Master of Science Thesis

Detection limits and

quantification of 60Co with gamma
camera and handheld gamma
detectors in human phantoms

Mats Hansson

Supervisor: Christopher Rf
and Sren Mattsson

The work has been performed at

Medical Radiation Physics
Malm University Hospital

Medical Radiation Physics

Clinical Sciences, Lund
Lund University, 2008
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 3
MATERIAL ......................................................................................................... 4
COBALT-60 ............................................................................................................................. 4
POTASSIUM-40 ........................................................................................................................ 5
IRINA-PHANTOM .................................................................................................................... 5
GR-110 AND GR-135 .............................................................................................................. 6
TARGET NANOSPEC ................................................................................................................. 6
GAMMA CAMERA .................................................................................................................... 6
METHOD ............................................................................................................. 7
MEASURING OF 40K IN IRINA-PHANTOMS .............................................................................. 7
DETECTION LIMIT .................................................................................................................... 7
CALIBRATION OF 60CO IN IRINA-PHANTOMS WITH HANDHELD GAMMA DETECTORS .............. 7
CALIBRATION OF 60CO IN IRINA-PHANTOMS WITH GAMMA CAMERA ..................................... 8
60
CO AND IMAGING WITH GAMMA CAMERA ........................................................................... 10
RESULTS ........................................................................................................... 12
CALIBRATION FACTORS FOR HANDHELD GAMMA DETECTORS ............................................... 12
CALIBRATION FACTORS FOR GAMMA CAMERA ...................................................................... 14
60
CO AND IMAGING WITH GAMMA CAMERA ........................................................................... 17
DISCUSSION..................................................................................................... 19
CALIBRATION OF HANDHELD GAMMA DETECTORS AND GAMMA CAMERA ............................. 19
60
CO AND IMAGING WITH GAMMA CAMERA ........................................................................... 20
COCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 20
CALIBRATION OF HANDHELD GAMMA DETECTORS AND GAMMA CAMERA ............................. 20
60
CO AND IMAGING WITH GAMMA CAMERA ........................................................................... 21
REFERENCE .................................................................................................... 22
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................ 23
HANDHELD GAMMA DETECTORS ........................................................................................... 23
GAMMA CAMERA .................................................................................................................. 26
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INTRODUCTION
This work is a part of larger project granted by the Swedish Radiation Protection Authority
(SSI) that aims to improve and develop the preparedness against accidental and antagonistic
releases and dispersion of radionuclides, such as 60Co, to the environment. Such event could
lead to internal contamination of large groups of people in the community.

In the society radioactive sources occur in different context for example in medical services,
science and industries. The total activity of 60Co sources in Sweden approved by the SSI is,
1368 TBq in medical service, 574 TBq in universities and 245 TBq in industries (Lund, 2006
(1)
). In addition to these sources the nuclear power industries produce large amounts of 60Co as
a result of neutron capture of 59Co in the construction material in the reactor building. The
waterborne discharge of 60Co from a nuclear power plant in Sweden is between 7.6 11 GBq
per GWa (Holm, 1994 (2)). In the nuclear power plant accident scenario and in the terrorist act
scenario where 60Co could be dispersed to the environment the risk of humans becoming
internally contaminated is considerable. In such scenarios there is a need for screening of
potential 60Co uptake in individuals. Rapid methods must therefore be developed to swiftly
determine uptakes of radionuclides in-vivo. This means that the possibility to use and detect
radionuclides with equipments used in hospital and in research must be explored.

The aim of this work is to find the lowest detectable activity of 60Co for various human body
sizes, and to find a calibration factor for different detector systems using a human like
phantom called IRINA. The detector systems investigated are a Siemens Multispect gamma
camera with a field of view of 21 x 15 in. and three types of handheld gamma detectors; GR-
110 and GR-135 manufactured by Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) and
Target Nanospec manufactured by ICx Technologies. The advantage of using a gamma
camera is that the detection limit is lower than for handheld radiation instrument and the
quantification of the uptake can be more accurately measured in terms of organ uptake,
provided the resolution in the imaging system is sufficient. Body uptakes of 57Co are possible
to locate with most conventional gamma camera due to its primary photon energies of 122
and 137 keV. The nuclide 60Co on the other hand poses a challenge due to its high primary
photon energies, whose full energy peaks cannot be directly detected by most gamma
cameras.

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MATERIAL

Cobalt-60
60
Co is produced by thermal neutron activation of 59Co. 60Co decays to stable 60Ni through
emission of --particles with maximum energy of 95.8 keV, together with subsequent
emission of mainly characteristic X-ray, Auger-electrons and gamma photons. The two most
probably gamma photon emission from 60Co have the energy 1332 keV with 100 %
probability per decay and 1173 keV with 99.8 % probability per decay (Fig 1). The physical
half-life of 60Co is 5.26 years. In this work the decay of 60Co have been detected by measuring
the two strongest gamma photons when using handheld gamma detectors, which are designed
to detect photon energies in the range from about 30 keV and up to 3000 keV. For gamma
camera measurements non-primary photons from 60Co in the energy range between 50-535
keV have been detected because of the limited detectably of photon energy above 535 keV for
the particular gamma camera set up.

