SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS OF AIME
6300 North Central Expressway
Dallas, Tex.
THIS IS A PREPRINT --- SUBJECT TO CORRECTION
SURVEY OF NATURAL GAS PROGRESS
By
E. Jack Turner, Junior Member AIME
The Dow Chemical Co., Freeport, Tex.
EARLY USE OF NATURAL GAS
The earliest occurrence of natural gas is
not clearly known, but it is believed that it
was observed in the earliest of times. Some
accounts indicate that the Chinese used natural
gas many years before the birth of Christ as a
f'Uel for the evaporation of brine.
The inhabitants of Persia and the Russian
Caucasus were a cult of fire worshippers who
flourished for many years prior to 636 A.D., and
it is reported that they used natural ~s in
certain religious rites. Eternal fires burned
in the several temples that have been found at
Surakhani near Baku, and at Daughan, some 60-
miles southeast of the southeastern tip of the
Caspian Sea.
A relatively recent description of the
occurrence was presented by Sir Boverton Redwood
of London, England, who wrote in 1922 about
temples around the Caspian Sea where a constant
flame issued !'rom a low cliff in the rocks.
"The flame is, in color and general nature, not
unlike a lamp that burns with spirits, only more
pure", he wrote.
One of the oldest references to natural gas
in the United States is found in the diary of
General George Washington, who noted in 1775,
the burning springs along the Kanawha River about
nine-miles above Charleston, W. Va. General
Washington received this land, along with other
tracts, !'rom the State of Virginia as a reward fOl
his military services. Upon his death, he willed
1 acre of ground around the burning springs to
the public. A later account discloses that a
Capt. James Wilson, in 1815, discovered natural
gas in a well which he was deepening primarily
for salt.
Fredonia, N. Y. bears the distinction of
first using natural gas for the purpose of
illumination. It is reported that gas arising
from a !'resh-water stream eaught fire !'rom the
lantern of a housewife. A company was shortly
organized, and a hole l~ in. in diameter was
bored to a depth of 27-ft to the rock beneath. A
PAPER SPE- 26
NUMBER
cone-shaped gas holder was constructed over the
hole with a capaCity of 88 cu ft, and a wooden
pipeline was built in 1821 to convey the gas to
. some 30 houses where it was used for lighting at
a cost of $1.50 per month.
As the demand for petroleum grew, natural
gas took on a ''poor-relation'' position in one of
America's leading industries. The principle
reason for this was the very limited demand for
natural gas in comparison to oil. An early ac-
count relates that, when gas was found in the
early wells that had for their objectives the
discovery of new oil fields, the disappointment
to the operator was comparable to that which
attended the completion of a dry hole.
Usually the market for gas was limited in
new fields, and the great majority of operators
believed that, in order to salvage their capital
outlay, it was necessary to open the wells wide
and let the gas flow to the air. This was based
largely on experience, which had shown that
gradually the oil would enter the well and re-
place the gas. Very few operators at the time
realized that, later, such a lavish waste of
gas would actually reduce the total oil that
could be recovered !'rom the pool.
It was not generally understood that the
source of oil and gas was a common reservoir, and
poor practices on the part of the operator would
lead to reduction in total recovery and loss by
other operators.
Until after World War II if a well came in
as a gas well, it was promptly plugged and
abandoned. Now, year slater, these locat ions are
being eagerly sought out and these areas are again
being drilled. Today, gas is not on proration,
and gas production is limited only by the size
of the market to which it is connected.
PROGRESS IN PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION WORK
It is of interest to note that in 1856 the
city council of Marietta, Ohio, allowed the gas
company four years in which to build two miles of
pipeline. This line was constructed of pine, cut
 Table 5 Effect of Ten Cent per Hef
Increase i n Purchased Gas Costs
Case II
Case 1 Pa c ific
Ne w England Northwest
Res iden ce Res idence

Approximate ratio:
Off - peak Sa l es/Fir. Sales 0 . 3/ 1 3/1
Firm Customer:
Annual Usage - Hef 128 114

Price Increase
Per M;:f: Dir ec t 1 0.~ lO. Oc
Interrupt ible Pickup ...hQ... l.Q....Q...
Total ~/Hcf ~/ Hcf

Annual Additional Cost: $16.70 $45.60

NEW ENGLAND
rl,. I (JJIoIPIUI.lTWt: COSTS OF NINJA!.. ~NllAL DlIIiJ \I$.IIIiE

o
33 SURVEY OF NATURAL GAS PROGRESS
in lengths of' f'rom 2 to 8 f't. It was turned to
an outside diameter of' 6 in. and bored to an in-
side diameter of"2 in.
