7 ( One tick = 1 Mark. 14. Paschen's Law ¥ Under increasing pressure : Recombination (reverse of ionization) Vdue to increased concentration of positive and negative ions directly proportional fo the gas density (pressure & temperature). 7 Under increasing vacuum - removal of charge carriesv,, increased mean free path before a collision.” 1.2. ADCR =v T ance =( P ).( 101.3. aper = £223 v 273.547 1.3. Point - Plain is the lowest breakdown” Plain — Plain uniformly distributed field stress. ¥ Point ~ Point Field at both points are equally non uniform (Symmetrical stress) Point ~ Plain, Point non uniformity will be greater than point-point due to the ‘Asymmetrical field distribution ~ promotes corona and the corona will penetrate deepest into the field of the geometries 1.4 Cavity Breakdown Occurs due to gas pockets bubbles (or Void) within solid or liquid insulation. When the cavity has significantly lower dielectric property this will distort the electric field thereby increasing the electric field across the stress across The gas also having lower breakdown strength results in a breakdown within the cavity. % Surface discharges” Tracking and Dry band arcing being examples. The presences of conductive Geposits on it insulators leads to sutface discharg2sx~ i the.conductive.d2posits ewe were evenly spread no discharges would take place Treeing’ Occurs in solid insulation” and initiated due to a non uniform electric 2s a result of conductor surface sharp points. Electro chemical erosion init tree like erosion spreading from the conductor surface outwards ~~” id usually tes a* Insulation Interfaces or Insulation Transition boundaries ~ Can occur when more than one insulation type is used of differing dielectric properties e.g. Solid and Air or even when two different solid types are used. ¥ The different dielectric properties (dielectric constant) can lead to the lead fo an increased electric field across the lower dielectric insulation this can result in breakdown of the one insulation only, ~ 1.5. The approximate breakdown strength of air is 3kVimm/ (peak) therefore of 3mm it is SkV(peak)”, * Question = 21. (6) Resistive Componenty’ — Due to the resistivity of the insulation” Polarisation Current” — Polarise and de-polarise the insulation” Partial discharge or lonisation Component ¥~ Due to the partial failure or breakdown within the dielectriov 2.2. (4) Tt Weve front time is 1.2 micro secondv’, T2 Wave tail decay to 50% of peak in 50 micro secondsv’, T1 = 1.87 x (T90% from Virtual Origin ~ T30% from virtual Origin) “. Virtual Origin is where line from T80% to T30% intercepts time axis. T2 from 50% to virtual origin” fer [som ey 2.3. (8) raate-b) Poor high frequency response”. The inter-turn capacitance and iron-core losses that are negligible at low frequency are significant at high frequency thereby damping out high frequency components” Series Resistor Shunt Using a low resistance series shunt and measuring the resulting voltage across the shunt” Using a Hall Effect Probe A Voltage is induced in a direction perpendicular to a current flow and magnetic field called the hall coefficient, which is highest in semi conductor material. ~ The hall element is placed in the air-gap of a iron core magnetic field of the current to be measured, ¥ Rogowski Coil. ¥ The magnetic field set up around the conductor is used to induce a Voltage in a coil placed so that it surrounds the current path” Dielectric Constant or Loss anglew” Tang = —fe we x, Ree Xen Tand Voltage is increased in discrete steps up to the rated voltage. Good insulation the» Tan Delta should remain constant over the range of voltage” at a vaiue <<0 say 0.001v. 2.5, (2) Maximum accurate distance of measurement +/-3% “using a sphere gap of 0.5 x the gap diameter. v‘e Filtration and treatment under vacuum: Oil is predried before filtering, Oil cannot be used for HV insulation. Oil is distributed over large surface in & specially designed tank under vacuum. This process = drying and degassing achieved simultaneously. Centrifugal Method: Method is beipful in partially extracting solid impurities and free water. Ineffective for removal of water and dissolved gasses Oi treated is even over-saturated with air as gas. Ifthe tank is Kept under vacuum, partial ifiprovement can be obtained. 4 Absorption Columns: Oil flow through one or several columns filled with as absorbing egent either in the form of grains of power ~ fller earth, silica gel and molecular sieves. Electrostatic filters: Oil treated between the two electrodes placed in & Container, Electrostatic field charges the impurities and traces of water which the attracted and retained by the foam coated electrodes, Economical of water content is less than 2pm. 3.2 Single generator impractical: See Wadhwa page 87et a. glco7 ~ Wesporeusclir? _ Laman bid Coen open 3 Stage Marx Generator Circuit LUD Charging capacitors Cs are charged via the DC source in parallel” via the charging resistors. When all the capacitors are fully charged the bottom gap is triggered “causing the bottom capacitor to start discharging through its discharge resistor. , the current