Fig 1. The energy level schedule for gamma energy emitted from 60Co. The gamma energy of 1173 keV is
symbolized by 3 and gamma energy of 1332 keV is symbolized by 4 in the schedule (MIRD, 2007 (3)).

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Potassium-40

In the human adult body 40K occurs naturally with an activity of 3000-6000 Bq. That quantity
of 40K contributes to the yearly effective dose by about 170 Sv (UNSCEAR 1993 REPORT
(4)
). When 40K decay it emits a photon with the energy 1460.8 keV, and with a 10.86 %
probability per decay. 40K decay to 40Ca in 89.14% of the event and to 40Ar in 10.86% of the
event (Fig 2). The half-life of 40K is 1.248*109 years.

Fig 2. The figure shows the energy level schedule for 40K decay when the isotope decay to stable 40Ar. 40K can
also decay to stable 40Ca (MIRD, 2007(5)).

IRINA-phantom

The IRINA-phantom is commonly used for calibration of whole body-counting and in in-vivo
measurements of low activity sources in humans. SSI owns the phantom together with the
other radiation protection authorities in Scandinavia. The IRINA-phantoms are composed of
polyethylene blocks, with attenuating properties comparable to human tissue and can be set-
up into various sizes. There are six different standard sizes representing different human size
in the weight range between 12-110 kg (Table 1). All occurring sizes have been used in this
study. Each phantom size can be combined in three different geometry; standing/lying, sitting
and sitting bend position (also called Palmer geometry). There are two different sizes of the
blocks, 16,5 cm x 11 cm x 5,5 cm and 16,5 cm x 11 cm x 2,5 cm. The polyethylene blocks
have two cylindrical holes in witch rod shaped radioactive sources can be placed. The
phantom is delivered with a set of 60Co, 137Cs and 40K rods. These sources occur in two
different activities for each radionuclide with present-day (2006-11-10) activity for 60Co of
129 Bq and 64.5 Bq and for 40K it is 40 Bq and 20 Bq. The manufactures declare that the
uncertainty of the activity of the sources is 0.5%. The rods are 163 mm long and with a
diameter of 6 mm. Scientific and Technical Centre Protection Ltd in St Petersburg
manufactures the phantom. For further information contact Inger stergren at SSI.

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Table 1. Mass of standard-sizes of the IRINA-phantom and corresponding human body mass.
Phantom Mass of phantom Corresponding human Corresponds to a person at
index [kg] weight [kg] age [year]
P1 10.6 12 1
P2 20.9 24 6
P3 40.9 50 14
P4 61.5 70 Adult
P5 77.8 90 Adult
P6 95.2 110 Adult

GR-110 and GR-135

The GR-110 and the GR-135 are two handheld gamma detectors, which are used for search
after radioactive sources both indoors and outdoors and for determination of contaminated
surface and persons. The detector in the GR-110 unit consists of a PM-tube with a 1,5 x 1,5 x
2 in. NaI(Tl)-crystal. The display unit has three detections modes; i.) count rate averaged over
1 second sampling time with energy response from 45 keV to 3.0 MeV, ii.) count rate
averaged over 10 seconds sampling with energy response from 45 keV to 3.0 MeV and iii.) 1
seconds sampling count rate with high-energy threshold with energy response from 0.4 MeV
to 3.0 MeV (SACITM, 2007 (6)). The GR-135 has the same function as GR-110 but has also
capability to collect and store -spectra. The spectral capability combined with a set-up of
nuclide libraries in the internal memory enable identification of different gamma emitting
radionuclides. The GR-135 has also the capability to estimate the dose rate in terms of
ambient dose equivalent (ICRU Report 51, 1993 (7)). Two types of detectors exist as standard
in the GR-135; one PM-tube with a 1.5 x 2.2 in. NaI(Tl)-crystal and one G-M tube. The
energy response for the GR-135 is from 30 keV to 3.0 MeV (SACITM, 2007 (8)).

Target Nanospec

The Target Nanospec is a handheld gamma detector and used within the same applications as
GR-110 and GR-135 and has the same functions as GR-135; such as pulse-, dose-rate and -
spectrometry to allow identifying gamma-emitting radionuclides. The dose-rate (in terms of
ambient dose equivalent) auto-scale ranges from 5 nSv/h to 0.5 mSv/h. The number of
channels in the detector is 2048. The detector in the Target Nanospec consists of a PM-tube
with a 3 x 3 in. NaI-crystal. The high voltage in the PM-tube is in the range of 50-1200 V
(Target instrumentsTM, 2007 (9)).

Gamma camera

The gamma camera used in this work is a ten years old, two headed, Siemens Multispect
gamma camera. It is used in the daily work on the Department of Clinical Physiology at
UMAS mostly for skeletal scintigrams. The size of the field of view is 21 x 15 in. and the size
of the crystal is 23 x 17.4 in. with a crystal thickness of 0.37 in. The number of PM-tubes per
detectors is 59 and the PM-tubes occur in two sizes 3 in. and 2 in. respectively. The shielding
material of the detectors is made of lead. The shielding thickness in the back of the detector is
0.4 in. and in the sides 0.4 to 0.7 in. and is sufficient for detection of gamma photons with
energies up to 511 keV, in connection with measurements of + emitting radionuclides.

