Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Laurence Petoud
Executive Assistant
Formatrice en Entreprise
ECDL Expert
laurence.petoud@gmail.com
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According to
Usage
According to X means 'as stated by X' or 'on the authority of X'.
According to Jane, life is a learning process.
According to the timetable, the train leaves at 9.30.
According to scientists, there could be life on other planets.
We do not normally give our own opinions with according to.
In my opinion, Jane Austen is a great writer. (NOT According to
me)
All
All refers to three or more items. It is used mostly before plural and uncountable
nouns.
All children need love.
I love all music.
All the invitees turned up.
When all is followed by a plural noun, the verb is normally plural. After an
uncountable noun, we use a singular verb.
All cheese contains fat.
All the lights were out.
All + noun is not normally used as the subject of a negative verb. We more
often use the structure not all + noun + affirmative verb.
Not all birds can sing. (NOT All birds cannot sing.)
All and All of
Before a noun with no determiner (possessives, articles and demonstratives) we
use all.
All children need love.
All cheese contains fat.
All lights were out.
Before a noun with a determiner (the, my, this etc.), all and all of are both
possible.
All the lights were out.
All of the lights were out.
I have invited all my friends to my birthday party.
I have invited all of my friends to my birthday party.
Also
USING ALSO
Also is an adverb. It is used for adding another fact or idea to what you have
already said.
Mary writes excellent short stories. She also likes to paint.
Bill Gates is one of the richest men in the world. He is also a great
philanthropist.
My brother is a good singer. He is also a great actor.
Coffee is a very popular beverage. It is also rich in antioxidants.
Also can also be used for showing that what you have just said about someone
or something is true about another person or thing.
John now works at the State Bank of India, where his father also worked
for thirty years.
And
And is used to join two or more grammatically similar expressions.
bread and butter
black and white
knife and fork
When two clauses are joined by and, there are many possible relationships
between them time, cause and effect, contrast, condition etc.
Peter took out his pen and began to make notes. (time)
Do that again and I will hit you. (condition: = If you do that again )
She won the prize and astonished them all. (cause and effect)
Adjectives before a noun
We do not usually use and between adjectives used before a noun.
She has lovely long fingers. (NOT She has lovely and long fingers.)
However, and is used when the adjectives refer to different parts of the same
thing.
green and white socks
And after try, be sure etc.
We often use try and/be sure and instead of try to/be sure to This is
informal.
I try and visit her often. (= I try to visit)
Be sure and ask him about his new projects. (= Be sure to ask him about
)
Note that we only use this structure with the simple base forms try/be sure. It
is not possible with tries, tried, trying or am/is/are/was/were sure.
Compare
Try and eat something.
I tried to eat something. (NOT I tried and ate something.)
Another
Another can mean 'one more of the same kind'. It is used with singular
countable nouns.
We need another person to finish the work. (= We need one more person
to finish the work.)
He has bought another car.
Could I have another cup of coffee?
Appear
Appear can be used as a copular verb. It is used to say how things look. It is
used in similar ways to seem.
She appeared mighty pleased.
He appears (to be) angry today.
They do not appear to be happy.
There appears to be some misunderstanding between them.
The thieves appear to have left the city.
When appear is used as a copular verb, it is followed by an adjective, not an
adverb.
She appears to be angry. (NOT angrily)
Appear can also be used as a non-copular verb. It then means 'come into sight',
or 'arrive'. In this case it is used with an adverb, not an adjective.
She suddenly appeared in the doorway.
Been
Been is often used as the past participle of come and go.
Have you ever been to Cairo? (= Have you ever visited Cairo?)
I have been to see my uncle. (= I have paid a visit to my uncle.)
Has the postman been yet? (= Has the postman called yet?)
Note that been is used for completed visits.
COMPARE:
The postman has already been. (= He has come and gone again.)
Where is John? He has gone to Cairo. (= He is in Cairo at the moment.)
Before
BEFORE AS AN ADVERB
Before, as an adverb, means already, in the past and similar ideas.
I have seen that film before.
Before can also mean at any time before the past moment that we are talking
about. In this case a past perfect tense is used.
She realized that she had seen him before.
We also use before after a time expression to count back from a past moment.
A past perfect tense is normally used. Note that to count back from the present,
we use ago, not before.
BEFORE AS A CONJUNCTION
The conjunction before is used to join one clause to another. Before and its
clause can come either before or after the other clause.
I will die before I surrender.
Before I surrender, I will die. (Note the comma in the second structure.)
But
AS A CONJUNCTION
But, as a conjunction, is used to join contrasting ideas.
Their front door was open, but nobody was at home.
The rope was thin but it was strong.
He is hardworking, but not clever.
AS A PREPOSITION
But, as a preposition, can mean except after all, none, every, any, no etc.
They are all wrong but me! (= except me.)
All but you loved me for money. (= All except you loved me for money.)
Everybody came but John. (= Everybody came except John.)
The expression but for is used to express the idea of if something had not
existed/happened.
We should have enjoyed the journey but for the rain.
He would have helped us but for having no money himself. (except that
he had no money.)
After but we usually use object pronouns. Subject pronouns are also possible in
a formal style.
Nobody but him would do a thing like that. (More formal: Nobody but he
)
CANNOT BUT + INFINITIVE
Cannot but + infinitive or cannot help but + infinitive is often used with the
meaning of cant help ing.
I cannot but admire your courage (= I cannot help admiring your
courage.)
Change
Change is used with a plural object when we talk about changing one thing for
another.
I have just changed jobs.
Will I have to change trains?
You must change the batteries regularly.
Could you change the sheets in the guest room?
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Change of tenses
The first verb in a sentence establishes the tense of any verb that comes later. If
you begin writing in the past, dont change to the present. Similarly, if you begin
writing in the present, dont change to the past.
Incorrect: In the story, the king loses his kingdom, but he regained
everything in the end.
Correct: In the story, the king loses his kingdom, but he regains
everything in the end.
Incorrect: The team won yesterday, but goes and loses this afternoon.
