the 60s & 70s to
compile global seismicity maps delineating the plate
boundaries
a Similar maps at larger scale constructed from regional and
local seismic networks allow the tectonics to be studied in
much finer detail

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 Global seismicity

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 Earthquake focal mechanisms

Using teleseismic earthquake records to determine

the earthquake focal mechanism or fault plane
solution and deduce the tectonics of a region

Similar work now done at larger scale for looking at

regional and local tectonics - neotectonics

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 The Seismic Source

Shear faulting
a Simple model of the seismic source

1. Fracture criterion
2. Frictional sliding criterion
3. Effect of pore fluid pressure
4. Influence of pressure, i.e. depth, on faulting

Covered more in earthquake source mechanics now start with

simplest model and wont specify whether a fresh fracture or
unstable frictional sliding on an existing fault

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 The Seismic Source
2 compressional quadrants +
Simple normal fault 2 dilatational quadrants -
Look at first motion on seismogram 2 nodal planes 0
Dip
Displacement
Footwall

- Hanging wall
+
up on
+ vertical axis
no motion 0 -
Auxiliary plane
Perlar to fault plane 0
Perlar to slip direction Fault plane
no motion
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 First motion

S3 & S4 are on
nodal plane +
So no motion -
or indistinct S4
first motion in S1
P wave
S3
first motion up

S2 down motion up

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 Earthquake Focal Mechanism

Earthquake focal mechanism

Fault plane orientation
Fault plane solution

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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

1. We use a global coverage of seismometers (many

stations) to record first motions
In principle we could use any phase (S, pP, PP) but only use P
as later arrivals are more difficult to read

2. Plot onto 2D projection of the Earth

3. Look particularly for nodal planes

where there is no motion as these stations define the fault
plane or auxiliary plane

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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

To find a nodal plane we need to know the expected arrival time

accurately
LP seismogram

e.g.

Expect here no motion just after arrival, therefore nodal

To check arrival time look at high frequency SP record

SP seismogram

Always get some kick on short period

N.B. SP is always more accurate for measurement of times

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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

Examine first motions recorded on long period seismograms

because of SP energy from small geological heterogeneities

Theoretical path
SP

LP
Never use SP records for polarity measurements (because of scattering,
multiple reflections, refractions)
e.g. LP period ~20s (seismometer)
for v~8 km/s(mantle), wavelength ~v, T ~ 8x20 = 160km
SP period T~1s (seismometer)
~ v, T ~ 8km
SP records are full of scattered energy
LP records are more reliable (if care taken at nodal planes)
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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

Problem: Fault plane is not uniquely specified by 2 nodal

planes:
Fault breaks (if earthquake has broken surface)
Shallow events Ms> 6
x
x
2. Aftershocks x x
occur around fault plane and x x x
show direction of fault plane x

zones of
3. Isoseismals
damage
elongate along direction of fault plane
(1st discovered after 1906 SF earthquake)

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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

4. Source directivity pulse moving along fault

(takes finite time from beginning to end of fault)
analogous to Doppler effect
Fracture
starts

Fracture
5. Sub-events stops

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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

Problem: Lack of global coverage

Station coverage
2/3 earth is ocean and island stations are noisy so
difficult to get good nodal planes

Core shadow
near centre of plots (more on this late)

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 Fault Plane Orientation from Seismograms

Synthetic seismograms
A large part of modern seismology is devoted to the calculation
of seismograms from models of the source and elastic
constants
-
+ +
By building up these
45o
seismograms from a model of
an earthquake source, varying
a wide range of physical -
parameters, until the synthetic
seismograms matches the real
observed seismograms

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 Faulting
Hanging walls

Footwall
Fault
strike

Footwall
Fault plane

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 Fault Plane Orientation
Measuring strike and dip
a By convention the dip is measured to the right of the strike
N N
s ~ 45o

W E E
W

s ~ 225o
S S

Study the self-taught module on structural geology on the server

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 Fault Plane Orientation
u is slip direction
Measuring the rake lies in the fault plane
normal to fault plane u
strike direction
horizontal

- the rake, measured relative to the strike direction s

So, = 0o strike slip (pure) [e.g. San Anreas]
= -90o normal (pure)
= +90o reverse/thrust (pure)

Slip direction refers to the

relative movement of the Hanging Foot
-ve
hanging wall wall wall

Normal fault, hanging wall goes down

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 Focal Sphere 3D
Focal sphere for a seismic point source is a sphere centred on the
source and having arbitrarily small radius. It is a convenient
device for displaying radiation patterns, since information
recorded by seismometers (distributed over the Earths surface)
may be transferred back to the focal sphere.

Remember p = r sin i / v = constant for a spherical Earth

If velocity at station = velocity near source, then isource = istation
(applies best to shallow earthquakes, correction can be applied for deeper
earthquakes) All teleseismic stations plot
i large close in
onto the lower focal
upper i small hemisphere
further out Only local seismometers
lower plot onto upper focal sphere
One station one point on focal sphere
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 Focal Sphere

In principle, azimuth angle of descent i can be worked out if

1. Location of earthquake
2. Location of station
3. Velocity profile i()
Use computers to do this, and so one may specify a point on the
focal sphere by angular coordinates (i,)

e.g.
+ Strike slip fault
- - Usually the compressional
+ (+ve polarity) is shaded
D +
- C

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 Equal Area Projection (2D) of the
Focal Sphere Strike Slip Fault
Schmidt net We map a plan view of the
preserves area T. horizontal plane, i.e. an equal
area projection of the lower
focal hemisphere

Strike slip fault

P. D .P C compression
D dilatational
C
auxiliary plane
T. fault plane
T tension axis
Use equal area projection, so that all data
collected over area have same weight P pressure axis

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 Normal Fault
Normal Fault 60o dip 0o strike
N N ~ 0o
s

30
60
= 30o P. T. = 60o
-
+
Auxiliary
Fault plane
plane

Auxiliary Fault plane

plane
nodal planes
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 Thrust Fault
Thrust Fault 30o dip 0o strike

N ~ 0o
s

P. T. = 30o
= 60o

Auxiliary Fault plane

plane

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 Information from the Fault Plane Solution

Null axis
is the interception of 2 nodal planes (direction of movement)
If the null axis is nearer the centre of the projection, the mechanism is
predominantly strike slip
If it is nearer the edge then predominantly normal or thrust fault
Normal fault centre is dilatational
Thrust fault centre is compressional

Rake
Slip direction relative to the azimuth,
s
movement on the fault plane

e.g. angle of slickensides to horizontal

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 Fault Plane Solution

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 Information from the Fault Plane Solution

P & T axes correspond roughly to the directions of minimum (T) and

maximum compressive (P) stress
Normal P max intermediate Deviatoric stress (tectonic) leads
faulting to faulting

s Fault plane at 45o to P & T

min axes
45o T Definition of P & T
90o to intermediate axis (strike)
45o to auxiliary plane
45o to fault plane

(Usually max is at 30o to fault plane, i.e. dip of 60o in rocks)

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 Information from the Fault Plane Solution

P & T axes
P
Section
P axis dilatational quadrant
- T axis compressional quadrant

+ + T P-axis direction of tectonic

movement 15o
- Good for plate tectonics as gives
direction, c.f. neotectonics

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