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METHOD

Measuring of 40K in IRINA-phantoms

The human body of an adult consist of about 3000-5000 Bq 40K. The 40K contents contribute
to the total number of pulses in the detector when performing in-vivo measurement. The
empty IRINA-phantom consists of no 40K. Because of the low activity of the 40K sources it
was not possible to simultaneously determine the calibration factors, using the full activity of
40
K and 60Co in the phantom. To examine how much the pulses from 40K contribute to the
total count rate in the different detector systems the phantom was therefore measured with an
activity of 4000 Bq 40K and compared to readouts without activity.

The contribution from 4 kBq of 40K in the IRINA-phantom to the total background count rate
was found to be less then 1% for the GR-135 unit, and slightly above 1% for the gamma
camera using a 5 minute acquisition time and 145-535 keV energy window.

Detection limit

The average background rate and its standard deviation were calculated for various detector
set-ups and phantom sizes. The detection limit has been defined as the activity of 60Co
corresponding to a net signal count rate of 3 times the standard deviation of the background
count rate. Minimum detection activity (MDA) has been estimated for various sizes and for
the different detector systems used in the study (Eq. 1);

1 n
SD( Bkg )
n 1 i 1
( Bi B) 2
MDA 3 Eq. 1
w

-where (w) is the calibration factor [cps/Bq], dependent on body size w [kg], and B [cps] is
the background count rate of the detector-phantom set-up with no 60Co activity. The standard
deviation of the background count rate for the different detectors is based on 20
measurements, measured at various occasions.

Calibration of 60Co in IRINA-phantoms with handheld gamma detectors

Phantoms calibration geometries for handheld gamma detectors

Two different body uptakes of 60Co were simulated using the IRINA-phantom; uptake in the
lung volume and uptake in the abdomen volume. The measurements were done with handheld
gamma detectors GR-110, GR-135 and Target Nanospec. The measuring time was 3 min. for
the GR-110 with 1 second sampling time. The highest and loves value were recorded and the
mean value were used in the calibration. The measuring time for the GR-135 was also 3 min.
with 60 second sampling time. The highest and loves value were recorded and the mean value
were used. For the Target Nanospec 10 min. sampling time were used. For both the lung- and
the abdomen- volume the total gamma count rate [cps], was recorded for all three detectors.
Lying bed geometry was used for the phantom calibrations. The different detectors had a
well-defined position on the phantoms for each measuring series (Fig 3). The measuring was
taking place in the basement of the DC-building at UMAS. Each measuring series, for a given
phantom geometry and detector set-up, started with measuring of the background count rate.
The background count rate value for the different detectors was; for the GR-110 between 150-

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173 cps, for the GR-135 152-163 and for the Target Nanospec the corresponding value was
564-592. The dos rate measured with GR-135 was around 110 nS/h. The background count
rate is higher in the basement then in the rest of the DC-building. Up-take geometries in a
human body have been simulated by filling selected blocks of the phantom with rod shaped
60
Co sources, containing 65 Bq or 130 Bq. Various levels of up-take activities were simulated
by filling more and more blocks in the volume of interest, starting with the dorsal blocks and
then subsequently filling blocks near to the abdominal surface.

Fig 3. The detector positioned on top of the phantom P1.

Calibration of 60Co in IRINA-phantoms with gamma camera

The choice of the measuring time

When choosing the length of the measuring time, different factors have been taking in
account. In a scenario when many people needing a rapid examination of the internal activity
contents the measuring time should be chosen short but not shorter then it gives satisfactory
counting statistic. In this study the measure time have been set to 300 sec. That measuring
time gives sufficient counts statistic. The background pulses in hole field of vive were around
70000 pulses. The recorded pulses were divided with the measure time and the cps was given.
This was done for both background measure and for measure with activity in the phantom.

Optimisation of counting efficiency of gamma camera

The upper energy limit of the gamma camera was 535 keV and was not adjustable. Therefore,
to determine the most advantageous energy window in consideration to signal to background
ratio (gross pulses-Bkg pulses)/Bkg pulses, (G-B)/B, the upper energy limit was fixed and set
to the upper energy limit of the gamma camera. By lowering the energy windows lower limit
in steps (in our case approximately 20% relative decrease) and by recording the count rates
for each energy window with and with out activity of 60Co, it was possible to identify the
energy window with the maximum signal to background ratio (Fig 4). The activity, 1040 Bq,
was placed in eight large blocks from the IRINA-phantom. The determination of the signal to
background ratio for the different energy window was carried out with no collimator, and the
acquired signal was collected in the whole field of view.

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0,29

0,27

Signal to bkg ratio 0,25

0,23

0,21

0,19

0,17

0,15
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
The energy window lower limit [keV]

Fig 4. Signal to background ratio as a function of lower end of the energy window. The upper energy limit is
fixed at 535 keV. The source strength is 8*130 Bq =1040 Bq 60Co and placed in polyethylene blocks. The
deviating value at 305 keV. A possible explanation of deviating value at 305 keV is giving in the discussion part.

