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Vector, Grad, Div, Curl PDF
Vector, Grad, Div, Curl PDF
1 Introduction
A vector is determined by its length and direction. They are usually denoted
with letters with arrows on the top ~a or in bold letter a. We will use arrows.
~a
1
Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and the same direction:
w
~
*
~v
*
~v = w
~
If we are given two points in the space (p1 , p2 , p3 ) and (q1 , q2 , q3 ) then we can
compute the vector that goes from p to q as follows:
~ = [q1 p1 , q2 p2 , q3 p3 ]
pq
For example if you are given the point p = (1, 0, 1) and q = (3, 2, 4) then the
vector joining p and q is:
~ = [3 1, 2 0, 4 1] = [2, 2, 3].
pq
The three principal directions (unitary vectors, vectors of length one) in the space
are
~i = [1, 0, 0],
~j = [0, 1, 0]
1
and
~k = [0, 0, 1]
6
~k
~i
Q
Q ~j
Q
Q
+ Qs
Q
1. Commutative: ~a + ~b = ~b + ~a
~a + ~0 = ~0 + ~a = ~a
and
~a ~a = ~0
~a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] = [a1 , a2 a3 ]
2
1. Distributive 1: (~a + ~b) = ~a + ~b
2. Distributive 2: ( + )~a = ~a + ~a
Then:
|3~a ~b| = 32 + 52 + 92 = 115.
The inner product of the vectors ~a and ~b is a scalar (real number) defined as
follows:
~a ~b = |~a||~b| cos ,
where is the angle between ~a and ~b. If ~a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] and ~b = [b1 , b2 , b3 ], then
the inner product is:
~a ~b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
Observe that
|~a| = ~a ~a = a21 + a22 + a23 ,
and then we can compute the angle between ~a and ~b with the formula:
~a~b a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3
cos = = q q .
|~a||~b| 2 2
a1 + a2 + a3 2 2 2 2
b1 + b2 + b3
~a is orthogonal to ~b ~a ~b = 0
3
The inner product has some properties:
1. Commutative: ~a ~b = ~b ~a
where is the angle between ~a and ~b, and the direction of ~v is perpendicular to
both ~a and ~b and such ~a, ~b, ~v , in this order, form a right-handed triple. (This
means that the determinant of ~a, ~b, ~v is positive).
Geometrically speaking |~a ~b| is the area of the parallelogram with sides ~a
and ~b.
~b
|~a ~b|
-
~a
4
1. If R then (~a ~b) = (~a) ~b = ~a (~b)
3. Anticommutative: ~a ~b = ~b ~a
Then
~b ~c = [0, 0, 1] ~a (~b ~c) = [0, 1, 0],
but
~a ~b = [1, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0] = [0, 0, 0] (~a ~b) ~c = [0, 0, 0]
Geometric interpretation: The absolute value of (~a ~b ~c) is the volume of the
parallelepiped (oblique box) with ~a, ~b and ~c as edges.
5
Example 2 Find the area of the parallelogram with vertices (2, 2, 0), (9, 2, 0),(10, 3, 0),(3, 3, 0).
First, we need to find the vectors joining the vertices (2, 2, 0), (9, 2, 0) and
(2, 2, 0), (3, 3, 0) ((10, 3, 0) is not needed!). We will denote by ~a the vector from
(2, 2, 0) to (9, 2, 0) and ~b the vector from (2, 2, 0) to (3, 3, 0). Then:
~a = [9 2, 2 2, 0 0] = [7, 0, 0]
~b = [3 2, 3 2, 0] = [1, 1, 0].
We know that the area of the parallelogram with edges ~a and ~b is the module of
its vector product:
~ ~ ~
i j k
~a b = 7 0 0 = 7~k = [0, 0, 7],
~
1 1 0
And therefore:
|~a ~b| = 7.
Example 3 Find the area of the triangle with vertices (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and
(0, 0, 1).
To do this, we first compute the area of the the parallelogram that has as
edges the vector joining (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and the vector joining (1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1)
and then we divide by 2.
Then:
~
i ~j ~k
~a ~b = 1 1 0 = ~i + ~j + ~k = [1, 1, 1],
1 0 1
so the area of the parallelogram is:
|~a ~b| = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3.
6
Hence the area of the triangle is 23 .
~a = [4 1, 7 1, 2 1] = [3, 6, 1]
~b = [3 1, 2 1, 3 1] = [2, 1, 0]
~c = [5 1, 4 1, 3 1] = [4, 3, 2].
Then:
3 6 1
~
~a (b ~c) = 2 1 0
= 16.