discharge raises the voliage of the first stage raises the voltage across the second gap and results in rapid cascade firing of the remaining gaps “. ‘The voltage across the Test object therefore rises rapidly in steps according to the firing of the gaps. The decay of the wave tail voltage is determined by the value of the discharge resistor that determines the rate of capacitor discharge. Vae 0.5 =e Wave Tail time = 50% of Wave Peak” fey In(0.5) = inf RC = In(0.5) 1 14.3 peleaic f \ 2 i> “raaggaee arene ar % (sous u Fra > Soe 3 A c297 4 eon? = O werver * 0,287 > G23 1kuA® = 4s? tud- Y 3 00x 9 a * HV 2250029 2zB)z said WHEL 7 ars 13 Fencing and Barricading ~ To prevent accidental encroachment into the flashover range of the HV. 7 Energy Source isolating, lock-out, earthing and Discharging devices” Warning notices and Sirens” All the low voltage side of equipment effectively earthed 1a Deflections of the measured waveform. Y The dividers output impedance must be matched with the coax cable impedance.. Coax impedance must be match with the CRO impedance. ¥ Electro magnetic coupling interference and distortions’ All test equipment well away from_HV voltage,and current sources Ground Potential RiseY’ Divider and all equipment connected to a common extensive earth¥”‘2.1 Insulation coordination (Wadhwa page 243 to 250) Is the correlation of the equipment insulation level (equipment BIL & SIL) to that of the surge protection (sur€ arrestor) level. The number and placement of surge arrestor is that which can be economically justified for the risk. The Volt-time ‘curve of the surge arrestor must be below the voli-time curve of the equipment being protected ie. protective margin 5.2 Origin of switching surges (study guide page 132) +> Switching surge originate in the network when switching in and out of shunt capacitor banks and large inductances (Transformers, shunt reaotors and long lines) Circuit breakers re-striking + Switching in long transmission lines. 4.3 Gas type surge arrestors’ vs Gapless MOV type Slow and inconsistent operation ~ refer to time lag for air gaps (Study guide page 174 and Wadhwa pages 19 and 104) i.e. A gap arrestor operation is subjected to the statistical time lag. 2.4BIL AND SIL BIL Basic Insulation level — insulation ability to withstand lightning impulses. 1/50 Standard waveform SIL Switching insulation level — Insulation ability to withstand switching impulses 250/250 standard waveform 2.5 Negative impact + Tower & Tower footage impedance to earth + BIL (insulation length and strike length) Shielding (Minimum coverage angle 30deg) + Tower height and exposure 4 Use of surge arrestorae A = = ud! 7 me, es ee Ee HEI | = 6,649 mm (oF ee os | 0,008 = (AN& 96 3x10) “est JOH sou) | : | | Feb hada Veo = abet eteaiteeb Yo=. (QQ- a aE -—- ace| Yo= _iBaxic Cielieg ww (BOS S | CEE CNG Ate a Tt ctwds alice codinge ao access. Wi Ssteunce - See eeeeeeEAE “Ee - MON Eee HEC eee Fie ae ULM 2... 3.3 4 Fig te BQ and ig Crab i Net Wiacihusa : () Bedecl BC ualiege, oO bk tity Cre desbena ee —C-cuochsente~hise ae pRa.cedd Soon “feral a ae Hy The. ee Pal ‘Ouseut pulses “are How Jeecauted do [ uadiage... a cueuens Ou ALLO CO feet% pues Brofn 9 - Mapes, A 3.1 (4) Strike distance”, Air breakdown distance to the tower, or between phase to phase and phase to arth. Yaw. insulation BILV: 1/50 puncture or flashover strength. The insulation strength for 4/80micro Second wavev. 3.2 (4) Zz =ye therefore reducing Lv and increasing C ¥. Phase Spacing : Closer phase spacing = (C) ¥. Bundle or Conductor diameter : Larger diameter = (el, ec), 3.3. (5) insulation co-ordination firstly entails establishing likely magnitude of TOV, Surge impulses, Lightning Impulses. Therefore what voltages arise from faults? v’. Sustained earth faults cause phase to Earth TOV on the healthy phases. On weak or unearthed systems the Phase to Earth voltages can-tecan rise to Phase NY Voltage. YY, As the network is predominately reactive the abrupt interruption of large fault current wi/ean cause Switching impulses. “¥. ma 3.5. (5) infinite impedance for power frequency (low leakage current)” Return to infinite state after operation (do not allows power follow through)” Dissipate energy without fail (.e long operation). 7 Low residual voltagev 8.(3) Prevent lightning strikes between the equipment and the surge arrestor. “ Limit the buileé of voltage for steep fronted waves after the surge arrestor” Vir, LY. 3.7.4) 3.7.1. Shieiding Failure’; When a direct ti line that has overhead shield wires. YW” 3.7.2, Back-flashover : When as a result of a lightning strike to a transmission fower or fo the overhead shizid wires , due to a high tower footage impedancecavity could then spread by electro chemical erosion and cause eventual complete insulation breakdown. (p) Tracking and treeing in Solid insulation: Is che depositing of permanent ae cenductve track on the surface of an insulation. Tracking is ‘caused by Sparking taking pace across a section of the insulation ‘surface. (surface partial Eecharge) The sparks cause carbonization ofthe insulation ‘which is deposited on cera) of the insulation. In