Phantom calibration geometries for gamma camera

When calibrating 60Co uptakes in lung and abdomen using the IRINA-phantoms and the
Siemens gamma camera, the built up of activity in the simulated uptake volumes was carried
out in same way as for handheld radiation detectors. However, for phantom sizes P1-P3 the
lung and abdomen volume were measured together as one volume. The upper head of the
gamma camera was placed 10-12 cm above the middle chest block of the phantom and the
lower head was placed 5 cm below the bunk. The calibration measurements were done
without collimator and the measuring time was set to 5 minutes. The time was chosen short
because of the scenario where this type of measuring would bee used in is a scenario with lot
of suspected internal contaminated person who need a rapid examination. Two measurements
series with different width of the energy window were made. The width of the two energy
windows was 145-535 keV and 385-535 keV, respectively. Both with out collimator. A lower
signal to the background ratio was observed when using the broadest energy window.

Detection limit for IRINA- phantom and gamma camera

The determination of the detection limit for the gamma camera was done in the same way as
for the handheld radiation protection instruments (Eq. 1). The background pulses were
recorded with the different phantoms empty of activity, 4 times per phantom geometry, from
which the standard deviation in the background count rate was estimated. The background
count rate for the 145-535 keV energy window was between 1731-1864 cps and for the 385-
535 keV energy window the corresponding value was 201-230 cps. The determination of the
background count ratio was carried out with no collimator.

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60
Co and imaging with gamma camera

The potential advantage of using a gamma camera in quantifying accidental uptake of radio-
nuclides is that the organ uptake can be imaged and that uptake organs are identified more
accurately than using handheld radiation detection instruments. However, when using a
clinical gamma camera for imaging with 60Co, the upper end of the energy window is at
maximum 500-600 keV, which is not sufficiently high to detect the two primary photon
energy of 60Co; 1173 keV and 1332 keV, respectively. This unable imaging using the primary
photons and therefore other methods must be used.

Test of alternative detection of 60Co by gamma camera

Three different methods for obtaining an uptake image of 60Co have been tested; i) measuring
of the two 180o-backscatter peaks and the two double escape peaks of the two primary
photons, ii) measuring only the two 1800-backscatter peaks, iii) measuring all pulses in a
energy interval between 145-535 keV.

The 180o-backscatter peaks originate from primary photons interacting in different material in
the camera head and in the roof and floor and subsequently are scattered 180o. The double
escape peaks come from photons which have interacted by pair production in the crystal and
where the two annihilations photons, of 511 keV each, from the positron escape from the
detector. The energy deposited in the detector is the kinetic energy of the electron and the
positron. High-energy collimators have been used when performing imaging tests in order to
discriminate pulses originating from photons emitted oblique against the crystal and to
discriminate secondary photons. But the thickness of a high-energy collimator is not enough
for discriminate a fourth of the primary incoming photon flux. Photons the collimator is
designed to discriminate do not carry any information about the position of where they have
been emitted from, and should be minimised when acquiring a gamma emission image. The
half-way value for primary photons from 60Co is 16 cm (Radionuclide and radiation
protection data handbook, 2002 (13)).

Backscatter peaks
The energy deposit in the gamma camera crystal in a 180o-backscatter peak event for 1173
keV photons is (Knoll, 1999 (10)):

1 1
h h 1173keV 210keV ,
1 2 1 2 1173keV 511keV

And for the 1332 keV photon the energy deposit is:

1 1
h h 1332keV 214keV ,
1 2 1 2 1332keV 511keV

where = hv/moc2, the energy of the incoming photon divided by the rest energy of an
electron.

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Double escape peak

The energy deposit in the gamma camera crystal in a double escape peak event for 1173 keV
photon is:

Ee h 2 m0 c 2 1173keV 2 511keV 148keV ,

And for the 1332 keV photon the energy deposit is:

Ee h 2 m0 c 2 1332keV 2 511keV 308keV ,

The problem with the 180o-backscatter peak is the low probability of such Compton
interaction at theses energy levels of the 60Co primary photons. The drawback of using the
double escape peak is that the probability for pair production is low and the detector may be
too large to transmit (let escape) the annihilation photons with sufficient probability to
provide acceptable counting statistics in the images.

Methods
When performing the measurements the upper camera head was placed directly close to the
location of the source and the lower head was placed at the end point of the gantry,
approximately 40 cm from the source. The following three settings of the energy windows
were examined; i) Summed counts in 140-160 keV, 205-225 keV and 300-320keV; ii) Only
205-225 keV; and iii) 140-535 keV. Acquisition time of the gamma camera was set to count to
100,000 pulses. The 60Co source was placed in a metal can with a diameter of 12 cm which
the sources was filling up, the total activity was 30 kBq. No scattering material was used.

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RESULTS

Calibration factors for handheld gamma detectors

Detectors response of 60Co activity

The relation between the net count rate and the level of 60Co activity in lung using IRINA-
phantom P6 and GR-110 is illustrated in Fig 5. By fitting a straight line to the points and
trough origin, a linear expression could be obtained and used as calibrations factor between
the detector read-out and to the corresponding 60Co activity in the organs. The goodness of fit,
R2, varied between 0.72-0.97.