In 1870, a wooden pipeline was constructed,
25 miles in length, !'rom Elmira, N. Y. to Roches-
ter, N. Y. Joints were made by dipping them in
hot tar and driving them into a bell joint. A
stick of' hard wood, about 12 in. in diameter and
3 f't in length, was hung !'rom a horse above the
ditch. This served as a battering ram, and two
men could drive a Joint home with an average of'
nine blows. As experience was gained, as high as
230 joints were made in one day. Very f'ew leaks
were f'ound in the joints, and these were repaired
by wrapping the Joint with burlap soaked in tar
and secured in place by two half'-rings of' brand
iron bolted together. Leaks due to def'ective
pipe were repaired by wrapping the pipe with many
thicknesses of' burlap soaked in tar, and the
ditch f'illed-in to secure it in place. When the
supply of' burlap gave out and no more could be
obtained, the f'inest of' woolen blankets were
torn into strips and used.
Wrought-iron pipe was used also bef'ore the
f'irst steel pipe became available in 1887.
Chicago was the destination f'or the f'irst
long-distance pipeline. It was 120-miles long,
and the operating pressure was 525 psig. The
8-in. parallel wrought-iron line with screw
joints originated in Greentown, Ind., and was
built in 1891. That same year, the Dresser
coupling was invented and gave the pipe liner
another means f'or joining pipe, which was
superior to the leaky screw joints of' the f'irst
wrought-iron lines. With new valves and regu-
lators developed around 1900, turning on a gas
jet was no longer an adventure, and natural gas
was being burned in 17 states.
In 1880, the f'irst compressor station was
built, 13-miles !'rom Bradf'ord, Pa., powered by a
duplex compressor connected dire'ctly to a steam
engine. Oklahoma Natural Gas Co. built the f'irst
compressor station in the Southwest in 1910.
Pipelining in the early 20th century was
still an infant. The f'irst ditching machine and
the f'irst backfilling machine were developed in
1900 by the Buckeye Corp. In these early days,
nearly all lines were laid with "screwpipe",
joined together by threaded couplings and made up
with lay tongs. This was the day of' the "collar
pecker" who set the rhythm of' the laying crew by
tapping the coupling with a small hammer. Some
used a complicated Mahoney pipe machine, which
pulled itself' along on the pipe and actually
screwed the two joints together with a set of'
dogs, similar to those on a set of' tongs that are
used on a drilling rig. The Dresser coupling con-
sisted of' two pieces of' rubber in the ends of' a
long sleeve, pulled together by bolts with f'ollow
plates pushing the rubber against the side of' the
SPE-26
joints. In the early 1920's, there was a Vic-
taulic coupling designed which was an improvement
on the Dresser. However, the expense of' this
coupling limited its use.
The f'irst acetylene welding was done on
pipelines possibly as late as 1929. Since there
was no bellhole welding done, all joints were
welded together by the roll method. As many
joints were made as could be handled with the
equipment available, then lowered into the ditch
and put together with Dressers. All ditching,
except that done by the very expensive operation
of' the ditching machine, was done by hand. The
usual price f'or a ditch that would accommodate a
4-in. pipe, 18-in. deep, was 25 per jOint, paid
on piece work.
Backfilling, unless done by the then expen-
sive backfilling machine developed by Buckeye, was
done by hand with teams of' mules. All right-of'-
way work was done by hand and teams prior to
1930. In speaking of' pipeline right-of'-way, it
may prove interesting to look at Dow Chemical
Co.'s experience in the purchasing of' this right-
of'-way. The curve of' Fig .1 shows individual
pipeline right-of'-way costs and the trend that
has developed.
The f'irst dragline was developed by Buckeye
in 1912. From this machine, a pipe lowering-in
machine was developed that was similar to a drag-
line, with the exception that it had a short
boom. This machine would travel alongside the
ditch lowering-in the pipe. Prior to that time,
all pipe was lowered-in with mope poles and a'
tripod. This was a crude method which consisted
of' laying pipe along the side of' the ditch and
actually prying the pipe over into the ditch.
The f'irst sideboom tractor was developed in 1929
on a Fordson tractor. It was stif'f' boom with a
cat head arrangement f'or lowering the pipe into
the ditch af'ter the boom raised it. The f'irst
live boom and the f'irst dozer f'or backfilling
operations and right-of'-way was developed in the
early 1930's.
