1. Emerging Signal Processing on Graphs, Ortega.

Graph based methods became especially popular for the semi-supervised learning
problem where the objective is to classify unknown data with the help of a few
labelled samples. elaborated at the end of the paper.

To scale well with the size of the data, signal processing techniques for graph signals
should employ localized operations that compute information about the data at each
vertex by using data from a small neighbourhood of vertices close to it in the graph.

A wireless sensor network is an example of Euclidean domain graph. A wireless

sensor network is considered as a graph, with each sensor behaving as a node. Similar
to the graph signal processing, the data at the nodes (wireless sensors) is to be
computed, to localize them. Moreover, the challenges faced in the localization of
these sensors are similar to the challenges faced by signal processing on graphs which
are as follows:

1) in cases where the graph is not directly dictated to us by the application, deciding
how to construct a weighted graph that captures the geometric structure of the
underlying data domain;
2) incorporating the graph structure into localized transform methods;
3) at the same time, leveraging invaluable intuitions developed from years of signal
processing research on Euclidean domains; and
4) developing computationally efficient implementations of the localized transforms,
to extract information from high-dimensional data on graphs and another irregular
data domains.

2. Locating the Nodes, Neal Patwari, Joshua N. Ash, Spyros Kyperountas,

Alfred O. Hero III, Randolph L. Moses, and Neiyer S. Correal.

If all sensors were capable of high-power transmission, they would be able to make
measurements to multiple reference nodes. However, low-capability, energy
conserving devices will not include a power amplifier, will lack the energy necessary
for long-range communication, and may be limited by regulatory constraints on
transmit power. Instead, if wireless sensor networks, and thus localization techniques,
were multi-hop, i.e., sensors communicating with their nearest sensors to localize and
transmit the information to the sensor of our interest (a.k.a. cooperative localization).

Unknown-location devices make measurements with other unknown-location devices.

The information gained from these measurements between pairs of unknown-location
devices determines and controls the accuracy and robustness of the localization system.

The use of the coordinates of sensors can reduce routing tables and simplify routing
algorithms. For the purposes of routing efficiency, actual geographical coordinates may
be less useful than virtual coordinates (i.e., a representation of a sensors location
in the graph of network connectivity)
 The virtual coordinate estimation problem is a dimension reduction problem that inputs
each sensors connectivity or RSS measurement vector and outputs a virtual coordinate
in an arbitrary low dimension, optimized to minimize a communication cost metric.

3. An Algorithmic Approach to Wireless Sensor Networks Localization Using

Rigid Graphs, Shamantha Rai B and Shirshu Varma

This paper is on how to estimate the position of coordinates of Wireless Sensor Network
nodes using the concept of Rigid Graphs. The range based localization approaches use
the distance information measured by the RSSI, which is prone to noise, due to eects
of path loss, shadowing, and so forth. They used Trilateration for localization by using
distance and other additional information and Rigid Graph theory is used to find
whether the WSN is uniquely localized or not.

They consider that the WSN localization problem is more or less similar to the
Euclidean graph realization problem, where the edge length of the corresponding two
vertices and distance calculated from the coordinates of the two vertices must be equal.
The assumption is that, if a graph G, of the WSN is uniquely realizable, then the WSN
can be localizable. Rigid graphs are used as they are more efficient than other graph
theory related distance measurement localization techniques because their distances
remain intact with homogeneous coordinate transformations.

Research is carried on analysing whether the given WSN graph is able to be localized
based on certain graph theoretical properties and formal analysis and this process is
named the localizability analysis.

Challenges are: the localization algorithms developed using rigid graphs can be either
centralized or distributed. Centralized algorithms developed provide accurate location
estimates but are having issues related to scalability, large amount of computational
complexity, and low reliability as compared to distributed algorithms.

4. Space-Time Hierarchical-Graph Based Cooperative Localization in

Wireless Sensor Networks, Tiejun Lv, Hui Gao, Xiaopeng Li, Shoshi Yang
& Lajos Hang.