Correct: The team won yesterday, but went and lost this afternoon.
Visit this document to learn more about the sequence of tenses.
Close and shut can often be used with the same meaning.
She closed/shut her eyes against the light.
All the shops were closed/shut, so I couldn't buy anything.
The shop closes/shuts at seven oclock.
Could you close/shut the windows, please?
Close/shut your eyes - I have a surprise for you.
The past participles closed and shut can be used as adjectives.
The shop is closed/shut on Sundays.
Note that the past participle shut cannot be used before a noun. We can say a
closed shop or door, but not a shut shop or door.
CASES WHERE CLOSE IS PREFERRED
We prefer close for slow movements.
COMPARE:
As we watched, he closed his eyes for the last time.
Shut your mouth.
Close and shut
Close and shut can often be used with the same meaning.
She closed/shut her eyes against the light.
All the shops were closed/shut, so I couldn't buy anything.
The shop closes/shuts at seven oclock.
Could you close/shut the windows, please?
Close/shut your eyes - I have a surprise for you.
The past participles closed and shut can be used as adjectives.
The shop is closed/shut on Sundays.
Note that the past participle shut cannot be used before a noun. We can say a
closed shop or door, but not a shut shop or door.
CASES WHERE CLOSE IS PREFERRED
We prefer close for slow movements.
COMPARE:
As we watched, he closed his eyes for the last time.
Shut your mouth.
Come and go
We use come for movements nearer to the position of the speaker or a point (in
space or time) or a result.
Come here.
Come to me.
They came at six oclock.
We argued till we came to blows.
Come can also mean arrive.
The visitors havent come yet.
We use go for movements to other places.
Where are you going?
I want to go now.
Come from is used to say where peoples home are or were.
She comes from Wales, but her husband is Scottish.
COME TRUE
Come true means 'become real, become a fact'.
It was like a dream come true.
I will make all your dreams come true.
I had always dreamt of becoming a millionaire, but I never thought it
would come true.
COME WHAT MAY
Come what may means 'whatever happens'.
Come what may, I will never let you out of my sight again.
COME TO
Come to can mean 'happen to'.
How did you come to hear of it?
Come + infinitive can also be used to talk about changes in attitude or opinion.
You will come to regret your decision.
HOW COME
This structure is used to ask the reason for something.
How come you never told me? (= Why didn't you tell me?)
Dare
Dare can be used in two ways: as an ordinary verb and as an auxiliary verb.
DARE AS AN ORDINARY VERB
As an ordinary verb, dare is followed by the infinitive with to.
She doesnt dare to go out at night.
I dare you to hit me!
She didnt dare to tell him what had happened.
Note that the ordinary verb dare is more common in negative sentences.
The expressions You dare! and Dont you dare! are sometimes used to
discourage people from doing unwanted things.
Mummy can I draw a picture on the wall? You dare!
DARE AS AN AUXILIARY VERB
As an auxiliary verb, dare is followed by an infinitive without to. Questions and
negatives are made without do.
How dare you say that I am a liar?
Dare she tell him?
The expression I dare say is used in British English to mean I think probably or
I suppose.
He is not here yet, but I dare say he will come later. (= I think he will
probably come later.)
DARE + OBJECT + INFINITIVE
The expression I dare you + infinitive is used to challenge other people to do
frightening things.
I dare you to jump across the stream.
Double negatives
Never use a negative verb and a negative qualifier (e.g. nothing, hardly,
scarcely, nobody etc.) together.
Incorrect: I haven't nothing to prove.
Correct: I have nothing to prove. OR I havent got anything to prove.
Incorrect: Alice can't hardly wait until her birthday.
Correct: Alice can hardly wait for the holidays. OR Alice cant wait for
the holidays.
Incorrect: There wasn't nobody at the door. Correct: There was nobody
at the door. OR There wasnt anybody at the door.
During
USING DURING
During is a preposition. It means throughout or for as long as something lasts.
For example, during the afternoon means throughout the afternoon or at
some time in the afternoon.
The sun shone during the whole match.
The band played during the afternoon.
During can also mean at some moment within a period of time.
It rained during the afternoon. (= It rained at some time in the
afternoon.)
He visited me during my stay in hospital.
I was in Australia during the summer for two weeks.
He had many painful experiences during his childhood.
I met some interesting people during my trip to Italy.
He visited us twice during his stay in Mumbai.
He had never met his father during his childhood.
Each
Each is a determiner. It is used before a singular noun.
Each new day is different.
EACH AND EACH OF
We use each of before a pronoun or a noun with a determiner (the, this, my,
your). Note that we use object pronouns (them, us etc.) after each of. The noun
or pronoun is plural.
They gave each of their four sons a watch.
Each of the four boys was given a gift.
The verb after each of is usually singular, but it can be plural in an informal
style.
Each of us has problems. (More formal)
Each of us have problems. (More informal)
WITH VERB
When each refers to the subject, it can go with a verb in mid-position. It is put
after auxiliary verbs and before other verbs. When there are two auxiliary verbs,
each usually goes after the first.
Note that these meanings can also be expressed by using the structure each
(of) + noun/pronoun.
The four boys each received a new watch. (= Each of the four boys
received a new watch.)
They have each been told. (= Each of them have been told.)
Either
Either means one or the other of two. It is used before a singular noun.
There was a chair on either side of the fire-place.
Before a pronoun or a determiner (the, this, my, your etc.) we use either of.
The noun or pronoun after either of is plural.
I dont like either of them.
I dont like either of my grammar teachers.
The verb is usually singular, but it can be plural in an informal style.
Is either of them at home? (more formal)
Are either of them at home? (more informal)
Object pronouns after either of
We use object pronouns (them, us) after either of.
I dont like either of them. (NOT either of they.)
The pronoun referring back to either + noun/pronoun can be singular or
plural.
If either of the boys comes, tell him/them to wait.
After not
After mentioning a negative idea or fact, we can add another negative point by
using not either.
I dont like this one, and I dont like that one either. (= I dislike both of
them.)