25

y = 0,0067x
20
R2 = 0,8866
Cps over the background

15

10

0
0 1000 2000 3000
Activity in the phantom [Bq]

Fig 5. The total net count rate measured with GR-135 as a function of the activity in the IRINA-phantom P3
abdomen which correspond to an person of weight 50 kg. The fitted line passed trough the origin. There is no
explanation to the two differing points at 780 Bq and 1300 Bq.

From the linear regression the calibration factor is given (Eq. 2).

A k N A 0.00671 N 149 N Eq. 2

Where A is the activity [Bq] of 60Co in the specific organs, N is the net. count rate [cps] and k
is the calibration factor [Bq/cps].
This calibration procedure was repeated for all the detectors and phantom sizes, giving a total
of 12 calibrations. Only ten of the factors are represented in Table 7 in the Appendix. The
calibration factors for P1 for the different detectors are excluded because the summed activity
of the 60Co rods inserted in the phantom did not reach the MDA. The MDA calculated
according to Eq. 1 for the different detectors is presented in appendix Table 8. In Fig 6 the
calibration factors are plotted as a function of the weight of the IRINA-phantoms P2-P6

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measured with GR-135. In Fig 10 and Fig 11 in the Appendix corresponding plots for the GR-
110 and Target Nanaospec are shown.

In order to make the calibration factors easy to handle for a potential user in an emergency
situation, the ten different calibration factors for a given handheld radiation detector are
reduced to four calibration factors. The grouping of the calibration factors are made in the
following way (Table 2); one single calibration factor for lung and abdomen uptake in the P2-
phantom, one single calibration factors for lung and abdomen uptakes in the P3-phantom, one
calibration factors for the lung uptakes in the P4-P6-phantoms and finally one calibrations
factors for abdominal uptakes for P4-P6-phantoms.

The P2- and P3-phantom calibration factors represent children and therefore should be
separated from the calibration factors representing adults. The P4-P6-phantom lung volumes
have one common calibration factor and P4-P6 abdomen volumes have also one common
calibration factor. The calibrations factors for P6 lung volume is more close to the calibrations
factors for P4 abdomen than to P4 lung (Fig 6) but have not been grouped in order to avoid
confusion for the user.

600

500 Lung
Calibrations factors k [Bq/cps]

Abdomen
400

300

200

100

0
0 40 80 120
Corresponding human wight [kg]

Fig 6. The calibration factors for the IRINA-phantom P2-P6 lung and abdomen volume plotted as a function of
the mass of the phantom measured with GR-135. The plot shows that the resolution in the measuring is not good
enough for make a clear distinguish between calibrating factors for uptake in the lung and in the abdomen in
person weighting less then 70 kg.

For that reason, instead of 10 calibration factors for each detector it appears to be sufficient
with only 4 calibration factors. The largest difference between the calibration factors that have
been brought together giving a rough estimation of the error of the activity estimation and the
largest value constitute as the error for all calibrations factors for the specific detector.

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Table 2. The calibration factors, k, [Bq/cps] for 60Co in IRINA-phantoms with handheld gamma detectors.
w=corresponding human weight [kg]. By using Eq. 2 the activity in the contaminated person is possible to
estimate. The error estimation is presented beside calibration factors in percent.
GR-110 GR-135 Target Nanospec
Phantom w Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index [kg] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps]
P2 24 43 40% 130 32% 22 30%
P3 50 115 40% 160 32% 38 30%
P4-P6 70- 150 40% 260 40% 200 32% 400 32% 50 30% 90 30%
110

Detection limit for IRINA-phantom and handheld gamma detectors

The detection limit has been calculated according to Eq. 1, and is dependent of the phantom
size. For lung and abdomen uptakes in children (P2) the MDA for all three handheld detector
system is about 1 kBq, but increases to 2 kBq or more at large sizes (Table 3). The difference
is attributed mainly to increased self-absorption.

Table 3. MDA [Bq] for 60Co in IRINA-phantoms with handheld gamma detectors and different IRINA-phantom
sizes and uptake volumes; lung, L, and abdomen, A.
GR-110 GR-135 Target Nanospec
Phantom Corresponding Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index human weight [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq]
[kg]
P2 24 810 1100 700
P3 50 2100 1500 1200
P4-P6 70-110 2800 4800 1800 3600 1500 2700

Calibration factors for gamma camera

Calibrations factor for IRINA-phantom and gamma camera

Calibration factors were obtained in a similar way as for handheld detectors. A straight line
passing through the origin could be fitted with higher correlation then for hand held detectors,
R2-value varying between 0.96-0.99. From the linear regression the calibration factors and the
detection limit are obtained in the same way as for handheld detectors.

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 600 2

500 y = 0,1524x
R2 = 0,9894

400

Net count rate 300

200

100

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Activity in the phantom [Bq]
Fig 7. The total net count rate measured with the gamma camera as a function of the activity in the IRINA-
phantom P3, lung and abdomen volume, which corresponds to a person of weight 50 kg. A straight line is fitted
to the points and passes trough origin in the plot.

