Masonry Structures Behavior and Design ROBERT G. DRYSDALE ‘ McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario AHMAD A. HAMID. Drexel University, Philadelphia LAWRIE R. BAKER Deakin University, Geelong, Australia _ PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 ep IELinrary oF Congress Catatoptng-tn-Pubiteation Dats 19r ans Ge6ign / Robert G. Oryeda lographics| references and incex seu c-13-862026-0 SoMasoney. Te Hanid, Abad A. IT. Baker, Lawrie A. ‘TH i99.070" 1909 feast aa2——te20 92-30898 Acquisitions editor: Doug Humphrey Production editor: Bayani Mendoza de Leon Cover designer: Design Source Copy editor: Peter Zurita Prepress buyer: Linda Behrens Manufacturing buyer: Dave Dickey Editorial assistant: Susan Handy © 1994 by Prentice-Fiall. Inc A Simon & Schuster Company Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher Printed in the United States of Ametica w98 7654321 ISBN 0-13-Sb202b-0 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Ine., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Dethi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Euitora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Lida., Rio de Janeiroain. Like the builders of the simple arch bridge who understood the: importance of each masonry unit, we dedicate this book to our wives Marna, Nevan, and Carol and our families.Contents ANS PREFACE » od 4 ANCIENT MASONRY 4 1.1 Introduction | 1.2 History of Masonry Materials 2 1.2.1 Stone, 2 4.2.2 Clay Units, 3 1.2.3 Calcium Silicate Units, 5 4.24 Concrete Masonry Units, 5 12.5 Mortars, 5 1.3 Early Building Elements 7 1.3.1 Building Up, 7 1.3.2 Spanning Across, 13 1.3.3 Enclosing Space, 20 1.4 Development of Building Structure 24 1.4.1 Posts and Lintels, 25 1.4.2 Vaults and Domes, 26 1.4.3 Gothic, 26 1.4.4 Single-story Loadbearing Buildings, 29 1.4.5 Multistory Loadbearing Buildings, 30 1,5 Restoration and Retrofit of Heritage Structures 32 1.6 Closure 331.7 References 33 18 Problems 33 CONTEMPORARY MASONRY 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2. Masonry Elements 36 2.2.1 Walls, 36 2.2.2 Columns and Pilasters, 42 2.2.3. Beams and Lintels, 44 2.3. Masonry Building Systems 46 2.3.1 Single-story Loadbearing Buildings, 46 2.3.2. Multistory Loadbearing Buildings, 47 23.3. Hybrid Buildings, 51 2.4 Types of Masonry Construction 51 24.1 Unveinforced Masonry, 51 24.2 Reinforced Masonry, 54 24.3 Prestressed Masonry, 56 2.9. Structural Design 58 25.1 Analysis and Design Methods, 38 2.5.2. Research, Codes and Standards, 64 253 Sources of Information, 66 2.6 Closure 67 2.7. References 67 2.8 Problems 68 BUILDING DESIGN 69 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Structural Requirements 70 3.2.1 Design Criteria, 70 3.2.2 Loads, 72 3.3 Environmental Requirements 82 3.3.1 Temperature Control, 82 3.3.2 Sound Control, 83 3.3.3 Moisture Control, 8 3.34 Fire Control, 85 3.4 Aesthetics 86 3.5. Integration of Requirements 88 3.6 Planning the Building 90 3.6.1 Building Form, 90 36.2 Elevation, 91 3.6.3 Plun, 94 hi Contents3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 368 Wall Configuration and Layout, 97 Floors and Roofs, 102 Connections, 105 Movement Joints and Joints Between Adjoining Elements, 106 Foundations 106 3.7 Economic Aspects 107 3.8 Closure 108 3.9 References 109 3.10 Problems 109 MASONRY MATERIALS 12 41 Introduction 112 4.2 Common Properties of Masonry Units 113 4.2.1 4.2.2 Description of Masonry Units, 13 Properties of Masonry Units, 115 ° 4.3 Clay Masonry Units 121 431 43.2 433 434 43.5 43.6 43.7 43.8 43.9 4.3.10 43.11 Manufacture, 121 Grades, 126 Sizes and Shapes, 126 Compressive Strength, 129 Tensile Strength, 130 Absorption Properties, 131 Durability, 133 Thermal Movement, 134 Moisture Expansion, 134 Creep, 135 Freezing Expansion, 135 > 44 Conerete Masonry Units 135 441 44.2 443 444 445 446 44.7 4.4.8 4.4.9 4.4.10 Manufacture, 136 Grades, Types and Density, 138 Sizes and Shapes, 140 Compressive Strength, 142 Tensile Strength, 145 Absorption, 146 Durability, 147 Thermal Movement, 147 Shrinkage, 147 Creep, 148 4.5 Calcium Silicate Units 149 451 4.5.2 4.5.3 454 45.5 45.6 Contents, Manufacture, 149 Grades and Durability, 149 Sizes and Shapes, 149 Compressive and Tensile Strengths, 149 Absorption, 150 Thermal Movement, Shrinkage and Creep, 150 vii4.6 Building Stone 150 4.6.1 Groups, 151 4.6.2 Sizes and Shapes, 151 4.6.3 Physical Requirements, 151 4.6.4 Durability, 154 4.6.5 Thermal Movement, 154 > 4.7 Mortar 155 4.7.1 Functions of Mortar, 135 Mortar Types, 155 Plastic Mortar Properties, 158 Properties of Hardened Mortar, 160 Mortar Aggregates, 163 Admixtures and Colors, 164 48 165 Workability Requirements, 165 Types, 167 Admixtures, 168 Compressive Strength, 168 4.9 Reinforcement 169 4.9.1 Reinforcing Bars, 169 4.9.2 Joint Reinforcement, 170 4.9.3 Connectors, 171 4.94 Prestressing Steel, 173 4.95 Corrosion Protection, 173 4.10 Associated Materials 173 4.10.1 Movement Joint Filler Material, 173 4.10.2 Dampproofing, 174 4.10.3 Parging, 174 4.10.4 Flashings and Weep Holes, 175 4.10.5 Air Barriers and Vapor Barriers, 175 4.10.6 Coatings, 175 #11 Closure 177 4.12 References 178 4.13 Problems 181 MASONRY ASSEMBLAGES 182 5.1 Introduction 182 5.2. Axial Compression 183 5.2.1 Introduction, 183 5.2.2. Standard Prism Tests, 183 5.2.3 General Failure Mechanisms, 186 5.24 Factors Affecting Prism Strength, 190 5.2.5 Stress-Strain Relationships, 199 5.2.6 Relationship Between Wall Strength and Prism Strength, 202 Contents5.2.7 Compressive Strength for Loading Parallel to the Bed Joint, 202 5.3 Combined Axial Compression and Flexure 204 5.3.1 Introduction, 204 Prism Tests, 204 General Failure