4 3 2
A vector field F is a function that takes any point in space and assign a vector
to it:
A scalar field f is a function that takes a point in space and assigns a number to
it:
f : From points in the space To real numbers
(x, y, z) f (x, y, z)
7
Example 5 The function
f (x, y, z) = xyz
is a scalar field that assigns to the point in the space (x, y, z) the real number
xyz but the function
x y z
F (x, y, z) = [ p ,p ,p ]
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
is a vector field that assigns to the point in the space (x, y, z) the unit position
x y z
vector [ p ,p ,p ].
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
Definition 1 The gradient of a given scalar field f (x, y, z) is a vector field de-
~ and it is defined as follows:
noted by grad f or f
~ = f f f f f f ~
f , , = ~i + ~j + k
x y z x y z
This notation means that if we have a point in the space (x0 , y0 , z0 ) then
8
Then the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) in the direction of a unit vector ~b is:
D~b f = ~b f,
~ (1)
~a ~
D~a f = f. (2)
|~a|
Please note that equation (??) is equivalent to equation (??) when ~a is a unit
vector. (The two definitions of directional derivative are the same.)
8 12 4
D~a f (2, 1, 3) = = ,
5 5
the minus sign indicates that the function f decreases in the direction of ~a.
9
~ (P ) = grad f (P ) 6= 0,
Remark: If the gradient of f at a point P is not zero f
then it is a vector in the direction of maximum increase of f at P .
S 2 = {(x, y, z) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1}.
Example 7 Find a unit normal vector of the cone of the revolution z 2 = 4(x2 +
y 2 ) at the point P = (1, 0, 2).
In this case:
f (x, y, z) = 4(x2 + y 2 ) z 2
The theorem ensures that the gradient of f at the point (1, 0, 2) is normal to the
cone:
~ = [8x, 8y, 2z],
f
and evaluating it at P
~ (1, 0, 2) = [8, 0, 4].
f
10
~ (1, 0, 2) is not unit vector, so we calculate the unit vector
But we observe that f
~ (1, 0, 2):
in the direction of f
~ (1, 0, 2)
f [8, 0, 4] [8, 0, 4] [2, 0, 1]
=p = =
~ (1, 0, 2)|
|f 82 + (2)2 80 5
~ operator verifies:
Proposition 1 For all f, g smooth scalar fields, the
~ g) = g f
1. (f ~ + f g,
~
~ n = nf n1 f,
2. f ~ for any n N,
~ f ) = 12 (g f
3. ( ~ f g),
~
g g
~ 2 (f g) = g
4. ~ 2 f + 2f
~ g
~ + f
~ 2 g.
Proof:
11
1. By definition of the gradient:
~ g) = [ (f g) , (f g) , (f g) ]
(f
x y z
f g f g f g
= [ g+f , g+f , g+f ]
x x y y z z
using the product rule for partial derivatives
f f f g g g
= [ , , ]g + f [ , , ]
x y z x y z
using linearity of vectors
~ + f g,
= g f ~
~ f ) = 12 (g f
3. For ( ~ f g),
~ use part 1 with f and g1 and recall that
g g
1 = 1 g . (Similarly with the partial derivatives with respect to to y
x g g 2 x
and z).
4. Notice that
2 2 2
~ 2 (f g) =
~ g) = (f g) + (f g) + (f g)
~ (f
x2 y 2 z 2
Furthermore:
2 (f g) 2f
(f g) f g f g g
2 = = g+f = 2g + 2 +f
x x x x x x x x x x
Similarly:
2 (f g) 2f f g g
2 = 2g +2 +f
y y y y y
and
2 (f g) 2f f g g
2 = 2g +2 +f
z z z z z
12
The result follows on adding these three equations together and observing
that
2 2 2
~2= + +
x2 y 2 z 2
and
f g f g f g
f~ ~g = + +
x x y y z z
(Important) Remark: Some vector fields are gradients of scalar fields. This
means that for a vector field F~ we can find a scalar field f called potential of F~
such that
~ = [ f , f , f ].
F~ = f
x y z
In this case we say that F~ is a gradient field.
In the exercises you will be given a vector field and you will be asked to find
a potential for it:
f
F1 (x, y, z) = yz = (3)
x
f
F2 (x, y, z) = xz = (4)
y
and
f
F3 (x, y, z) = xy = (5)
z
then F~ is a gradient field.
If we consider y and z as constants and we integrate with respect to to x equation
(??), we obtain:
Z Z
f
yzdx = dx (6)
x
xyz + C(y, z) = f (x, y, z) (7)
13
This means that if the potential function for F~ exists then it has the shape
of xyz + C(y, z) where C(y, z) is the constant of integration that we have to
determine using equations (??) and (??). (The constant of integration must
depend on y and z because to integrate with respect to x (??) we thought y and
z as constants).