The f'irst electric welding on pipelines was
done about this time also. This early equipment
was so crude and heavy that the use of' it was al-
most a hindrance - until the more or less modern-
day machines were developed late in 1930.
With the electric welding came bellhole weld-
ing. This practically eliminated stove-pipe weld-
ing, lowering-in the pipe in sections, and join-
ing with Dresser couplings. The last Dresser-
coupling line, to my knowledge, was laid in 1930.
The f'irst pipe-coating material used was an
oxide grease, and this material was used quite ex-
tensively until the hot dope was developed. The
f'irst hot dope developed f'or pipelines was by the
Barrett Co. It was an asphalt material which was
very hazardous to use. This materiB.1 at f'irst was
SPE-26 E. JACK TURNER 34
applied without any primeJ:' or felt. It was ap- corrosion expected through a given area and, con-
plied by a traveling-type hood that would coat sequently, the protection requirements.
two joints at a time. The first line-traveling
coating and cleaning machines were developed In dry sandy soils, the useful life of bare
about 1935; also at that time, felt came into use steel lines might be 30 or 40 years, with very
as a cover over the hot dope. Some of the few leaks. On the other hand, in clay, marshy or
modern-day pieces of equipment which have came alkaline soils maybe a year or more would be the
into being since 1940 are the live boom, bull- extent of useful life, regardless of its original
dozer, the high lift, the backhoe, electric weld- wall thickness. In spite of the fact that wall
ing machines, rubber slings for handling, exter- thickness alone could not be relied on to prevent
nal and internal line:"up clamps, pipe slings, corrosion losses, heavy-walled pipe continued to
large side-boom tractors, four-wheel-drive ve- be speCified for many years.
hicles, helicopters for stringing pipelines and
mud boats for pipeline stringing instead of With today's thin-walled, high-strength pipe,
teams of mules. an excellent coating combined with adequate
cathodic protection is the most economical way of
This equipment produces faster laying of insuring maximum useful life of a pipeline.
pipe, but hand-in-hand with this comes quality
of workmanship. Some of the more recent quality- As many can recall, the early pipeline
control developments include low-voltage, nonde- coatings gave little, if any, protection from
structive holiday detectors used to test coatings corrosion. These first coatings were usually not
for porOSity, voids and continuity of coatings. much more than a black paint applied cold over a
X-ray equipment using a radioactive source is now section of line, with no thought given to an out-
used extensively in checking welds for porosity, side wrapper. However, coatings have imProved
cracks and other defects. All these and many through the years. Various mixtures andcombina-
other modern pieces of eqUipment are used by the tions of pitches, asphalts, mastics, greases, con-
pipeline contractor to install better pipelines, crete, plasticized enamels of asphalt and coal
faster. tar, plastic tapes and waxes are available today.

EISTORY OF PIPELINE CORROSION In metropolitan areas, cooperative "electro-

lySis committees" were formed to study and elimi-
Since the beginning of time, man has waged nate corrosion of utility lines caused by stray
a relentless war with nature's apparent dedica- D. C. currents .induced by the widespread use of
tion to the cause of decaying man's handiwork. electric railroads and streetcar systems. One of
The corrosion engineer must be ever alert to the first of these groups was the New Haven Elec-
nature's forces, which are quietly and constantly trolysis Committee, formed around 1913. At pres-
attacking man's underground steel structures. ent, virtually every major city in the U. S. has a
similar group which is studying and eliminating
On buried steel pipelines, this decay takes interference and electrolysis in the maze of
the form of corrosion caused principally by the underground lines.
action of soil chemicals which combine with the
pipe metal in the presence of moisture. This In 1911, a patent was issued to Herman Gep-
action is electrochemical in nature, and it sets pert of Kalsruhe, Germany, Which describes "A
up electrical forces that can be detected by the Method of Protecting Articles from Earth CUrrents ''.
corrosion engineer with his array of instruments It appears that the wording was broad enough to
without excavating the pipe. cover cathodic protection with impressed currents.
Geppert's description stated, "The article to be
Today, the corrosion engineer, armed with protected is connected to the negative pole of
valuable information and the experience of many any convenient source of electricity, while at the
pioneers and scientists, is the guardian of the same time, anodes sunk into the earth in suitable
underground pipelines. positions are connected to the positive pole of
the same source of electricity".