Mechanisms, 206 Factors Affecting the Influence of Strain Gradient, 207 5.3.5 Compression Stress-Strain Relationship, 208 5.4 Flexural Tensile Strength for Out-of-Plane Bending 5.4.1 Introduction, 210 5.4.2 Flexural Test Methods, 211 5.4.3 Failure Mechanisms, 213 5.4.4 Factors Affecting the Tensile Bond Between Masonry Units and Mortar, 213 54.5 Factors Affecting the Flexural Tensile Strength of Grout Filled Hollow Masonry, 218 5.4.6 Orthogonal Strength Ratio, 220 5.4.7 Biaxial Strength, 223 5.5 Shear Strength along Mortar Bed Joints 223 5.5.1 Introduction, 223 5.5.2 Test Methods, 224 5.5.3 Failure Modes, 224 5.5.4 Relationship Between Shear Strength Along Bed Joints and Normal Compressive Stress, 226 5.5.5 Factors Affecting the Shear Strength Along Mortar Bed Joints, 227 5.5.6 Load-Displacement Response, 228 5.5.7 Shear Strengths of Collar Joints and Head Joints, 229 5.6 In-Plane Tensile Strength 230 5.6.1 Introduction, 230 5.6.2 Test Methods, 230 Failure Modes, 231 Factors Affecting In-Plane Tensile Strength, 233 5.7 Combined Loading and Biaxial Strength 235 5.7.1 Introduction, 235 e 57.2 Test Methods, 235 5.7.3 Failure Modes, 235 5.74 Factors Affecting Failure Loads Under Biaxial Compression-Tension Stresses, 237 5.8 Closure 238 5.9 References 238 5.10 Problems 243 Contents 210 ix6 REINFORCED BEAMS AND LINTELS 6.1 6.2 63 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 69 6.10 Introduction 245 Flexural Behavior and Design 247 6.2.1 Fundamental Assumptions, 247 6.2.2. Behavior Under Load, 247 6.2.3 Flexural Design Examples 258 Shear Behavior and Design 262 6.3.1 Development of Design Requirements, 262 6.3.2 Shear Design Examples, 269 Bond and Anchorage of Reinforcement 270 6.4.1 Bond Stress, 270 6.4.2 Development Length, 271 6.4.3 Bond and Development Length Example, 272 Serviceat ity Requirements 273 Load Distribution on Lintel Beams 274 6.6.1 Behavior, 274 6.6.2 Lintel Beam Loading Example, 276 Prestressed Masonry Beams 277 Closure 279 References 279 Problems 280 7 “FLEXURAL WALLS: 7A 72 73 14 Introduction 283 Load Resisting Mechanisms for Masonry Walls Flexural Behavior of Unreinforced Walls 287 7.3.1 Background, 287 7.3.2 Vertical Flexure (Single-Wythe), 288 7.3.3 Effect of Superimposed Load, 294 7.3.4 Horizontal Flexure (Single-Wythe), 294 7.3.5 Two-way Flexure (Single-Wythe), 297 7.3.6 Multiple-Wythe Walls, 300 Analysis and Design of Unreinforced Flexural Walls 302 74.1 Introduction, 302 74.2 Design from Basic Principles, 303 74.3 Yield Line and Failure Mechanism Approaches, 303 744 — Crossed Strips Method, 305 74.5 Effects of Axial Load, 307 74.6 Two-way Bending Example, 309 74.7 Diaphragm Walls, 311 284 245 283 Contents7.5 Arching 312 7.5.1 Mechamics of Rigid Arching, 312 7.5.2 Mechanism of Gapped Arching, 313 7.5.3 Design, 316 7.5.4 Arching Action Example, 317 7.6 Reinforced Flexural Walls 320 7.6.1 Background, 320 7.6.2 Vertical One-way Flexural Behavior, 321 7.6.3 Horizontal One-way Flexural Behavior, 324 7.6.4 Two-way Flexural Behavior, 327 7.7 Analysis and Design of Reinforced Flexural Walls 327 7.7.1 Vertical Flexural Design, 327 7.7.2 Horizontal Flexural Design, 330 7.7.3 Two-way Flexural Design, 330 7.7.4 Walls with Openings, 331 Reinforced Cavity and Veneer Walls, 331 Partially Reinforced Walls, 331 Shear Design, 332 Anchorage of Reinforcement, 332 7.8 Reinforced Flexural Wall Design Examples 333 Vertically Spanning Reinforced Block Wall, 333 Two-way Bending, 337 Horizontal Spanning Wall, 338 Factor of Safety in Allowable Stress Design, 339 7.9 Closure 340 7.10 Reference 341 7A Problems 344 LOADBEARING WALLS UNDER AXIAL LOAD AND OUT-OF- PLANE BENDING 346 8.1 Introduction 346 8.2 Overview of Status and Trends in Design Provisions 348 8.2.1 Current Status of Design Provisions, 348 8.2.2 Types of Wall Construction, 348 8.3 Historical Interpretation of Behavior of Masonry Walls 350 8.3.1 General Discussion, 350 8.3.2 Effects of Bending on the Capacity of Walls, 350 8.3.3 Section Capacity, 351 8.3.4 Effect of Wall Height, 352 Contents xi8.4 Interaction Between Axial Load and Bending 354 84.1 Introduction, 354 842 Linear Elastic Analysis of Unreinforced Sections, 356 84.3 Linear Elastic Analysis of Reinforced Sections, 362 844 Strength Analysis of Masonry (Ultimate Limit State), 365 84.5 Application of Sirength Design, 370 8.5 Effects of Slenderness 371 Introduction, 371 Moment Magnification, 372 Use of the Unity Equation: UBC Method, 373 Use of ACI S30/ASCE 5S!TMS 402 Provisions for Slenderness, 373 85.5 Special Provisions for Slender Reinforced Walls: UBC Method, 374 8.5.6 Discussion, 376 8.6 Design Examples 376 Wall Under Concentric Axial Compression, 376 Wall Under Eccentric Axial Load, 380 Allowable Load for a Composite Wall, 388 Axial Load and Bending of a Composite Wall, 397 87 Closure 393 8.8 References 393 8.9 Problems 394 COLUMNS AND PILASTERS 396 9.1 Introduction 396 9.2. Column Behavior 399 9.2.1 Introduction, 399 9.2.2 Failure Modes and Compressive Strength, 399 9.2.3 Slenderness Effect, 400 9.3 Column Design 401 93.1 Design Considerations, 401 9.3.2 Design for Axial Load and Bending, 402 9.3.3 Biaxial Bending, 406 9.3.4 Seismic Design Considerations, 408 9.4 Column Design Examples 408 94.1 Eccentrically Loaded Column, 408 9.4.2 Concentric Axial Compression, 411 xi * ContentsJa 410 9.5 Pilaster Design 412 95.1 Introduction, 412 9.5.2 Load Sharing Between Walls and Pilasters, 413 9.5.3 Pilaster Design Example, 415 9.6 Closure 419 9.7 References 419 9.8 Problems 420 SHEAR WALLS 422 10.1 Introduction 422 10.2 Influence of Types and Layout of Shear Walls 423 10.3 Behavior and Failure Modes 424 10.3.1 Unreinforced Shear Walls, 425 10.3.2 