This paper presents a space-time hierarchical-graph based scheme exhibiting fast

convergence is proposed for localizing the agent nodes. In contrast to conventional
methods, here agent nodes are divided into different layers with the aid of the space-
time hierarchical-model and their positions are estimated gradually. An information
propagation rule is developed and followed, considering the quality of positional
information. According to this rule, the information always propagates from the upper
layers to a certain lower layer and the message passing process is further optimized at
each layer and by doing this, the potential error propagation can be reduced. In this
method, both estimation and position broadcasting are carried out by the sensor nodes.
 Several algorithms and their advantages and disadvantages over each other were
discussed and concludes that a non-Bayesian cooperative positioning, soft threshold
aided with Bootstrap percolation approach improves the localization performance. To
achieve better results a novel Nonparametric Belief Propagation (NBP) based
cooperative localization, more specifically a space-time hierarchical-graph based
description of the Wireless network is proposed. This method again relies on the
Bootstrap percolation philosophy for implementing the NBP based cooperative
localization. Here the nodes are divided into layers and the localization is carried out
layer by layer. A specific activation mechanism is proposed, which enables the
activated nodes to estimate and broadcast their position and other information, while
other inactive nodes remain silent to save energy.

5. Graph-Based Semi-Supervised Learning for Indoor Localization Using

Crowdsourced Data, Liye Zhang, Shahrokh Valaee, Yubin Xu, Lin Ma and
Farhang Vedadi.

This paper proposes Indoor Localization Solutions based on Crowdsourcing. First the
drawbacks of simple Crowdsourcing solutions are discussed - such as: large number of
devices and less RSS values. Then methods to eliminate these errors are defined - such
as: Linear Regression algorithm to eliminate the signal variations across the devices
and Graph based Semi-Supervised Learning(G-SSL) method to correlate the RSS
values at the nearby locations to estimate an optimal RSS value at each location. To
know the Access Points(APs) locations, Compressed Sensing(CS) method has been
proposed.

To reduce the workload in the Fingerprinting method of Localization, Crowdsourcing

techniques are used. But it is shown that because of the differences in the devices used
in the crowd, there could be an RSS difference of about 25db across various devices
and the unknown locations of the APs are challenges faced. Then, Signal Processing
techniques to estimate the location of AP are referred to and Linear Regression
algorithm was used to eliminate the device diversity problem. Since the spatial
distribution of the Aps is sparse, Compressed Sensing method is used to precisely
estimate the location of the APs. With these solutions implemented, RSS difference
aware G-SSL(RG-SSL) method is proposed to smoothen the radio map and finally the
sparsity of the graph is discussed and RSS difference Sparse G-SSL method(RSG-SSL)
method is used to obtain better RSS smoothing and Localization values.

A Low-Cost and Accurate Indoor Localization Algorithm Using Label

Propagation Based Semi-Supervised Learning

This paper proposes localization using label propagation using semi supervised
learning, to reduce the effort in offline phase. Deterministic
techniques build such a mapping function by assuming a
signal propagation model based on properties of electromagnetic fields. These signal-
propagation models often
cannot accurately describe a realistic environment due to
uncertainly in the devices and the obstacles in the signal
paths. Probabilistic techniques are often more accurate by
directly handling the uncertainty. To overcome all these shortcomings Label
propagation algorithm is used. It works by representing unlabelled and labelled data
as vertices of a graph. In the algorithm, label information of any vertex in a
graph is propagated to nearby vertices through weighted
edges until a global stable stage is achieved. Larger edge
weights allow label to travel through easier. Signal strength is collected and only 10%-
20% of the data is labelled.

Improving Wi-Fi based Indoor Positioning

using Particle Filter based on Signal
Strength

This paper mainly uses Particle filter to minimize the fluctuation in RSS. Usage of WIFI
is given because now a days everyone using Wifi. RSS is matched with suitable
neighbour in the database in a manner that is governed by least Euclidean distance
between current RSS and grid fingerprints during the online phase. Particle filter is
previously used in visual tracking. Particle filter is probabilistic tracking solution.

Indoor Positioning and Distance-aware

Graph-based Semi-supervised Learning
Method
Analyse the G-SLL scheme and show that, despite its high performance, the G-SSL
method (in its original format) is not a very accurate model for a
localization problem. Based on this observation and to improve
the accuracy of localization, we propose an alternative approach
which incorporates our knowledge of wireless signal propagation
into the label propagation mechanism. RFID can be another alternative but its cost of
deployment marks for its drawback. G-SSL, it is assume
that we have access to a large number of RSS measurements
(collected from different locations), where except for a few of
them, we do not know the actual location of the measurements
DG-SSL uses two estimators.