Peter isnt here. John isnt here either.
I know you dont like me. I dont like you either.
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Either or
Either or is used to talk about a choice between two alternatives.
He must be either mad or drunk.
We must either go now or stay till the end.
Note that either introduces the first of two alternatives.
I dont speak either German or French.
You can have either tea or coffee.
Else
Else means other or more after:
Somebody, someone, something, somewhere; anybody/one/thing/where;
everybody/one/thing/where; nobody/one/thing/where; who, what, why, when,
where, how; whatever, whenever etc; little; much
What else have you got to do?
Would you like anything else?
I am sorry. I mistook you for somebody else.
Note that else comes immediately after the word it modifies.
Else has a possessive form elses.
You are wearing somebody elses coat.
Enjoy
Enjoy means 'get pleasure from'. It normally takes an object.
I enjoyed the party very much.
When we talk about having a good time, we use enjoy myself/yourself etc.
I really enjoyed myself when we went to Paris.
Enjoy can be followed by an ing form.
I dont enjoy looking after small children. (NOT I dont enjoy to look )
I enjoy swimming in the sea.
Enough
Enough is a degree modifier. When enough modifies an adjective/adverb, it
normally comes after the adjective/adverb.
Are you warm enough?
You are not old enough to become a grandmother.
But note that when enough modifies an adjective and noun together, it comes
before the adjective.
We havent got big enough chairs. (= We need bigger chairs enough
modifies big.)
We havent got enough big chairs. (= we need more big chairs enough
modifies big chairs.)
Enough + noun
Enough can be used before a noun phrase as a determiner.
Are you getting enough sleep?
There is enough room for everybody to sit down.
Before a pronoun or a noun with a determiner, we use enough of.
The exam was bad. I couldnt answer enough of the questions.
Enough of is also used after personal and geographical names.
I havent seen enough of Europe.
Enough to
Enough to shows sufficiency and has a positive meaning.
He is strong enough to lift that box.
The boy is clever enough to understand this.
We are not rich enough to buy a car.
He was foolish enough to listen to her.
Tooto shows undesirable excess. It has a kind of negative meaning.
She was too tired to walk.
This is too good to be true.
The coffee is too hot for me to drink.
Note that She was too tired to walk means She was so tired that she could not
walk.
Especially and specially
Especially and specially can often be used with the same meaning.
The concert wasnt especially/specially good.
Especially means above all.
I read a lot, especially biographies.
The children are very noisy, especially when we have visitors.
Especially is used after a subject.
All my family loves films. My father, especially, watches as many films as
he can. (NOT Especially my father watches )
Specially means for a special purpose.
These clothes were specially made for me.
Even
USING EVEN
It is warm there, even in winter. (So you can be sure it will be very
warm there in summer.)
Even a child can understand this book. (Therefore you can be sure it is a
simple one.)
POSITION
Even most often goes in mid position (after auxiliary verbs and
is/am/are/was/were; before other verbs).
He is rude to everybody. He is even rude to the police. (NOT Even he is
or He even is )
It puzzled even the experts. (NOT It even puzzled or Even it puzzled
)
Every
USING EVERY
Every is a determiner. It is normally used before a singular noun.
I have read every book on that shelf. (NOT every books )
Every refers to all or each one of a group without exception.
Every boy in the class passed the test.
He enjoyed every minute of his holiday.
EVERY AND EVERY ONE OF
We use every one of before an object pronoun (us, them) or a determiner (the,
this, my). The pronoun or noun is plural, but a following verb is singular.
Every one of us wants to go.
Every one of the children was crying.
NOT EVERY
To negate every, we normally use not every.
Not every kind of bird can fly. (More natural than Every kind of bird
cannot fly.)
Not everybody was amused.
A pronoun or a possessive referring back to every can usually be either singular
(more formal) or plural (less formal).
Every one of them was told to bring his/her/their textbooks.
EVERY WITH PLURAL NOUNS
Every can be used to indicate regular intervals of space and time. It is then
followed by a plural noun.
Buses run every ten minutes. (That is six per hour)
Plant trees every twenty yards.
EACH AND EVERY
Each is used to talk about two or more persons or things. It refers to the
individual members of a group when their number is definite and limited.
She had a child holding on to each hand. (NOT every hand.)
Each of the six boys was given a prize.
Every is used to talk about more than two persons or things. It refers to the
whole group.
Every chair in the hall was occupied.
Every action of his has some motive behind it.
FAR
Far is used to indicate distance in space or time. It is most common in questions and
negative clauses.
Did you walk far?
The railway station is not far from here.
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In affirmative clauses we usually prefer a long way.
We walked a long way. (NOT walked far.)
The station is a long way from here. (More natural than The station is far from
here.)
FAR IN AFFIRMATIVE CLAUSES
Far is normal in affirmative clauses with too, enough, as and so.
Have I gone far enough? A bit too far.
Any problems? OK so far.
Far is also used in all kinds of clauses to modify comparatives, superlatives and too.
She is far older than her husband.
This is by far the best book I have read.
You are far too young to get married.
Feel
USING FEEL
Feel can be a copular verb. It is then followed by an adjective or a noun complement.
A babys hand feels smooth.
I always feel sleepy on Mondays.
When she realized what she had done, Alice felt (= thought that she was) a
complete idiot.
Feel can be used with a personal subject (I, you etc.) to talk about feelings that are
going on at a particular moment. Both simple and progressive forms are possible.
There is little difference of meaning.
I feel fine. (= I am feeling fine.)
Do you feel happy? (= Are you feeling happy?)
How are you feeling? Not too bad, but I still have a slight headache.
Feel can be used, usually with a non-personal subject, to mean give somebody
sensations. Progressive forms are not used.
A babys hand feels smooth. (NOT is feeling smooth.)
That feels nice. (NOT is feeling nice.)
FEEL LIKE; FEEL AS IF/THOUGH
Feel like something means have a desire for something. It is normally followed by an
-ing form.