Reinforced Shear Walls, 425 10.4 Distribution of Loads to Shear Walls 431 10.4.1 Gravity Loads, 431 104.2 Lateral Forces, 431 10.4.3 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Lateral Loads, 436 10.5 Effects of Openings in Walls 437 10.5.1. Multistorey Shear Walls, 437 10.5.2. Horizontal and Vertical Combinations of Shear Wall Segments, 439 10.5.3 Rigidity of Walls with Openings in Low-Rise Buildings, 440 10.5.4 Example of Lateral Load Distribution to a System of Walls, 443 10.6 Design of Shear Walls 445 10.6.1 Unreinforced Shear Walls, 445 10.6.2 Reinforced Shear Walls, 449 10.63 Special Seismic Design Considerations, 454 10.6.4 Wall Connections, 457 10.7 Design Examples 459 10.7.1 Unreinforced Shear Wall, 459 10.7.2. Reinforced Shear Wall, 461 10.7.3 Pier in a Perforated Wall, 466 10.8 Closure 469 10.9 Reference 470 10.10 Problems 472 Co intents xiii41 INFILL WALLS AND PARTITIONS 476 11.1 Introduction 476 11.2. Infill Walls 477 11.2.1 Interaction Mechanism and Failure Modes, 478 11.2.2. Analysis of Infilled Frames, 480 11.2.3. Strength of Infill Walls, 483 11.2.4 Infill Walls with Openings, 484 11.2.5 Infill Walls with Movement Joints at the Top, 486 11.2.6 Seismic Design Considerations, 487 11.2.7 Example Analysis of the Stiffness of an Infilled Frame, 488 11.3 Walls Supported on Beams 490 113.1 Introduction, 490 11.3.2 Interaction Mechanism and Failure Modes, 490 11.3.3 ° Analysis, 491 11.3.4 Limitations of Analysis, 494 11.3.5 Example of a Masonry Wall Supported on a Beam, 494 11.4 Closure 496 ILS References 496 11.6 Problems 497 12 MASONRY VENEER AND CAVITY WALLS 501 12.1 Introduction 501 12.1.1 Background, 501 12.1.2 Component of Masonry Veneer and Cavity Walls, 502 12.1.3 Critical Features in Design and Construction, 504 12,2. Masonry Rain Screen Walls 507 12.2.1 Design of Masonry Veneer Rain Screens, 507 12.2.2 Additional Precautions to Avoid Rain Penetrations, 513 12.2.3 Detailing Requirements for Rain Sereen Performance, 515 12.3. Shelf Angle Supports 518 12.3.1 Design of Anchors for Shelf Angles, 518 12.3.2 Example Calculation of Anchor Requirement, 519 12.3.3 Design of Shelf Angles, 521 12.3.4 Example Design of the Thickness of a Shelf Angle, 522 12.3.5 Construction Details for Shelf Angles, 522 xiv Contents12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Structural Design Considerations 525 12.4.1 Structural Requirements for Masonry Veneer Walls, 525 12.4.2 Structural Requirements for Masonry Cavity Walls, 527 12.4.3 Requirements for Ties and Anchors, 528 Requirements for Movement Joints 529 12.5.1 Horizontal Movement Joints, 529 12.5.2 Vertical Movement Joints, 530 Closure 531 References 531 Problems 533 CONNECTORS 535 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Introduction 535 Wall Ties 536 13.2.1 Basic Functions, 536 13.2.2 Performance Requirements, 538 13.2.3 Types of Ties, 540 13.24 Strength, 542 13.2.5 Stiffness, 544 13.2.6 Adjustability, 547 13.2.7 Design Considerations, 549 13.28 Design, 552 13.2.9 Example Tie Design Forces for Masonry Veneer, 553 13.210 Construction Considerations, 554 13.2.1] Tie Materials and Corrosion Resistance, 556 Anchors 559 13.3.1 Basic Functions, 559 13.3.2 Design Considerations, 560 13.3.3 Construction Considerations, 561 Fasteners 561 13.4.1 Basic Function, 561 13.4.2 Types of Fasteners, 561 13.4.3 Strength of Anchor Bolts, 562 13.44 Design of Fasteners, 564 13.4.5 Anchor Bolt Design Example, 565 Closure 566 References 567 Problems 568 Contents xv14 APPLICATION OF BUILDING SCIENCE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS 570 14.1 Introduction 570. 14.2 Application of Building Science to Masonry Construction 571 14.3. Fire Resistance 573 14.3.1 Introduction, 573 14.3.2 Design Practice, 574 ' 14.3.3 Fire Resistance Rating, S74 14,34 Methods for Increasing Fire Resistance, 579 14.3.5 Other Aspects of Fire Protection, 581 14.4 Thermal Performance 582 144.1 Introduction, 582 14.4.2 Introduction to Heat Transfer at Building Surfaces, $82 14.4.3 Heat Transfer and Thermal Resistance, 585 1444 Thermal Resistance of Masonry Wall Systems, 586 14.4.5 Thermal Inertia, 591 144.6 Other Considerations, 593 14.5 Condensation Considerations 596 14.5.1 Introduction, 596 14.5.2 Water Vapor Condensation, 597 14.5.3 Diffusion of Water Vapor and Potential for 7 Condensation, 599 14.5.4 Condensation from Airborne Moisture, 604 14.5.5 Interaction Between Air and Vapor Barriers, 606 14.6 Rain Penetration 607 14.6.1 Background, 607 4.6.2 Factors Affecting Rain Penetration, 607 14.6.3 Design Provisions to Minimize the Potential for Rain Penetration, 609 14.64 Measurement of Water Permeance, 610 14.7 Sound Control 611 14.7.1 Introduction, 611 14.7.2 Sound Transmission, 611 14.7.3 Sound Transmission Loss, 614 14,74 Sound Absorption, 620 14.7.5 Other Design and Construction Considerations, 620 14.8 Closure 622 14.9 References 622 14.10 Problems 625 xvi Contentsea 45 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS AND DETAILS 627 15.1 Introduction 627 15.2. Workmanship and Construction Practices 628 15.2.1 Effect of Workmanship on Strength, 628 15.2.2 Effect of Workmanship on Water Permeance, 629 15.2.3 Preparations in Advance of Laying Masonry, 630 15.2.4 Preparation of Mortar Mixes, 632 15.2.5 Use of Mortar, 633 15.2.6 Laying of Units, 636 15.2.7 Reinforcing and Grouting, 638 15.2.8 Tolerances, 646 15.3 Influence of Weather on Construction Requirements 646 15.3.1 Cold Weather Construction, 646 15.3.2 Hot Weather Construction, 648 15.3.3 Wet Weather Construction, 650 15.34 Construction in Windy Weather, 650 15.4 Protection of Masonry During Construction 650 15.4.1 Covering and Curing, 650 15.4.2 Avoiding Unintended Loads, 651 15.4.3 Wind Bracing, 651 15.5 Flashing and Dampproof Courses 653 15.5.1 Description, 653 15.5.2 Installation of Flashing and Dampproof Courses, 654 15.5.3 Effect on Wall Strength, 655 15.6 Movement Joints 655 15.6.1 Functions and Types of Movement Joints, 655 15.6.2. Spacing and Size Requirements, 656 15.6.3 Construction Details, 658 15.7 Inspection and Quality Control 660 15.7.1 Introduction, . 