In the early days of pipeline operations,
the vast majority of lines were laid bare. Where It is not known if the men making early ex-
lines could be made of cast-iron, the corrosion periments with impressed current systems knew of
problem was negligible. However, with higher this patent, but it was not long before they were
pressures, uncoated steel lines were constantly protecting steel pipelines i~ this manner.
plagued with costly and untimely leaks. Probab-
ly the best way to state the matter would be to R. J. Kuhn reported, in 1928 at the first
say that the amount of external corrosion that U. S. Bureau of Standards Corrosion Conference,
might be expected on a given line was unpredict- that galvanic currents leave a corroding pipe at
able, particularly when a new line was laid into the corroding point (the anodic area) and gather
a new area. However, today, the corrosion engi- at other areas (the cathodic area). His sugges-
neer can make soil resistance surveys and pre- tion was that corrosion would be stopped by re-
dict with remarkable accuracy the degree of versing this flow of current. He also applied
35 SURVEY OF NATURAL GAS PROGRESS SPE-26

this idea ~ protecting a high-pressure welded- Recently, a 400-mile coated pipeline system
steel gas system in New Orleans that same year. in soils with resistivities ranging !'rom 11,500
to 52,000 ohm-em was protected with magnesium
There were many pioneers during the early anodes. This has extended considerably the range
1930 ' s whose work made cathodic protection with of soils in which galvanic magnesium anodes can
impressed currents a practical tool to prohibit be used.
corrosion. Some of' these early pioneers were
C. F. Meyerherm, A. F. Ganz, otto Knopp, W. R. Also, the aluminum industry is not letting
Schneider, Starr Thayer, o. C. Roddy, G. I. Rodes, grass grow under its feet. It was reported re-
O. C. Mudd and J. M. Pearson. cently that a 4-in aluminum pipeline about 4-
miles long was laid and literally glued together
Early sources of electrical power used were with epoxy. They assure us that more-and-more
gasoline- and natural gas-driven generators, pipelines will be constructed of aluminum.
wind chargers, and using the pipeline as part of
the negative ground return of the electric stree~ There will be many more changes in the pipe-
car or railroad. Early anodes used on these im- line industry. These are the results of techni-
pressed current systems were usually junk pipe, cal developments and economic considerations. For
scrap iron or railroad rails. instance, one of the most misunderstood and cost-
ly appendages of the pipeline industry is the
Today, the corrosion engineer has a large road casing. Before the advent of complete
choice of improved rectifiers to convert A. C. cathodic protection, the road casing did a neces-
to D. C. Also, inert anodes of various substance! sary job in a reasonably good manner. It pro-
are available for :lmproved power efficiency. tected the carrier pipe !'rom excessive loads and
stresses. It prevented corrosion of the carrier
Sacrificial galvanic anodes of magnesium and pipe under roads, which occurred due to the dif-
zinc were developed in the early 1940's. Galvanic ference in oxygen concentration around the pipe.
anodes of magnesium and zinc do not need an ex- Aside !'rom the extra cost of installing casings,
ternal power source. They can be installed where when coated line is cathodically protected, the
and when needed, and are very economical and ef- casing is actually preventing current !'rom flow-
fective in controlling corrosion. The develop- ing onto the pipe inside of the casing. Also,
ment of the galvanic anode formed an invaluable casings cause water to collect and be trapped
link in the total underground corrosion control. next to the carrier pipe. It therefore follows
that a well-coated section of extra-heavy walled
The National Association of Corrosion Engi- pipe with cathodic protection would be much more
neers (NACE) was an outgrowth of an organization economical and quite adequate !'rom any safety
started in 1936 by a small group of pipeline standpoint.
engineers. The Mid-Continent Protection Associa-
tion was formed and in 1940 affiliated with the In summing, good pipeline managers see cor-
Petroleum Industry Electric Association (PIEA). rosion protection not as another expense but,
In 1943, this group broke with the PIEA, and the rather, as an economical and necessary investment.