In Table 9the calibration factors for the different phantoms are presented. In the Fig 8the
calibration factors are plotted as a function of the mass of the weight of the IRINA-phantoms
with a energy window between 145-535 keV. Similary calibration values are observed for
phantom sizes P1-P3 (both lung and abdomen volume) and phantom P4-P6 (lung volume
only). Because of P1-P3 simulating children the calibration factors should be seperated from
the calibration factors for P4-P6 lung volume. For that reason the calibration factors are
grouped in three, one group with a common calibration factor for; i.) P2-P3 lung and
abdomen, ii.) P4-P6 lung volume and iii.) P4-P6 abdomen volume.

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Calibration factors k [Bq/cps] 12

10

P1-P3 LA
2
P4-P6 L
P4-P6 A
0
0 40 80 120
Corresponding human wight [kg]

Fig 8. The calibration factors for the IRINA-phantom P1-P6 lung uptake, L, and abdomen uptake, A, volume
plotted as a function of the mass of the phantom with an energy window between 145-535 keV.

The largest difference between the calibration factors for P1-P3 lung and abdomen and P4-P6
lung volume is about 25 % using an energy window width of 385-535 keV. The
corresponding number for energy window width of 145-535 keV is 16 %. Those numbers can
be considered as a rough estimation of the uncertainty of the activity calibration. The error
based of the counting statistic is less then 1.2 % for Irina-phantom P1 with an energy window
width of 385-535 keV and with an activity in the phantom of 780 Bq the corresponding figure
with a energy window of 145-535 keV is less then 1 %. The new calibration factors for the
grouped phantom sizes are given from the mean value of the original calibrations factors.

Table 4. Calibration factors, k, [Bq/cps] for 60Co in IRINA-phantom with gamma camera measured with two
different width of the energy window. By using Eq. 2 the activity in the contaminated person is possible to
estimate. The error estimation is presented beside calibration factors in percent.
145-535 keV 385-535 keV
Phantom Corresponding Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index human weight [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps]
[kg]
P1-P3 12-50 6.7 16% 40 25%
P4-P6 70-110 6.7 16% 10 16% 40 25% 53 25%

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Table 5. MDA [Bq] for calibration factors for 60Co in IRINA-phantom measured with two different width of the
energy window.
145-535 keV 385-535 keV
Phantom Corresponding Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index human weight [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq]
[kg]
P1-P3 12-50 880 1600
P4-P6 70-110 880 1400 1600 2100
60
Co and imaging with gamma camera

Imaging acquired with three different energy windows are shown in Fig 9. The ratio between
the pulses per pixel in the hot area and the cold area was found to be the same fore the
different images (Table 6). The left images have been acquired with the upper camera head
close to the source and the right images have been acquired with the camera head at a distance
of 40 cm from the source. There is no significant difference in the signal-to-background ratio
between the three energy window settings.

a)

b)

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c)

Fig 9. In image a) Three energy windows are summed, 140-160 keV, 205-225 keV and 300-320keV. b)
Backscatter peak energy window, 205-225 keV. c) Wide open energy window, 145-535 keV. The 60Co-source
was filling up a can with a diameter of 12 cm.

Table 6. The ratio between pulses per pixel in the hot area and in the cold area with the upper camera head close
to the source and with the camera at a distance at approximately 40 cm form the source.
a) sum of three energy b) one energy window c) wide open energy window
window
Close Distance Close Distance Close Distance
2.3 1.4 2.4 1.4 2.3 1.4

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DISCUSSION

Calibration of handheld gamma detectors and gamma camera

Positioning of the detectors

When performing an in-vivo measurement with handheld detectors it is important that the
detector is positioned over the volume of interest (where uptake of activity is suspected to be),
because of the 1/r2-decrease (inverse squared distance) of the photon flux. The same is valid
for measuring with a gamma camera; the uptake volume should be placed in the middle of the
field of view of the two heads of the gamma camera. However, the effect of an off-centred
source localisation in the field of view is lower for the gamma camera then for handheld
detectors. The uptake volume can be outlined by moving a handheld detector in axial- and
radial direction over the phantom or the lying person.

The effect of the width of the energy window in gamma camera examinations
The width of the energy window has a crucial importance for the calibration factors, since a
broad energy window registers pulses from a wider range of photon energies, both from the
background and from scattered radiation originating from the 60Co activities in-vivo. This
means that the calibration factors determined here are only valid for the specified energy
windows.

The width of the energy window, 145-535 or 385-535 keV, affects the calibration factors and
is 5-6 times higher when using broad energy window. The detection limit was higher for the
energy window of 385-535 keV, even if the signal to background ratio was better. The reason
for that is probably that with a broader energy window the pulse statistic is improved (Table
4).

The number of the calibration factors

A larger number of calibration factors were defined for the handheld radiation instruments.
The reason is that the handheld radiation instruments are less influenced by the photon flux
from peripheral sources in the volume, due to the 1/2r-decrease of the photon flux from
peripheral sources. In the gamma camera there are two detector-heads with a field of view of
21 x 15 in. That results in a less sensitivity to source geometries. Sources, which are deep in
the phantom from one detector view, are close to the surface in the phantom in the other
detector view.
Because of the reason that the number of pulses recorded in the gamma camera are divided by
the time the calibration factors for the gamma camera can be use for other measureing times
then 300 sec.