660 15.72 Quality Assurance and Quality Control, 661 15.7.3 Inspection, 661 15.8 Closure 663 15.9 Reference 664 15.10 Problems 665 Contents xvii16 47 DESIGN OF LOADBEARING SINGLE-STORY MASONRY BUILDINGS 16.1 General Introduction 667 16.2 Behavior, Form and Layout 668 16.2.1 Wall Layout Requirements for Stability, 668 16.2.2 Wall Layout to Resist Lateral Loads, 670 16.3 Design Loads 675 16.3.1 Gravity Loads, 676 16.3.2 Wind Loading, 676 16.3.3 Seismic Loading, 677 16.4 Design of Components 677 164.1 Design of Walls for Axial Load and Bending, 677 164.2 Design of Walls for In-Plane Shear and Bending, 678 164.3 Design Requirements for Roof Diaphragms, 679 164.4 Design of Walls for Hold Down of Roof Systems, 681 16.5 Example Design 684 16.5.1 Introduction, 684 16.5.2, Description of Building, 685 16.5.3 Design Loads, 688 16.54 Design of Walls for Axial Load and Out-Of- Plane Bending, 689 16.5.5 Design of Walls for Uplift Forces, 698 16.5.6 Design of Walls for In-Plane Shear and Bending, 699 16.5.7 Required Stiffness of Roof Diaphragm, 703 16.5.8 Bearing, 704 16.3.9 Other Consideration, 704 16.6 Closure 705 16.7 References 706 16.8 Problems 706 DESIGN OF MULTISTORY LOADBEARING MASONRY BUILDINGS 17.1 Introduction 708 17.2. Basic Design Concepts 711 17.2.1 Introduction, 711 17.2.2 Vertical Load Transfer, 711 17.2.3 Lateral Load Transfer, 713 17.3 Distribution of Shear and Moment Due to Lateral Load 714 17.3.1 Relative Wall Rigidity for Structural Analysis. 714 xviii 667 708 Contents.17.3.2 Choice of Method for Determination of Relative Wall Rigidity, 718 17.3.3 Other Factors Affecting the Distribution of Lateral Loads, 718 17.4. Torsional Effects 721 174.1 Basie Concepts, 721 174.2 Calculation of Torsional Moments, 722 17.5 Design Example 724 17.5.1 Description of the Building, 724 17.5.2. Loads, 727 17.5.3 Calculation of Lateral Forces, 728 17.5.4 Distribution of Lateral Loads to Shear Walls, 731 17.5.5 Calculations of Shear Forces and Moments at the Bases of the Shear Walls, 734 17.5.6 Drift Calculations, 742 17.5.7 Wall Design, 744 17.5.8 Out-Of-Piane Loading, 744 17.5.9 In-Plane Loading (Shear Walls), 745 17.6 Closure 758 17.7 References 759 17.8 Problems 760 APPENDICES 762 INDEX 7m Contents xixPreface To the majority of architects and engineers today, masonry falls uneasily between the two professions. Studies in architectural history give a familiarity with masonry buildings of previous years, but the potential for the modern use of masonry is often given meager treatment. Many engineering courses do not mention masonry as a structural material and those that do usually give it little attention. This situation is slowly changing, but most graduates entering the professions have a predisposition to design with steel, concrete, or timber rather than masonry even when masonry is the most appropriate material. This is probably true to many practicing designers who often had even less exposure to masonry as a modern structural material. When used efficiently, masonry has a dual role to enclose or divide space and to form part of the load-resisting structure of the building. A masonry element is therefore of concern both to the architect, for its environmental and aesthetic quali- ties, and to the engineer, for its durability and strength. Research into masonry over the past 30 years or so now allows its use in building with as much confidence as the more familiar modern materials of steel and concrete. This book attempts to give a broad understanding of masonry to designers and students, ranging from ancient beginnings to modern usage, covering planning, materials science, building science, structural design, and construction. It mostly deals with matters of international validity and is not confined by adherence to any code. Building codes and regulations vary from place to place within a country as well as internationally and are being changed with increasing rapidity. Nevertheless, such codes are an important guide and constraint and designers should become familiar with the relevant current local codes, This book gives many design examples; the majority using ACI 530/ASCE S/TMS 402 Building Code Requirements for Ma- sonry Structures.AUTHORS’ GUIDE ON USE OF THE BOOK Users of this book should find it beneficial to understand its organization and the reasons for its content and style of presentation, Readership. This book contains information common to the profession of architecture, building, and engineering with some chapters focussed principally on the interests of a particular discipline. The first four chapters dealing with history of masonry, building design, and materials are of general interest although Chapter 3 on design may be oriented slightly more to the interests of architects. While the chapters on masonry veneers, connectors, building science, and construction are directly related to architectural design, introductory information in the structural design chapters (i.c., infill walls) can help the architect gain an appreciation for the opportunities and limitations related to structural requirements. Builders, building officials, and others involved in the building industry, will relate to the information described above for