time this could lead tothe bridging of the insulator tap. Sparking could be caused by the depositing of surface contaminants e.g. arse free carbons produced by the thermal decomposition form the carbon saeys therfore the resistance of material to tack depends on ifs chemical composition and the maner it breaks down at high temperature, (©) Tonisation: is the splitting of atoms into electrons and positive ions i, Ionisation Te mecessary to convert a non-conductive (insulation) gas into @ conductive path. Tenivetion 1 achieved by high energy electron collision with atoms or photo a y Gatensive light) ionization. (Thermal ionisation): Ceaneg mol F- go0'T- Messier Hin T ‘Streamer Pd ‘ow oressures, vacuum) Tigher Pressures (Atmosohente Pressure) higher (>Sotm nin) Cacaree ‘Shape. bitused Narrow channel or lasma seam, “an aloccon (iting eeton) mst be avatbl. The isting elacon fs accelerated byte apps elect ed an tritoing | Spengenn ettgur nets energy on colon wih an om sits the ato non electron (alton easton) and Mechanism fg ovate ion hereby ling the breakdown orocesses, ‘Susuatning | Eleavons releared from te catnode by positive ion scnanish, bombarsmant Photo tig) lnistion Time 10 reakeown, rior eacand Much Faster (10 t9 100 Nano seconds) Example Neon Tubes Lihining, Power Fsshover ee ener et :(b) te = Foo/so6Xe a6 ieee i + 7 ae ft — a = US TA es1.3 Planck’s constant — energy ~ frequency graph Z el Cede J (4 —- 4 -Z/\ Corona and partial discharge cuvstan 4 [Yeanetef-2 (a) Positive corona onset is 2 higher voltage than negative corona. Positive or burst corona Blueish discharge glow Positive space streamers cause periodic extinction of the discharge ‘Negative corona or Triche! pulses Reddish discharge glow > 10KHz up to MHz See srudy guide page 12 + Cavity Breakdown: Occurs due to gas pockets bubbles (or void) within solid ot liquid insulation, When the cavity has significantly lower dielectric property this will distort tbe electric field thereby increasing the electric field cross the stress across the gas. The gas also having lower breakdown strength results in a breakdown within the cavity 4 Surface Discharge: Tracking and dry band arcing being examples. The presences of conductive deposits on insulation lead to surface discharges. If the conductive deposits were evenly spread, no discharges would take place. 4 Treeing: Occurs in solid insulation and initiated due to a non uniform electric filed usually as a result of conductor surface sharp points. Electro chemical ‘erosion initiates a tree erosion spreading from the conductor surface outwards, Insulation Interfaces or Insulation Transition boundaries: Can occur when more than one insulation type is used of differing dielectric properties e.g. Solid and Air or even when two different solid types are used. The different dielectric properties (dielectric constant) can lead to an increase electric field across the lower dielectric insulation, This can result in breakdown ofthe one JP ) insulation only. ° 4.2 Pashen’s Law See Wadhwa P12 and fig 1.6. >) “-&.3 Describe the following: ea nm (a) Cavity (or Void) Breakdown: Occurs due to gas pockets. The dielectric strength of the void is considerably lower than that of the liquid insulation. The relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the void is also considerable lower than that of the liquid dielectric. This sets up a non-uniform electric field with a higher electric stress across the cavity. The high stress across the cavity could result in ‘preakdown of the cavity that manifests as Partial discharge. The breakdown of theb Confoswho Betfin | Mian 5 cavity could then spread by eleeto chemical erosion and cause eventual cormplete insulation breakdown. (b) Tracking and treeing in Solid insulation: Is the depositing of a permanent ra cenduetive tack on the surface ofan insulation. Tracking is caused by sparking tking place aoross a section ofthe insulation surface. (surface partial recharge) The sparks cause carbonization of be insulation which is deposited on decane of the insulation, In ime this could Tead 1 the bridging of the insulator gap. Sparking could be caused by the depositing of surface contaminants €.& wae. he five carbons produced by the thermal ‘decomposition form the carbon saa therefore the resistance of @ material 1 Taek depends on its chemical composition and the manner it breaks down ‘at high temperature. (@ Tonisation: is the spiting of atoms into eer and positive ions i.e. Tonisation Jonisstsnary to convert 2 non-conductive (izsulation) ges into a conductive path. teeation is achieved by high energy electon collision ‘with atoms or pROtO A ) Cntensive light) ionization. (Thermal ionisetion)Mv AD. J roule oot ue. oe lwo. ee f Has Wal abe Pore lwore. Stengel a ie : ne pO uh Aest.. i a) Conds al ose un, das Quad Com epradiect aa NM a ay Tm poder Quark, Pow fi Wdlistaud €. Elotolen { wet : oli . LON - Seistssisgrenseesie \adlusc P ind fut. aa cls| tm D Dilta. wo Who hea, CANN | (ewok ost hw lottter cat ume Chunk to Hie | kd Nachuse. COuws tout i 5+ Kojo : Re pasalel a a actus! _ Aud Be A lo 7 n Ming... bel Giby i Me. eddie