NACE was incorporated on Oct. 8, 1945, as a non- Particularly in these days when creeping inflation
profit corporation under the laws of the State of is pushing construction and maintenance costs ever
Texas. Under the auspices of the NACE, corrosion higher, it is absolutely necessary that everyone
prevention knowledge has been collected and dis- exert the utmost effort to insure a max:lmum re-
seminated for industry's use through the monthly turn for every dollar spent.
publication of its magazine, Corrosion, by spon-
soring technical meetings, short courses and MEASUREMENT OF NATURAL GAS
attracting talented scientists and engineers into
the field of corrosion prevention. Since the days of bartering, measurement of
quantities of material has been a most :lmportant
This briefly has brought us up to date in the aspect of community life. One of the first means
field of corrosion prevention. What about the of measuring quantities must have been the filling
future'l I believe better things are to come !'rom of a container of a known capacity - be it with
the minds of men and the research laboratories. water, wine, or wheat. This sytem of measurement
eventually led to the development of the "two
Today, gas well, stream-flow-driven genera- diaphragm slide-valve meter".
tors are being tested and developed. This power
can be used for both cath.odic protection and The first practical gas meter was developed
operating automatic telemetering equipment. in 1815 by Samuel Clegg in England. It was very
similar to the present day ''wet-test" meter. In
In the near future, we can expect to use 1817, it was improved by John Malam and fUrther
thermoelectric generators which convert heat improved in 1820 by Samuel Crosby.
directly into electricity with economical ef-
ficiencies up to 100- or 2OO-w sizes. Croll and Richards developed the two-dia-
phragm slide-valve meter in 1844, and their design
SPE-26
has remained relatively unchanged to this day.
Consider the case of a man selling a
quantity of liquid from a cask. What must he do
to measure the quantities accurately? First of
all, he must be sure his measure will hold the
agreed amount - say 1 quart. Secondly, the meas-
ure must not leak while he is filling it. He
must also be sure the spigot is completely closed
while he is dumping the measure, and he must make
a true count of the number of times he dumps his
measure. These are the things that a two-dia-
phragm slide-valve meter does - but it is done
with four "measures" operating simultaneously.
The number of such meters in service today
would be difficult to estimate. Each of you
present today probably buys fuel g;a.s to heat
your home through one.
An interesting sidelight on the development
of the two-diaphragm slide-valve meter is the
question of capacity definitions. You have all
probably heard such meters referred to as a 3-
light, 5 -light or 50 -light meter. The first
rated capacity of meters was based on the then
standard English burner, which consumed 6 cu ft
per hour. In those days, these burners were also
used as a means of artificial lighting - hence,
a 3-light meter had sufficient capacity to
measure the g;a.s required for three burners or
lights. This term has carried over to present
terminology.
At least as much gas (if not more) is meas-
ured each year by ''bead "-type meters as by ,
positive displacement-type meters. The head
meter is really a subclassification of the "rate"
meter. Let us trace the development of the head
meter.
The head meter is characterized by the fact
that its primary device (usually an orifice)
creates a pressure differential which is a func-
tion of the fluid velOCity and density. The
metering system consists of a primary device for
creating the differential pressure and a second-
ary device which measures and indicates, or re-
cords, this differential.
The principles involved are ancient. The
hour glass is probably the earliest example of
this principle still in use today. Roman citi-
zens drank and bathed in water metered through
orifices.
In the early 1600 IS, two Italians laid the
foundation for present-day orifice meters., One,
a Signor Benedetta Castelli, showed that the
product of the velocity and the area was equal to
the volumetric rate of flow; the other, a Signor
Evangelista Torricelli, showed that the velocity
through an orifice was proportional to the square
root of the differential pressure across the
orifice. Professor Giovanni Poleni, professor of
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~E==urope. ______________________________________~
E. JACK TURNER
mathematics at Padua. U., in the earle' 1700's was
working on orifice discharges. John Bernoulli,
in 1738, developed his theorem upon which orifice-
meter measurement is based, and which is valid to
this day. Pre-dating Bernoulli' s theorem by six
years, Henri Pitot presented a paper entitled
"Description of a Machine for Measuring the Ve-
locity of Running Water and the Speed of Vessels".
Pitot was one of the few to see his principle put
into commercial applications before he died. The
original work, which resulted in the development
of the present-day Venturi tube, was published in
1797 by Giovanni Battista Venturi. In 1887,
Clemens Herschel developed the commercial Venturi
tube. Of course, we have been talking so far
about measruing liquids, prilllarily water, by these
means. Gas measurement by Venturi meter follows
very closely the laws of adiabatic expansion.
This leads to rather complicated and unwieldy
equations. We now realize that this objection
could have been overcome by applying the hydraulic
equations with second-order corrections. Never-
theless, this objection and the lack of other
means of measuring large quantities of natural
gas, led to the investigation of the sharp, thin-
plated, square-edged, concentric orifice in the
early 20th century. Thus far, the orifice plate
has proved to be satisfactory for measuring
natural gas and many other fluids, both compres-
sible and noncompressible.