I feel like (having) a drink. (= I would like to have a drink.)
I feel like going for a walk. (= I would like to go for a walk.)
He was so rude. I felt like slapping his face. (= I wanted to slap him.)
I felt like crying. (= I wanted to cry.)
It is possible to put a clause after feel like. The meaning is similar to as if/ as though.
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She felt like she was in a dream. (= It seemed as if she was in a dream.)
COMPARE:
I felt like swimming. (= I wanted to swim.)
I felt like/as if I was swimming. (= It seemed as if I was swimming.)
FEEL AS AN ORDINARY VERB
The ordinary verb feel can be followed by an object. It is used to talk about the
physical sensations that come to us through the sense of touch.
He gently felt the smoothness of her cheek.
Just feel how cold my hands are.
It is possible to use an -ing form after the object.
I could feel a chill running down my spine.
He could feel the sweat trickling down his neck.
Feel is often used to talk about reactions and opinions. It is then followed by a that-
clause.
I feel certain that I am right.
She felt that she could no longer carry on.
I felt that she was lying to me.
I felt that she was arrogant.
For
Using for
USING FROM
Purpose and cause
For can be used to talk about peoples purposes in doing something. It is
then followed by a noun.
I went to the college for an interview with Professor Mark.
We stopped at the pub for a drink.
For + -ing form
For can be used before an ing form to express the purpose of a thing
especially when the thing is the subject of the clause.
An altimeter is used for measuring height above sea level.
When the clause has a person as subject, it is more common to use an
infinitive to express the purpose of a thing.
We use altimeters to measure height above sea level.
For + -ing can also be used to explain the behaviour that causes a
particular reaction.
They punished the child for lying.
We are grateful to you for helping us out.
From
USING FROM
From indicates the starting points of actions, events or spaces. It says
when things begin or began.
The exhibition was held from Monday to Friday.
I work from 10 to 6.
From is not normally used with a perfect tense.
The shop was open from morning.
I will be here from 3 o'clock onwards.
With a perfect tense we normally use since, not from.
I have been working since morning. (NOT I have been working from
morning.)
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Get
USING GET
Get is a common word in English. Its meaning depends on the kind of
word that comes after it.
Get + noun/pronoun (object)
When get is followed by a direct object, it usually means 'receive', 'fetch',
'obtain', 'earn' or something similar.
I have got an invitation to their party.
I will buy a car if I get my rise.
Get can have two objects.
Can you get me a coffee?
Let me get you a drink.
Get + adjective
When get is followed by an adjective, it usually means 'become'.
Get ready to leave in five seconds.
When I get nervous, I get angry.
The structure get + object + adjective is also possible. It usually describes
situations where we want someone else to do something for us.
Can you get the children ready for school?
Get + adverb particle/preposition
Before an adverb particle or a preposition, get almost always refers to a
movement of some kind.
I often get up at seven o clock.
With an object, the structure usually means 'make somebody or something
move'.
Can you get the children to bed?
I have got the doctor to call tomorrow.
Get + Past Participle
Get can be used with a past participle. This structure is often used to talk about
things that we do to ourselves. Common expressions are get married, get
divorced, get engaged, get lost, get dressed etc.
They are getting married in May.
I never get interviewed.
Get dressed in five minutes.
The structure get + object + past participle often has a passive meaning. It
usually means arrange for something to be done by somebody else.
We are getting the house painted.
I must get my hair cut.
We must get the roof repaired before monsoon sets in.
This structure may also describe situations where something is done to us.
I got my car stolen last night.
Go
USING GO
The structure go/come for a is often used in some common fixed
expressions referring to leisure activities.
Let us go for a walk/run/swim/ride/drive/sail/drink.
Go/come -ing
We can use go with an ing form in a number of common expressions.
Let us go climbing next weekend.
Common expressions are:
go:
climbing/dancing/fishing/hunting/riding/sailing/shooting/shopping
go: skating/skiing/swimming/walking
Note that prepositions of place, not direction, are used after go -ing.
Let us go swimming in the river. (NOT go swimming to the river.)
We went shopping at Harrods. (NOT to Harrods.)
Go and get
GO OR GET?
Go (and not get) is used to talk about changes of colour. This is common
in British English.
Leaves go brown in autumn. (NOT Leaves get brown )
She went green with envy. (NOT She got green )
Other examples are: go white with anger/ blue with cold/ red with
embarrassment
Turn and grow can also be used in these cases. Note that go is more
informal than turn and grow.
Had better
We use had better to give strong advice, or to tell people what to do.
After had better, we use the infinitive without to.
You had better consult a doctor.
It is late. I had better hurry up.
Had better may suggest a threat. It is not used in polite requests.
COMPARE:
Could you lend me some money? (request)
You had better lend me some money. (order/threat)
Had better refers to the immediate future, but the form used is always
past. Have better is not possible.
Shall I go now? You had better. (NOT You have better.)
We can put better before had for emphasis. This is common in British
English.
I promise I will pay you back. You better had.
We normally make the negative with had better not + infinitive.
You had better not tell him.
Half
We can use half or half of before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, my,
this, your etc.). When half (of) is followed by a plural noun, the verb is
plural.
She spends half (of) her time travelling.
Half (of) my friends live abroad.
We use half of before pronouns.
Did you like the books? I have only read half of them. (NOT half
them.)
Help
After help, we can use object + infinitive.
He helped her to lift the box.
We often use the infinitive without to. This is rather informal.
He helped her lift the box.
cant help
If you say that you cant help doing something, you mean that you cant stop
yourself doing it.
Sorry I broke the cup I couldnt help it.
I cant help wondering what I should do next.
Cant help can be followed by but + infinitive without to. The meaning is the
same as cant help ing.
I cant help but wonder what I should do next.
Help
After help, we can use object + infinitive.
He helped her to lift the box.
We often use the infinitive without to. This is rather informal.
He helped her lift the box.
cant help
If you say that you cant help doing something, you mean that you cant
stop yourself doing it.
Sorry I broke the cup I couldnt help it.