The error of the calibration factors

Predicting the error of the calibration factors has brought some problem when using handheld
gamma detectors. The handheld gamma detectors are not very stable. When making two
measuring series with same handheld gamma detector and with the same parameters the result
could differ up to 15 % and the calibrations factor for a lager phantom size have some time a
lower value compared to a calibration factors for a smaller phantom, see fig. 6 and 11.

The error of the calibrations factors for the gamma camera depends of the fusion of the
different calibrations factors. The gamma camera shows much more stability compared to
handheld gamma detectors. Some of the deviating value measured with the gamma camera

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have probably been introduced by patients how have been injected with radiopharmaca and
visit the outside of the gamma camera room. Later measuring has shown that possibility.

Deviating values in gamma camera measuring

The gamma camera is very stable in sense of reproducible results, wish measuring done after
this work have shown. Deviating values like in fig. 4 could depend on i) incorrect read off of
the values ii) wrong adjusted energy window iii) patients injected with radiopharmaca visiting
the room next door iiii) us of the CT-equipment in the room next door. The check of the
gamma camera log show no incorrect read off of the value giving the deviation in fig. 4.
60
Co and imaging with gamma camera

In the imaging test with the gamma camera 30 kBq of 60Co was placed in a metal can with a
diameter of 12 cm, which the sources was filling up. No additional scattering material. In a
real situation however, with an internally contaminated person on the couch, the ingested 60Co
activity would be surrounded by scattering material; e.g., layers of fatty tissue between the
skin and the GI-tract of the patient. This scattering layer between the source and the camera
then results in a degradation of the image resolution. The activity of the 60Co sources was not
enough to get an organ uptake-image by charging the phantom. In the imaging test a point
source of 60Co should also be used instead of only a 60Co source with a diameter of 12 cm
which was used.

There is a small difference between the three different imaging energy windows with the
camera close to the source (Table 6). The ratio between pulses per pixel in the hot area and
pulses per pixel in the cold area is a somewhat higher when the width of the energy window
is 205-225 keV (around the two backscatter peaks). But the difference is not significant and a
draw back for that energy window setting is that the acquisition time required for the imaging
is 4-5 times longer than for an energy window with a width of 145-535 keV, in order to obtain
the same net counts (corresponding to a similar image contrast). The mane importance to the
intensity difference in the image have to do with i) the distance to the detector, 1/2r-decrease
of the photon flux, ii) the collimator discriminate some part of the photon emitted not
perpendicular to the collimator. For that reason the head of the camera should be placed
closed as possible to the potentially internal contaminated person in attempt to get an image of
the uptake.

CONCLUSION

Calibration of handheld gamma detectors and gamma camera

It appears to be possible to use both handheld radiation detection instruments and gamma
camera systems to quantify 60Co in humans. The calibration factor is valid in a range from
some hundred Bq to some tens of thousand Bq. The detections limit for the gamma camera is
lower than for handheld radiation instruments but ten times higher than for the whole-body
counter at the Department of Medical Radiation Physic in UMAS, Malm. Using a broad
energy window appears to give a lower signal-to-background compared to using a narrow
energy window (Fig 4), but using a broad energy window generate better counting statistic
which leads to a lower MDA.

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The detection limit for the handheld radiation detectors varies from around 1000 Bq to 4500
Bq depending on body size. The upper level of 4.5 kBq 60Co can be translated to an effective
dose of 0.088 mSv (ingested) or 0.044 mSv (inhaled), according to the internal dose
calculation software IMBA-proTM. The effective dose from 4500 Bq 60Co, corresponding to
the MDA for IRINA-phantom (P4-P6 abdomen) measured with GR-110, is less den the
effective dose from 40K that a person receive in a natural way.

When using gamma camera for activity quantification in internal contaminated person a
handheld gamma detector would be placed in the locality where the examinations are taking
place. The handheld gamma detector would bee used for monitoring the external radiation
environment. Because of the low activity in a contaminated person compared to the activity
used in a nuclear medicine department, a low change in the external radiation environment
could influence the result of measuring of contaminated persons. A change in the external
radiation environment could depend on patients injected with radiopharmaca visiting or
passing outside the gamma camera room. Appropriate handheld detector for that use is GR-
110 or GR-135.
60
Co and imaging with gamma camera

It appears to be possible to image an acute 60Co uptake in a human with a clinical used
gamma camera by measuring the scattered radiation. Given that the concentration of
internally incorporated cobalt is assumed to be several times higher in the liver compared to
other organs and tissues in an equilibrium state (Smith et al., 1972(9); Hollins and
McCullough, 1970(10)). It may also be possible to locate a systemic uptake of 60Co after a
period of time when the activity has been re-distributed and equilibrium between plasma and
organs have been established.