architects, Specific aspects of structural behavior and design should also be useful. A comprehensive index is provided to assist the user locate relevant information. Most of the book should be of interest to structural engineers but it is anticipated that the chapters dealing with properties of materials and structural design will be of greatest interest, Units of Measurement. Dual units are used throughout this book not only because of the international nature of this book but also because Executive Order 12770 in the USA requires use of metric in the design of all new federal facilities by January 1994. US Customary units are followed by System International (SI) units in brackets. In all but the last two chapters, what is called hard conversion has been used, where, for instance, calculations using a 7 5/8 in. thick block are redone using the metric 190 mm block not the direct equivalent 193.7 mm thickness. The major building design examples in Chapters 16 and 17 contain only directly equivalent values, known as soft conversion, to avoid duplication of the extensive numerical presentations. Building Codes and Standards. Although most design books are based on a specific building code, that approach reduces the book’s usefulness for design according to other codes and results in it becoming out-dated as codes change. To the extent possible, the structural design parts of the book have been based on fundamental behavior. To illustrate design. specific provisions of ACI 530/ASCE 5/ ‘TMS 402, Uniform Building Code, CAN $304 (Canada), AS 3700 (Australia) and to. a lesser extent BS 5628 (Britain) and NZS 4230 (New Zealand) have been pre- sented. In the numerous design examples, use of the first two codes predominates, but other code provisions are included to illustrate aiternatives particularly related to strength and limit states design. Although working stress design is emphasized, design based on strength is covered because most international codes are based on this approach and this is the direction of development of future North American codes. xxit PrefaceUse in Undergraduate Courses. Practical limits on time available for class- room instruction and independent reading a: nments mean that only a selected list of topics from this book are likely to be included in an undergraduate course. Such a “shopping list’ approach to using the book is encouraged by organization of chapters into essentially stand alone segments. Because this book was written to cater for the needs of a wide range of users, from the student to the practitioner to the graduate student and researcher, we have included some ideas on how it can be used for undergraduate instruction. Undergraduate students will concentrate on basic concepts whereas, later as prac- titioners and graduate students, they will often find the solution to their particular problem in some of the more complex sections. The first three chapters form a basic introductory study for all readers. Time spent on formal study of this material will depend on the specific interests of the group and on the length of the course. For example, this material may be set largely as background reading for engineering students but form the major part of a detailed study for architecture students. The following table sets out suggested courses for architecture and building students depending in the class contact hours available for the course, The table caters for courses from 6 to 36 hours of class contact time. The Basic Introduction varies from 4 hours (involving a fairly superficial treatment) to 16 hours duration, (allowing more detailed treatment and some studio applications). The Materials and Construction components each increase from | to 4 hours as greater knowledge is imparted for the study of other sections. Building Science is introduced in the Basic Introduction and built upon as time allows, As frequently noted in the book, engineer- ing considerations often have implications for architectural design and construction and vice versa. Hence selected sections for structural components are listed in the table for the extended courses SUGGESTED COURSES FOR ARCHITECTURAL AND BUILDING STUDENTS. Class contact for courses A to E (his) Content selected from A BOC D Basic Introduction 4 6 9 2 Chapters 1, 2, 3 Materials. LEH a ett Chapter 4, Sec. 5.15.4 Construction. SEH athe Chapter 15, Sec. 12.1-12.3, 12.5, 13.2, 3.3 Building Science — 24 4 Chapter 14 Structures Pee att: Sec. 6.1, 7.4-7.3, 8.1-8.3, 9.1-9.3, TII-11.2, 12.4, 13.1-13.2 ‘Total Hours 6 12 1 24 PrefaceThe following table of suggested courses for engineering students follows the same format as that above but includes a finer breakdown of specific topics. Naturally, each instructor will develop a curriculum suited to the particular need of the students. The amount of time assigned to any topic is an indicator of the depth of coverage, although, even with the longer contact hours, instructors will likely find that some sections can only be briefly introduced. We suggest a concentration on fundamental behavior and basic design and that discussions of other topics be included to broaden the perspectives of the students. The suggested contents are suited to senior under- graduate structural engineering students who have completed at least a one semester course in reinforced concrete design. If this background is not available, the time allotted to cach structural design topic should be increased. The identified coverage of construction topics is augmented by related comments in the design chapters SUGGESTED COURSES FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Content Content selected Class contact for course (hrs) topic area from A BOC D E F Basic UL, 1.2, 1.4, 2.2, 2.5, 31-33. LT Ee Introduction All of Chaps. 