We use now equation (??) to equate with the differential of equation (??)
with respect to y :
f
= (xyz + C(y, z)) = xz
y y
or
xz + C(y, z) = xz,
y
and we conclude that for this equality to hold we need
C(y, z) = 0
y
That is, C(y, z) does not depend on y or C(y, z) could be written as C(z). Now
we use equation (??) and we equate to the derivative with respect to z of equation
(??):
f
= (xyz + C(z)) = xy
z y
or
xy + C(z) = xy,
z
which implies that the constant C(z) does not depend on z so it is just a constant,
C say. We conclude that the potential for F~ is
f (x, y, z) = xyz + C,
C any constant in R.
You can double check that f (x, y, z) = xyz + C verifies that F~ = f
~ .
14
x y z
Example 9 Find a potential for F~ = , ,
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
We need to find a scalar field f (x, y, z) such that:
x f
F1 (x, y, z) = 2 2 2 = (8)
x +y +z x
y f
F2 (x, y, z) = 2 2 2 = (9)
x +y +z y
and
z f
F3 (x, y, z) = 2 2 2 = (10)
x +y +z z
Integrating with respect to x equation (??) we get that if the potential exists
must it be as follows:
1
f (x, y, z) = ln(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + C(y, z). (11)
2
y y
2 2 2 + C(y, z) = 2
x +y +z y x + y2 + z2
which implies that the constant C(y, z) does not depend on y. Similarly dif-
ferentiating equation (??) with respect to z and equating it to equation (??)
we conclude that the constant does not depend on z either and therefore the
potential is:
1
f (x, y, z) = ln(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + C, C R.
2
2. [4x3 , 3y 2 , 6z]
15
The differential operator
2 2 2
~ 2 f = 4f = f + f + f
x2 y 2 z 2
f 2f
= 3x2 + 3z 5 = 6x
x x2
f 2f
= 2y =2
y y 2
f 2f
= 15xz 4 2 = 60xz 3
z z
Hence:
4f = 6x + 2 + 60xz 3 ,
for example:
4f (1, 1, 1) = 6 + 2 + 60 = 68.
16
Sometimes div F~ is denoted by
~ F~ = div F~ ,
~ = [ , , ],
x y z
so we have:
~ F~ = [ , , ] [F1 , F2 , F3 ] = F1 + F2 + F3 ,
x y z x y z
F1
F1 =
x x
F2
F2 =
y y
F3
F3 =
z z
Remark: If f is a scalar field then we have:
div (gradf ) = 4f
or equivalently
~ f
~ = 4f
By definition:
17
4 The Curl of a Vector Field
The Curl of a vector field F~ is another vector defined as the following determinant:
~i ~j ~k
F 3 F 2 F 1 F 3 F 2 F 1 ~k
curl F~ = ~i+ ~j+
=
x y z y z z x x y
F1 F2 F3
Suppose that F~ represents the velocity of a rotating body then curl F~ has the
direction of the axis of rotation and its module is twice the angular speed of the
rotation.
Definition 3 If the curl of a vector field is zero we say that the vector field is
irrotational.
F2 F1
=
x y
F1 F3
=
z x
F3 F2
=
y z
These three equations can be a short way to prove that something is not irrota-
tional without computing the whole determinant:
18
Proof: Using the denition of curl:
~i
~j ~k
f f f
~ ] =
curl f = curl [ , ,
x y z x y z
f f f
x y z
f f ~i + f f ~j + f f ~k
=
y z z y z x x z x y y x
2 2
2f 2f ~ f 2f ~ f 2f ~
= i+ j+ k,
yz zy zx xz xy yx
The result follows since the mixed partial derivatives of a smooth scalar field are
equal.
div (curl F~ ) = 0
Proof:
F3 F2 + F1 F3 + F2 F1
div ( curl F~ ) =
x y z y z x z x y
= 2 F3 2 F2 + 2 F1 2 F3 + 2 F2 2 F1 = 0
xy xz yz yx zx zy
Because if F~ is smooth then F1 , F2 , F3 are smooth (scalar fields) and the mixed
second partial derivatives of F1 , F2 , F3 are equal.
19
Example 14 Compute the curl of the following vector field F~ (x, y, z) = [ex cos y, ex sin y, 0]
~i ~j ~k
curl F~ =
x y z
x
e cos y ex sin y 0
(ex sin y) ~ (ex cos y)~ (ex cos y) ~ (ex sin y)~
= k+ j k i
x z y z
= (ex sin y ex ( sin y))~k = [0, 0, 2ex sin y]
20