I cant help wondering what I should do next.
Cant help can be followed by but + infinitive without to. The meaning
is the same as cant help ing. This structure is common in American
English.
I cant help but wonder what I should do next.
Hope
After I hope, we often use a present tense with a future meaning.
I hope she is having a good time.
In negative sentences, we usually put not with the verb that comes after
hope.
I hope she doesnt get late. (NOT I dont hope she gets late.)
I was hoping is used to introduce a polite request.
I was hoping you could lend me some money.
I had hoped is used to talk about hopes that werent realised.
hopefully
Hopefully can mean I hope. This is a fairly recent usage in British
English, and some people consider it incorrect.
Hopefully, I am not disturbing you. (I hope I am not disturbing you.)
If I were you
We often use the structure If I were you to give advice.
If I were you, I would accept that job.
If I was you is also possible, but some people consider it incorrect.
In case and if
In case is used to talk about things which we do in order to be ready for
possible future situations.
I always take an umbrella in case it rains. (= because it might rain.)
After in case, we use a present tense to refer to the future.
We often use should + infinitive after in case. This adds the meaning
by chance. This structure is common in sentences about the past.
I wrote down her address in case I should forget it.
In case and if
In British English, in case and if are used in quite different ways.
COMPARE:
Let us buy a chicken in case Peter comes. (=Let us buy a chicken now
because Peter might come later.)
Let us buy a chicken if Peter comes. (=We will wait and see. If Peter
comes, then we will buy the chicken. If he doesnt we wont.)
In American English, in case can sometimes be used in the same way as
if.
The prepositional phrase in case of is often used in similar situations to
if.
In case of fire, break glass. (=If there is fire ...)
If and unless
USING IF AND UNLESS
The conjunctions if and unless introduce a condition something which
must happen first so that something else can happen. Unless means if
not.
Read the following sentences.
Work hard. Otherwise you will not pass.
These two sentences can be combined into one using if or unless.
If you work hard, you will pass. OR If you do not work hard, you will not
pass.
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Unless you work hard, you will not pass.
He must carry out my orders. Otherwise he will be sacked.
We can combine these two sentences using if or unless.
If he does not carry out my orders, he will be sacked.
Unless he carries out my orders, he will be sacked. (NOT Unless he does
not carry out my orders, he will be sacked.)
We have already learned that unless means if not and hence it is wrong
to use another not in clauses introduced by unless.
In spite of
In spite of means notwithstanding. It is used as a preposition. In spite
of + noun means more or less the same as although + clause.
They went out in spite of the rain. (=They went out although it was
raining. )
In more formal English, despite can be used in the same way as in spite
of.
IN SPITE OF AND BECAUSE OF
In spite of is the opposite of because of.
COMPARE:
She passed her exam in spite of her teacher. (= She had a bad teacher.)
She passed her exam because of her teacher. (=She had a good
teacher.)
In spite of can be followed by an ing form.
I enjoyed the film in spite of having a headache.
It
IT AS A PREPARATORY SUBJECT
When the subject is an infinitive expression, the sentence often begins
with it. Preparatory it is common before be + adjective/ noun
complement.
It is difficult to accept your advice. (More natural than To accept your
advice is difficult.)
It is easy to learn English.
It is not easy to understand his motive.
It must be tempting to get such an offer.
It could be dangerous to drive so fast.
Introductory it is also used with seem, appear and look when the
subject is an infinitive phrase, a phrase that includes a gerund or a clause.
It seemed strange to see him there.
It seems that he forgot to buy the tickets.
It appeared unwise to offend him.
It looks improper to behave like that.
WITH IF, AS IF AND AS THOUGH
The last week refers to the period of seven days up to the moment of
speaking or writing. Note that these time expressions are normally used
with perfect tenses and with prepositions.
We have lived here for the last three years. (= since three years ago)
I have been busy for the last two months. (= for the two months up to
now.)
Note that we generally say the last few days/weeks, not the last
days/weeks.
It has been raining for the last few days. (NOT for the last days.)
Let
Let can be used to introduce suggestions and orders. It is followed by object +
Infinitive without to.
Let the show go on.
Let me get you a cup of coffee.
Let us eat - I am hungry.
There are two possible negative forms - let us not and do not let us.
Let us not stray from the right path.
Let us not get angry.
Do not let us forget our goals in life.
LET WITH FIRST PERSON PRONOUNS
When let is followed by a first person pronoun, it is considered a kind of
imperative. Let us (also let's) is used to make suggestions or to give instructions
or orders to a group that includes the speaker.
Let us go for a walk.
Let us eat something.
In question tags shall we? is used. Let's is used as a short answer.
'Let us have a drink, shall we?' 'Yes, let's.'
Let me is used to give instructions to oneself. The expressions let me see and
let me think are very common.
Can I have the report ready by this evening? Let me see.
Let can be used to introduce suggestions and orders. It is followed by object +
Infinitive without to.
Let the show go on.
Let me get you a cup of coffee.
Let us eat - I am hungry.
There are two possible negative forms - let us not and do not let us.
Let us not stray from the right path.
Let us not get angry.
Do not let us forget our goals in life.
Look
Look can mean seem or appear. In this case it is a copular verband can be
followed by adjectives.
You look unhappy what is the matter? (NOT You look unhappily.)
We can use a few noun phrases after look in the same way as adjectives.
When she realized what she had done she looked a real fool.
The room looks a mess.
Mean
The structure mean + (object) + infinitive means 'intend to' or 'plan to'.
Sorry, I didn't mean to upset you.
I mean to find a good job soon.
Do you mean me to cook the meals?
The progressive form meaning is also possible in this sense.
I have been meaning to call you for days.
Mind
The structures would you mind/do you mind can be used in questions to ask people if
they would be troubled by something.
Do you mind my smoking?
Would you mind shutting the door?
After would you mind/do you mind we normally use an -ing form. It is possible for the
-ing form to have its own subject.
Most
Most is the superlative of much and many.
Most people enjoy watching a good movie.