1, 2, and 3 meas Materials 44.4, 4.7, 5.15.4 Teo All of Chaps. 4 and 5 SHES EHS Construction 12.1, 12.5, 13.1, 13.2, 154-153 1b All of Chaps. 12, 13,'and 15 2 2 Building science 141, 143-145 HL All of Chap, 14 203 Beam 6.1-6.4 Nee eee All of Chap. 6 except 6.7 4 Flexural walls 71-13, eae tA Loadhearing walls 8.4.8.6 2otte. All of Chap. 8 30304 4 Columns and pilasters All of Chap. 9 2 2 Shear walls 10.1, 10.4, 10.6 2 2 All of Chap. 10 30304 Infill walls All of Chap. 1 EL Single-story 16.1-16.4 2 building All of Chap. 16 4 6 6 6 Multistory building —17.1-17.4 ae. + Total hours 6 12 18 24 30 36 The problems sets provided at the end of each Chapter are generally graduated from fairly simple to quite difficult, Our experience is that students find the latter problems quite challenging and time consuming. Additional classroom help and working in groups can be employed to relieve this situation. Also some problems are essentially small projects, making it impractical for an individual student to undertake more than one or two such problems. A suggested approach is to have groups of students undertake different projects and report their results to the entire class. xxiv PrefaceACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘The preparation of this book was made possible by financial support provided by the Brick Institute of America and the National Concrete Masonry Association. We are grateful for this support and the personal support and encouragement of J. Greg Borchelt, P.E., Director of Engineering and Research for BIA, and Mark B. Hogan, P.E., Vice President of Engineering for NCMA. Under their direction, review of the content greatly contributed to the quality of the book. BIA staff consisting of Greg Borchelt, Brent Gabby, Mark Nunn, Matt Scolforo, Christine Subasic, and Brian Trimble and NCMA staff consisting of Mark Hogan, Maribeth Bradfield, Kevin Callahan, and Robert Vanlaningham engaged in a comprehensive review. The critical review of the first draft and a second review of the chapters as sent to the publisher were significant factors in the improved presentation. We extend our sincere thanks to the above mentioned staff for their dedicated effort. NCMA and BIA also supplied many figures and photographs which help to make the text less formidable Our friend and colleague, Gary T. Suter, was initially a co-author of this book and participated in its planning. He completed the first draft of Chapter 4 before other commitments caused him to withdraw. We acknowledge his contribution and appreciate his continued assistance in providing many photographs for the book. The manuscript was prepared by the Engineering Word Processing Center of McMaster University and the drawings were produced by James Q. Burdette, a graduate student at Drexel University. Their care and attention to detail are appreci- ated. Others who assisted by review of particular sections are: Ivan J. Becica from Oliver and Becica, Christas Christakis and Jon Morrison from Christakis and Kachele, A.C.C. Warnock of the Institute for Research in Construction - NRCC, Edward A. Gazzola of Morrison Hershfield Ltd. We are indebted to many academic and masonry industry colleagues for provid- ing photographs and other assistance. In particular we wish to thank Russell H. Brown of Clemson University for review of two chapters, and James E. Amrhein of the Masonry Institute of America and C.T. (Tom) Grimm of Austin, Texas for their unfailing assistance. Robert G. Drysdale Ahmad A. Hamid Lawrie R. Baker Preface xxvABOUT THE AUTHORS Robert G. Drysdale is Professor of Civil Engineering at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario where he introduced and has taught masonry and building science courses for over twenty years. He is well known for his masonry research which has contributed to changes in building codes and standards and to product develop- ment. He has over 60 publications in the past ten years. He is Chairman of CSA Steering Committee for Masonry and is active on masonry technical committees, including chairing the Technical Advisory Committee of TMS. Dr. Drysdale has extensive practical experience in structural design, including most types of buildings ranging from standard commercial and residential construc- tion to heavy industrial buildings, water towers, air supported structures, and unique projects such as the roof support system for the Saddle Dome in Calgary. He has supervised and/or conducted tests for fire resistance, sound transmission, thermal resistance, rain penetration, and air and vapor barriers. He has been involved in investigations of structural failures and serviceability problems. Ahmad A. Hamid is a Professor in the Department of Civil and Architectural Engi- neering and Director of the Structural Testing Laboratory and the Masonry Research Laboratory at Drexel University in Philadelphia, PA. He teaches masonry courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. His fundamental and applied masonry research includes material characterization and seismic resistance of reinforced ma- sonry structures. He has published over 100 articles on behavior, design and evalua- tion of masonry materials, assemblages and structures. Dr. Hamid participates in code development as a member of the Masonry Standards Joint Committee as well as ASTM and TMS Dr. Hamid is involved in engineering design and consulting activities in North America and the Middle Bast. He is regularly engaged by government agencies and