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REFERENCE

1
Lund, G. (2006) Swedish radiation protection authority (Statens strlskyddsinstitut).
Personal communication.
2
Holm, E., (1994) Radioecology. Lecture in environmental radioactivity. World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
3
NNDC, National Nuclear Data Center. (2007) Nuclear Decay Data in the MIRD Format,
Brookhaven National Laboratory. Available from:
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/useroutput/60co_mird.html.
4
UNSCEAR 1993 REPORT, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation (1993). Annex A: Exposures from natural sources of radiation.
5
NNDC, National Nuclear Data Center. (2007) Nuclear Decay Data in the MIRD Format,
Brookhaven National Laboratory. Available from:
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/useroutput/40k_mird.html.
6
Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), 10260 Campus Point Drive San
Diego, CA 92121, (2007) Brochure available from: http://www.saic.com/products/security/gr-
110/gr-110 tech.html.
7
ICRU. (1993). International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU
Report 51: Quantities and Units in Radiation Protection Dosimetry
8
Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), 10260 Campus Point Drive San
Diego, CA 92121, (2007) Brochure available from: http://www.saci.com/products/security/gr-
135/gr-135-tech.html.
9
ICx Technologies, Inc. (2007) 1350 I Street, NW Suite 670(2007) Brochure available from:
http://www.target-instruments.com/-media/documents/pdf/products/nanoSPEC.pdf.
10
Knoll, F. G. (2000) Radiation Detection and Measurement, third edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
11
Smith, T., Edmonds, C. J., Barnaby, C. F. (1972) Absorption and retention of cobalt in
man by whole-body counting, Health Physics Pergamon Press. Vol. 22 (April), pp. 359-367.
12
Hollins, J. G. and McCullough, R. S. (1970) Radiation dosimetry of internal contamination
by inorganic compounds of cobalt: an analysis of cobalt metabolism in rats, Health Physics
Pergamon Press. Vol. 21 (August), pp. 233-246.
13
Delacroix, D., Gurerre, J. P., Leblanc, P., Hickman, C., (2002) Radionuclide and radiation
protection data handbook, Radiation protrction dosemitry. Vol. 98 No 1, 2002

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APPENDIX

Handheld gamma detectors

Table 7. Calibration factors, k, [Bq/cps] for 60Co in IRINA-phantom P2-P6 for three types of handheld
detectors. W=corresponding human weight [kg].
GR-110 GR-135 Target Nanospec
Phantom W Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index [kg] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps]
P2 24 37 50 120 130 23 22
P3 50 110 120 180 150 40 38
P4 70 130 210 170 330 43 77
P5 90 140 290 190 430 48 110
P6 110 210 290 250 480 67 91

Table 8. MDA [Bq] for 60Co in IRINA-phantom for the original calibration factors and handheld detectors.
GR-110 GR-135 Target Nanospec
Phantom Corresponding Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index human weight [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq]
[kg]
P2 24 700 930 1100 1200 680 640
P3 50 2100 2200 1600 1300 1200 1100
P4 70 2400 3900 1500 3000 1300 2300
P5 90 2500 5300 1700 3900 1400 3200
P6 110 4000 5500 2300 4300 2000 2700

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350

300
Calibration factors k [Bq/cps]

250
Lung
Abdomen
200

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150
Corresponding human wight [kg]

Fig 10. The calibration factors for the IRINA-phantom P2-P6 lung and abdomen volume plotted as a function of
the mass of the phantom measured with GR-110. The plot shows that the resolution in the measuring is not good
enough for make a clear distinguish between calibrating factors for uptake in the lung and in the abdomen in
person weighting less then 70 kg.

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120

100 Lung
Abdomen
Calibration factors k [Bq/cps]

80

60

40

20

0
0 40 80 120
Corresponding human wight [kg]

Fig 11. The calibration factors for the IRINA-phantom P2-P6 lung and abdomen volume plotted as a function of
the mass of the phantom measured with Target Nanospec. The plot shows that the resolution in the measuring is
not good enough for make a clear distinguish between calibrating factors for uptake in the lung and in the
abdomen in person weighting less then 70 kg.

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Gamma camera

Table 9. Calibration factors, k, [Bq/cps] for 60Co in IRINA-phantom P1-P6 for Siemens gamma camera for two
different energy windows; 145-535 keV and 385-535 keV.
145-535 keV 385-535 keV
Phantom Corresponding Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index human weight [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps] [Bq/cps]
[kg]
P1 12 6.3 38
P2 24 7.1 43
P3 50 6.7 38
P4 70 5.9 10 45 50
P5 90 7.1 10 42 59
P6 110 7.1 10 50 53

Table 10. MDA [Bq] for for the original calibration factors for different phantom sizes with an energy window
between 145-535 kev.
145-535 keV 385-535 keV
Phantom Corresponding Lung Abdomen Lung Abdomen
index human weight [Bq] [Bq] [Bq] [Bq]
[kg]
P1 12 830 1500
P2 24 940 1700
P3 50 880 1500
P4 70 780 1400 1800 2000
P5 90 940 1400 1600 2300
P6 110 940 1400 2000 2100

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70
Calibration factors k [Bq/cps]
60

50

40

30

20
P1-P3 LA
10 P4-P6 L
P4-P6 A
0
0 40 80 120
Corresponding human wight [kg]

Fig 12. The calibration factors for the IRINA-phantom P1-P6 lung, L, and abdomen, A, volume plotted as a
function of the mass of the phantom with an energy window between 385-535 keV.

27