When most has the superlative meaning, we use the before it.
Those who have the most money are not always the happiest.
He won the most votes in the election.
However, the can be dropped when most simply means the majority of.
Most children love toys.
Most people love children.
Before a pronoun, a geographical name or a noun with a determiner, we use most of.
We had done most of the work before lunchtime.
Most of my friends live abroad.
Most of us don't own cars.
Most of Egypt is barren.
She does most of her writing at home.
We use most before a noun or a noun phrase without a determiner.
Most children love chocolates.
Most people enjoy watching a good movie.
He won the most seats in the election.
POINTS TO BE NOTED
Most is the superlative of much. In comparisons when most has a superlative
meaning we normally use it with the.
This is the most expensive suit I have ever bought.
This is the most difficult phase in my life.
However, the can be dropped when there is no idea of comparison.
Most people enjoy watching a good movie.
Near
USING NEAR
The station is quite near; it is only two minutes walk.
The summer holidays are drawing near.
He lives near by.
Near as a preposition
Near can be used with or without to. To is not normally used when we are talking
about physical closeness.
Dont go near the edge of the cliff, you may fall over it. (NOT Dont go near to
the edge )
When we are not talking about physical closeness, near to is often preferred.
I came very near to hitting him. (NOT I came very near hitting him.)
Nearer and nearest are generally used with to, thoughto can be dropped in an
informal style.
Come and sit nearer to me.
Who is the girl sitting nearest to the door?
Negative forms
When there is more than one auxiliary verb, we make negative forms by putting not
after the first auxiliary verb.
They have not been invited.
She has not come.
I cannot come.
When be (is, am, are, was, were) is the main verb, we make negative forms by
putting not after be.
She is not ready.
You are not late.
I was not surprised.
When have is the main verb, we make negative forms by putting do not before have.
They do not have a car.
He does not have a good job.
When there are no auxiliary verbs, we make negative forms by putting do not before
the verb. After do not we use the infinitive without to.
Money does not grow on trees.
She did not come.
Before infinitives and -ing forms, we use not to make negative forms.
It is important not to be late.
The best thing about a computer is not complaining.
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
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Negative questions can be contracted or uncontracted. Contractednegative questions
have the word order auxiliary verb + n't + subject. They are less formal.
Can't we wait?
Won't she come?
Hasn't she any friends to invite?
Uncontracted negative questions have the word order auxiliary verb + subject + not.
Can we not wait?
Will she not come?
Has she not any friends to invite?
Neither
Neither means 'not one nor the other of two'. It is followed by a singular noun and
verb.
Neither shirt looks good on you.
Neither statement is true.
NEITHER OF
Before a determiner (articles, possessives and distributives) or apersonal pronoun, we
use neither of.
Neither of my parents lives with me.
Neither of my sisters is married.
I like neither of them.
The pronoun that comes after neither of is plural in number. The verb is normally
singular, but can be plural in an informal style.
No matter
No matter means it doesnt matter. It is used with who, whose, which, what, when,
where and how.
No matter where you go, I will follow you.
After no matter, we use a present tense with a future meaning.
You will be welcome no matter when you come.
NO MATTER WHO AND WHOEVER
The conjunctions no matter who/what etc., are used rather like whoever, whatever
etc.
No matter what you say, I wont believe you. (= Whatever you say, I wont
believe you.)
Phone me when you arrive, no matter how late it is. (= Phone me when you
arrive, however late it is.)
Of course
We use of course to mean something like as everybody knows or as is obvious.
It looks as if the sun goes round the earth, but of course the earth really goes
around the sun.
Of course is not a polite reply to a statement of fact.
COMPARE:
Could you help me? Of course.
It is cold. It certainly is. (Of course it is would be quite rude, because it
would suggest that the first speaker said something too obvious to be worth
mentioning.)
Often
Often means frequently on different occasions.
I often fell in love when I was young.
I often visit my parents.
If we want to say frequently on the same occasion, we generally use a different
expression (e.g. a lot of times, several times, frequently) or the structure keep ing.
I fell several times yesterday when I was skiing. (OR I kept falling yesterday
) (NOT I often fell yesterday )
One
Singular countable noun.
Which is your boy? The one in the blue shirt.
I want that one, not this one.
Can you lend me a pen? Sorry, I havent got one.
One has a plural ones.
Green apples often taste better than red ones.
LEAVING OUT ONE(S)
One(s) can be left out immediately after superlatives, this, that, these, those, either,
neither, another and some other determiners.
I think my dog is the fastest (one).
Either (one) will suit me.
Let us have another (one).
Which (one) would you like? That looks the nicest.
We do not use one(s) immediately after my, your etc., some, any, both or a number.
Take your coat and pass me mine. (NOT my one.)
I need some matches. Have you got any? (NOT any ones?)
Are there any grapes? Yes I bought some today. (NOT some ones today.)
But note that one(s) is used in all these cases if there is an adjective.
Are there any mangoes? Yes, I bought some sweet ones today.
Has the cat had her kittens? Yes, she had four white ones. (NOT four white.)
We do not use one(s) for uncountable and abstract nouns.
If you havent got fresh cream I will take tinned (cream). (NOT tinned one.)
The Dutch grammatical system is very similar to the English system. (NOT
the English one.)
Primary auxiliaries
The primary auxiliaries are of three kinds: be, do and have. Each of them has
different forms.
Be
The auxiliary be has five forms: is, am, are, was andwere. Be also has a
present participle (being) and apast participle (been) form.
I am writing a novel.
He is working on a project.
They are playing in the garden.
We were waiting for the bus.
He was waiting for her.
Do
Do has three forms: do, does and did. The forms doand does are used to make
questions and negative sentences in the simple present tense. Do is used with
plural nouns and pronouns. Does is used with singular nouns and pronouns.
He does not believe in ghosts.
I do not want to go.
Does he want to go?
Did is used to make questions and negative sentences in the simple past tense.
Note that after do, does and did, we use the infinitive without to.
He did not go. (NOT He did not went.) (NOT He did not to go.)