engineering firms to evaluate the structural performance and safety of conerete and masonry structures including adequacy of masonry walls in nuclear power plants to withstand seismic loads Lawrie R. Baker is Head of the School of Engineering at Deakin University in Australia. He previously held positions as Dean of the School of Architecture and as Head of the Department of Building at that University. His 28 years of teaching experience include the teaching of masonry and structures to students of architecture, building, and civil engineering, as well as to practitioners throughout Australia. Dr. Baker has been researching and consulting in masonry for some 20 years. Both his masters and doctoral theses were in the field of masonry; he has over 50 journal articles and conference papers, over 100 confidential reports for industrial clients, and two books, Masonry Code of Practice and Australian Masonry Manual. He is Chair of the Structures Committee for the Standards Association of Australia, Masonry Code. Dr. Baker is director of the Masonry Research Centre at Deakin University in Geelong, Victoria and a Fellow of the Institution of Engineers, Aus- tralia xxvi About the AuthorsCHAPTER 4 Ancient Masonry The Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt. 1.1 INTRODUCTION No textbook on masonry is complete without at least a brief treatment of mankind's masonry heritage. From ancient times to the present, there are spectacular examples of construction that would be very difficult and extremely expensive to duplicate today even with our advanced design skills, modern machines, and modern mate- rials, Review of the ancient use of masonry can help us place present-day construc tion in perspective and hopefully impart a measure of. inspiration from the past, where examples of sophisticated structural forms from an analytical point of view go back for more than 10,000 years. The treatment in this chapter gives a broad overview of the development of masonry structures from earliest times. From a structural viewpoint, the discussion progresses from the simplest to the more complex structural forms but not necessarily chronologically, where domes of mud and ice were used from carliest times. After a brief history of masonry materials, early building ele- ments and the development of building structure are considered. The development of masonry structures has been constrained by the available materials, construction skills, design abilities (whether intuitive or analytical), and costs. The importance ofeach factor has varied over time with perhaps cost being the greatest constraint on the form of masonry structure used today. 1.2 HISTORY OF MASONRY MATERIALS Many materials have been used for the construction of masonry, those locally avail- able being most convenient. Whenever civilizations developed in river plains, the alluvial deposits were used to create a brick architecture. In the Mesopotamian culture between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, present-day mounds of crumbling soil in a treeless and stoneless desert testify to the widespread usc of sun-dried mud bricks in past buildings. Where civilizations existed in the vicinity of mountains or rocky outcrops, stone was used. Monumental stone buildings were built by the Egyptians along the rocky borders of the Nile valley. In the Arctic regions, ice blocks are used to make igloos, and in modern cities, even glass is used to make masonry walls. ‘The common masonry materials used today are made from stone, clay, calcium silicate, and concrete. The background to and early uses of these materials are briefly presented in what follows. More detailed information is given in Chapter 4 and in Refs. 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 1.2.1 Stone The first masonry was a crude stack of selected natural stones. The mortar, if any, was earth packed between them. As tools became available, stones were roughly trimmed, stacked, wedged with smaller stones, and bedded in clay. As skills improved, stone masonry units were shaped into polygonal or squared units so that close-fitting joints were obtained. Thin lime mortar joints were used or the units were laid dry, sometimes with joints so precisely matched that a thin knife blade could not be inserted between them. Figure 1.1 shows some of these arrangements. Sedimentary rocks (mainly sandstones and limestones) were split along their natural bedding planes using picks, crowbars, and wedges and dressed to size with chisels. Sand was used as an abrasive to grind bedding surfaces flat or, in conjunct with toothless saw blades, to cut rock to size. Toothed saw blades were used to cut soft rock. The use of power tools and explosives has made the manufacture of stone masonry units much simpler than in the past. Most stonework in building is now a thin nonstructural veneer used solely for its aesthetic appeal. Types of stone com- monly used include basalt (bluestone), granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, and slate. 