Provided that
Provided that can be used as a conjunction. It is used to introduce a condition.
It means something will happen only if another thing also happens.
You can borrow my car, provided that you drive it carefully.
You can watch TV provided that you finish your homework first.
I will go provided that she invites me.
I will take you there, provided that you pay me.
You may go out provided that you are back by ten oclock.
In clauses introduced by provided that, we use apresent tense to refer to the future.
I will accept the job provided that they offer me a good salary. (NOT I
will accept the job provided that they will offer me a good salary.)
Usually, the same idea can be expressed using if or on condition that.
You can watch TV on condition that you finish your homework first.
If you finish your homework first, you can watch TV.
If she invites me I will go.
If you pay me, I will take you there. OR I will take you there on
condition that you pay me.
If they offer me a good salary, I will accept the job.
Quite
Quite suggests a higher degree than fairly. It can modify adjectives, adverbs,
verbs and nouns.
The film was quite good. (modifies the adjective good)
I can speak French quite well. (modifies the adverb well)
I quite dislike him. (modifies the verb dislike)
That was quite a celebration. (modifies the noun celebration)
With non-gradable adjectives and adverbs quite means completely.
It is quite impossible. (=It is completely impossible.)
I have quite finished. (=I have completely finished.)
With gradable adjectives and adverbs, quite means something likefairly or
rather.
It is quite surprising.
Quite is not used directly before comparatives. We use other words like rather,
much or a bit.
She is rather taller than her husband. (NOT She is quite taller than her
husband.)
This rule, however, has an exception. Quite can be used before better.
I feel quite better today.
WITH NOUNS
We use quite a/an before a noun with a gradable adjective or no adjective.
The film was quite a success.
She is quite a crowd puller.
That was quite a celebration.
It was quite a pleasant surprise.
With non-gradable adjectives, quite comes after a/an.
It was a quite perfect day. (NOT It was quite a perfect day.)
Same
We normally use the before same.
We have lived in the same house for twenty years.
He is the same age as his wife.
Her hair is the same colour as her mothers.
Before a clause, the same that or the same who can be used.
This is the same man that/who asked me for money yesterday.
The same means in the same way.
If you leave me I shall never feel the same again.
Since
In sentences with since, we normally use present perfect and past perfect
tenses in the main clause.
I met him ten years ago and have admired him ever since.
We havent met since her marriage.
They have known each other since 1975.
We had been friends since university days.
Present and past tenses are also occasionally used. This often happens in the
structure It is/was since
It is just a week since we arrived here.
It was ages since our last game of tennis. (OR It had been ages since our
last game of tennis.)
TENSES IN SINCE-CLAUSES
Since can introduce its own clause. The tense in thesince-clause can be perfect
or past, depending on the meaning.
I have known her since we were at school together.
I have known her since I have lived in this street.
Surely
Surely does not mean the same as certainly. There is usually a difference.
Compare:
That is certainly Janes boyfriend. (= I know that is Janes boyfriend.)
Surely that is Janes boyfriend? (That really seems to be Janes boyfriend.
How surprising!)
Sentences with surely often have question marks. They are used to say that the
speaker believes something in spite reasons to believe the opposite.
Surely that is James over there? I thought he was in Germany.
Surely not expresses difficulty in believing something.
Surely he is not going to divorce his wife? (= I cant believe that he is
going to divorce his wife.)
Could you help me? Surely / certainly.
Take
We can use take to say how much time we need to do something.
Different structures are possible.
PERSON + TAKE + TIME + INFINITIVE
When the person is the subject, we use the structure person + take +
time + infinitive.
He took 5 years to finish the project.
I took three hours to get home.
They took all day to clean the room.
ACTIVITY + TAKE + PERSON + TIME + INFINITIVE
The activity can be the subject
The project took him five years to finish.
The room took them all day to clean.
The ferry took them two hours to unload.
It is also possible to begin these sentences with a preparatory it. The
word order is as follows: it + take + person + time + infinitive
It took him five years to finish the project.
It took them all day to clean the room.
Therefore
The word therefore is not a conjunction, and therefore you cannot use it to
connect two clauses.
Read the sentence given below. It is an example of the incorrect use of
therefore.
He is clever therefore he gets good marks.
As you can see, therefore is incorrectly used as a conjunction in the above
sentence. We can correct this mistake in several different ways. For example, we
can split the sentence into two clauses.
He is clever. Therefore, he gets good marks.
Note that when therefore comes at the beginning of a sentence, we use a
comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
Instead of a full stop, we can use a semicolon.
He is clever; therefore, he gets good marks.
Up and down
Down means from a higher part to a lower part of something.
The rain came down heavily.
We ran down the road.
Down can also mean along.
She walked down the road. (= She walked along the road.)
Note that to pay $10 down is to pay $10 now and the rest later.
UP
Up means to or in a high(er) or (more) important place, degree etc.
Pull your socks up.
Are you going up to London (i.e. from the country) soon?
Trains to important places are often called up trains and trains from important
places down trains. But note that in the US, downtown normally means in/to
the central business/entertainment area.
People often use up for movements towards the north, and down for
movements towards the south.
Used to
We use used + infinitive to talk about past habits.
I used to smoke, but now I have stopped.
He used to play football when he was a boy.
There used to be a theatre at this corner years ago.
Used to has no present form. It has no progressive, perfect, infinitive or ing
forms either. To talk about present habits and states, we usually use the simple
present tense.
He smokes. (NOT He uses to smoke.)
Very
Very means to a great degree. It is used with an adjective or another adverb in
the positive degree.
He is very nice.
He is a very nice boy.
He did it very nicely.
It is very cold.
She is very beautiful.
He wrote very well/carefully/quickly.
Very can be used with a present participle used as an adjective.
It is a very amusing story.
It is very interesting.
When used with a superlative or own, very means in the highest degree or
absolutely.
This tea is of the very best quality.
She is the very best dancer here.
Very is quite common before much.
I like your new dress very much.
I am very much obliged to you.
Thank you very much.
Want
After want, we normally use an infinitive with to.
I dont want to talk to her again.
An object + infinitive structure is also possible.
She wants me to clear her doubts.
That-clauses are not normally used after want.
STRUCTURES
Want can be followed by an object + complement.
I want him back.
They wanted him dead.
We want the job finished by Monday.
To be or as is used before a noun complement.
I want you to be my wife. (OR I want you as my wife. )
(NOT I want you my wife.)
BE WANTING
Be wanting means be missing or lacking.
A few pages of this book are wanting.
He is wanting in courtesy. (= He is not polite.)
WANT MEANING NEED
In informal British English, want is often used to mean need.
Your hair wants a good brush.
That car wants a clean.
In this case, want can be followed by an ing form.
That car wants cleaning.
You hair wants brushing.
Whose
Whose is a relative possessive word, used as a determiner before nouns. It can
refer to people or things.
This is the man whose house was burgled.
I saw a girl whose beauty took my breath away.
OF WHICH; THAT OF
Instead of whose, we can use of which or that of to refer to things. The
most common word order is noun + of which or that of. Of which +
noun is also possible.
Compare the following sentences. All of them express the same idea.
He has written a book whose name I have forgotten.
He has written a book the name of which I have forgotten.
He has written a book that I have forgotten the name of.
He has written a book of which I have forgotten the name.
Sentences with whose are rather formal. In an informal style other structures
are preferred. With is a common way of expressing possessive ideas.
I have got some friends with a house that looks over a river. (Less
formal than I have got some friends whose house looks over a river.)
Correlative conjunctions
Some conjunctions are used in pairs. They are called correlative conjunctions.
Most of these are of the coordinating type.
Either or
You must either follow my instructions or resign.
He is either a fool or a madman.
Either you or he will have to go.
Either you will leave this house or I will call the police.
I dont speak either French or German.
We use eitheror to talk about a choice between two possibilities (and
sometimes more than two).
If you want ice-cream you can have either chocolate, vanilla or strawberry.
Neither nor
I will neither follow your instructions nor resign.
He is neither a fool nor a madman.
I neither smoke nor drink.
We use neither nor to join two negative ideas. It is the opposite of
bothand. Sometimes more than two ideas are connected by neithernor.
He neither smiled, spoke, nor looked at me.
Not onlybut also
They not only looted the shop, but also set fire to it.
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Not only John, but Peter also got a prize.
He visited not only France but also Germany.
She not only plays the piano, but also the violin.
Also is often omitted.
He was not only brave but prudent.
Note that in informal English not onlybut also is not very common; other
structures are generally preferred.
She doesnt only play the piano. She plays the violin too.
Notbut
The culprit was not John but Peter.
He did not stop the car but drove on.
It is not the best but reasonably good.
Whetheror
I dont know whether I should stay or leave.
Whether he comes or not makes no difference.
Bothand
She is both clever and pretty.
He is both scholarly and cultured.
Both John and Peter spoke at the meeting.
As/soas
He is not as/so bad as many think.
She is not as/so successful as her sister.
The situation is not as/so difficult as people make out.
So that
The task is so difficult that one man alone cant do it.
The officer was so inefficient that he had to be sacked.
Suchthat
I have such regard for him that I will do anything to please him.
Such was her beauty that princes from far and near came to woo her.
Suchas
I gave him such help as I could.
You must give such an assurance as will satisfy people.
Such valuables as she left were sold at an auction.
Note that it is wrong to use that instead of as in these sentences.
Make your sentences clearer with parallel
structure
We can make our writing clearer and better by using parallel construction. When
you list items, make sure that they are in similar form.
Here are some tips for ensuring that your sentences have parallel structure.
When listing non-finite verbs after a main verb, keep them in the same form. For
example, if you use infinitives, stick to them. If you use gerunds, stick to them.
Subject complements
Some clauses consist of a subject, the verb be and an expression that either
modifies the subject or denotes something identical to the subject.
Jane is a journalist.
The children were very excited.
Susie is in the shower.
The expression that modifies the subject in clauses like these is often called a
subject complement. Subject complements can also follow other copular verbs
like become, seem and look.
Alice became a doctor.
She looks depressed.
Object complement
An object complement is a phrase which follows a direct object and either
modifies that object or denotes something identical to it.
She called me a liar.
They made her a star.
I consider hang-gliding dangerous.
Complements of verbs, nouns and adjectives
Words and expressions which complete the meaning of a verb, noun or adjective
are also called complements.
I am fond of children. (of children is the complement of the adjective
fond.)
I am sorry to tell you this. (to tell you this is the complement of the
adjective sorry.)
Copular verbs
We use a special kind of verb to join two parts of a sentence and to express
either that the two parts denote the same thing or that the first has the property
denoted by the second. These verbs are called copulas or copular verbs.
Common copular verbs are: be, seem, look, turn, become, appear, sound, smell,
taste, feel and get.
Alice is my girlfriend. (The sentence asserts that Alice and my girlfriend
are the same person.)
Alice is British. (The sentence asserts the quality of Britishness to Alice.)
She seems happy.
She became famous.
It is getting late.
The stew smells good.
Adjectives after copular verbs
Copular verbs are followed by adjectives, not adverbs.
Compare:
She spoke intelligently. (Spoke is an ordinary verb. It is modified by the
adverb intelligently.)
She looks intelligent. (Intelligent is an adjective in predicative position.
It tells you about the person herself rather like saying She is intelligent.
Look is a copular verb.)
Note that some copular verbs are also used with other meanings as ordinary
non-copular verbs. They are then used with adverbs, not adjectives. Examples
are: appear, look, taste and feel.
Articles: Rules for the use and omission of articles
The misuse of the and a is very common. Here are the basic rules for the use
and omission of articles.
Proper nouns (e.g. John, Alice and India) do not take articles.
Incorrect: The John is my friend.
Correct: John is my friend.
Incorrect: The Tokyo is a big city.
Correct: Tokyo is a big city.