1.2.2 Clay Units Clay bricks have been in use for at least 10,000 years and possibly for as long as. 12,000 years, Sun-dried bricks were widely used in Babylon, Egypt, Spain, South 2 Ancient Masonry — Chap. 7‘(a) Stones Placed (6) Stones Wedged _—(e) "Squared! Units with Soil and Bedded in Laid Dry Clay 7 =f “TCI Bee — I C I LT I 2 (@) Poygonal Units (6) Sawn Unis Laid (f) Sawn Units Laid Dry in Lime Mortar Laid Dry Figure 1.1 Stone masonry. America, the Indian reserves of the United States, and elsewhere. Wide usage is illustrated by the word “‘adobe,”” which is now incorporated in the English language but is a Spanish word based on the Arab word ‘‘atob,”” meaning sun-dried brick. The earliest bricks were made by pressing mud or clay into small lumps, sometimes cigar- shaped, and allowing them to dry in the air or the sun, These were then laid with mud mortar into walls having roughly horizontal coursing or a herringbone pattern or combination of both, as shown in Fig. 1.2, By 3000 8.c., bricks were being made by hand in a mold with cattle dung or straw incorporated to increase strength. About this time, it was discovered that baking or firing brick in clamps greatly increased their strength and durability. An early clamp was simply a stack of dried bricks, with layers of brushwood fuel included, covered on the outside with a layer of clay to reduce heat loss. The clamp was then set on fire at several places, depending upon the direction of the wind, and allowed to burn out. These primitive firing conditions produced large variations in size and quality of bricks. Improved quality Figure 1.2 Cigar-shaped mud bricks laid in mud mortar. Sec. 1.2 History of Masonry Materials 3rohit ea0 may" 5 a) 2 iin — Geom) sia eam! ena ws gE camm| Figure 1.3 Roman bricks made in a mold. was later achieved using specially constructed kilns where dried bricks were stacked on the perforated floor of an oven with fuel being introduced and burnt below in a more controlled manner. Brickmaking in Europe, at least from Roman times until a few centuries ago, was a lengthy process. Sun-dried bricks were sometimes required to be five years old before their use in building. In making burnt bricks, it was usual to dig the clay in the autumn and leave it to weather all winter before molding it into bricks in the spring. Bricks were not set in the kiln until they were aged, preferably after two years of drying in the shade. Bricks varied greatly from broad flat bricks only 1 in. (25:mm) thick to those of modern size. Some Roman bricks are shown in Fig. 1.3 Clay materials used for later brickmaking were mixed with water to create a homogeneous mass and then formed into brick units by pressing into a mold. Al- though the first brickmaking machine was patented in 1619, the turning point for the mechanical production of bricks came in 1858 with the introduction of the Hoffman kiln, which allowed the firing of bricks to be carried out in a continuous process. ‘To- day, the whole brickmaking process (mining, forming, drying, firing, cooling, and delivery) is highly mechanized and can be completed in less than a week. Typical contemporary clay units are shown in Fig. 1.4. 2eFt (a) Solid Pressed Unit (b) Cored Unit (c) Hollow Unit Figure 1.4 Contemporary clay units, 4 Ancient Masonry Chap. 11.2.3 Calcium Silicate Units Calcium silicate (sand-lime) bricks were made in ancient times by molding lime mortar into brick shapes and allowing them to dry in air. Production continued into the 1880s, but air drying was slow. In 1866, accelerated hardening by the application of steam was introduced in the United States. Although an improvement, the process was still too long. Further advances were made when steam under pressure was used to cure the units in Germany in 1894. As a result, rapid production of modern calcium silicate bricks became practical. Calcium silicate bricks have since been introduced into most coun- tries. Calcium silicate units are now manufactured using sand, lime, and water with sand constituting from 90 to 95% of the dry mix. The sand can be replaced by or used in combination with crushed siliceous rock or gravel and the lime can be either quicklime or hydrated lime, 1.2.4 Concrete Masonry Units Conerete masonry units were first made at about the same time as the steam-cured calcium silicate units and as better quality cements were developed. The first blocks ‘were unpopular because they were solid and, therefore, heavy to handle. Techniques for making hollow blocks in wooden molds developed about 1866. A fairly dry mixture of sand, cement, and water was placed in the mold and tamped by hand. The mold was then removed, and the masonry unit allowed to cure in the air. During the next decade, a number of shapes were patented in Britain and the United States. Methods of manufacture using simple machines gradually improved, but it was not until 1914 that power tamping replaced hand tamping. In 1924, a stripper machine for demolding was successfully introduced. Another major advance was made in 1939 when tamping of the concrete mixture was replaced by vibration under pressure, Further developments in materials handling have resulted in the fully automated machines of today. Curing techniques have also progressed. Air curing with occasional water spraying has been replaced by water vapor curing, steam curing at atmospheric pressure, high-pressure steam curing (autoclaving), and burner curing systems. Modern concrete blocks are generally manufactured by vibrating a mixture of portland cement, sand, and aggregate in a mold under pressure, curing with low- pressure or high-pressure steam, and then, in some cases, exposing them to carbon dioxide in the curing chamber to reduce subsequent shrinkage of the units: Figure 1.5{a) shows a typical standard hollow concrete block. Two of many specially shaped units used to accommodate reinforcing bars are shown in Figs. 1.5(b) and (c). 1.2.5 Mortars Early mortars were basically used to fill cracks and provide uniform bedding for masonry units. Such mortars might have been clay, bitumen, or clay-straw mixtures and their weathering characteristics depended very much on local exposure condi- tions and the thinness of the joint. Sec. 1.2 History of Masonry Materials 5