In 1903, T. R. Weymouth of United Natural Gas
Co., Oil City, Pa., started experimenting on the
measurement of compressible fluids with the sharp,
thin-plated, square-edged, concentric orifice. He
correlated his discharge coefficients to the ratio
of orifice diameter to line diameter. His work
was based on the differential pressures measured
I-in. upstream and I-in. downstream :from the face
of the plate - dimensions Which were later to be-
came standard for much of American industry as
"flange taps". In 1913, E. o. Hickstein pub-
lished similar data on experiments performed on
equipment dimensioned to present-day "pipe taps".
In 1935, the American Gas Association (AGA)
published more exact data (which was based on 10
years of testing) on flange taps. This same work
updated Hickstein's pipe-tap data. This work is
known as Gas Measurement Committee Report No.2.
Actually, the AGA published its first work
in 1927, a preliminary report which was subse-
quently revised in 1929. Report No. 1 was issued
in 1930. Report No. 2 was really a joint effort
of AGA and ASME, and representatives of the U. S.
Bureau of Standards reviewed the data.
Also published in 1935 by ASME was data on
"Vena Contracta" taps. Regressing just a little,
Horace Judd published the first paper on eccentric
and segmental orifices in his paper to the ASME
meeting in New Orleans, La. in 1916. Germans have
done considerable work on "corner taps" which have
become standard for much of the continent of
37 SURVEY OF NATURAL GAS PROGRESS
The latest authoritative publication, or
course, is AGA Committee Report No.3. published
in April, 1955. Essentially, this report updates
Report No. 2 to allow the use or larger-diameter
and heavier-walled meter tubes. The coerricients
were calculated to a dirrerent pressure base, but
the results are the same.
The theory or oririce-meter measurement is
widely published. Simply stated, the equation
involved is
. . . . . . . (1)
where Q = rate or rlow at base conditions,
Cl = oririce rlow constant,
h = dirrerential pressure, and
P =Absolute static pressure.
The orince rlow constant (C l ) contains many high diUerential with a relatively small amount
correction ractors. It is derined as rollows.
.... . is required since the ratio of the average veloci-
. .. . . . (2) ty to the center velocity in any conduit varies
in which
~ = basic oririce ractor (includes constant!
assuming base temperature = 60e>:F, base pressure = highest pressure recovery is required. The secret
14.73 psia, coeUicient or discharge ror inrinite or
Reynolds number is a runction or Beta ratio, and
speciric gravity = 1.0),
Fr =Reynolds number ractor (corrects co-
erricient or discharge to actual value or exist-
ing Reynolds number),
Y = expansion ractor (corrects ror the
change in density or a compressible rluid caused
by the reduction in pressure upon passing through
the oririce),
Fpb = pressure base ractor (corrects ror a
change in pressure base fiom 14.73 psia to de-
sired condition),
Ftr : temperature base ractor (corrects ror
actual rlowing temperature !'rom 60OF),
Fg = speciric gravity ractor (corrects ror
actual speciric gravity !'rom 1.0),
Fpv = supercompressibility ractor (corrects
ror deviations !'rom the perrect gas laws), and
SPE-26
The volumetric rate multiplied by the density
gives a "weight" rate or rlow. The "weight" rate
or flow, divided by the density at a base condi-
tion, yields the volumetric rate or flow at base
conditions. Almost all or the correction ractors
listed previously deal with correcting one or the
two densities mentioned.
There are in commercial use today several
other primary devices. The more common are listed
as rollows.
1. The Venturi Meter - usually used where a
high-pressure recovery is required. For best re-
sults, it should be sized ror a Reynold's number
greater than 200,000.
2. Flow Nozzles - usually used where a high-
pressure recovery is desirable, but where space
limitations preclude the use of a Venturi tube.
3. Foster Flow Tube - usually used where a
or restriction is desired.
4. Pitot Tube - seldom used in commercial
measurement. A complete traverse or the conduit
widely. Pi tot tubes are quckly rouled by roreign.
matter.
5. The Dall Tube - usually used where the
its abnormally high pressure recovery reature
is exceedingly obscure. At most velocities, the
Dall Tube will waste less than hall as much energy
as even the long-cone Venturi meter.
There also are primary devices on the market
today which use centrirug&l rorce to create a
pressure diUerentialj but, since they are seldom
ir ever used to measure gas, they are merely men-
tioned in passing.
Several vendors have put on the market tur-
bine meters or one design. or another. Almost all
claim ranges of 10: 1. You can get a range or
50:1 or better, with oririce meters by changing
oririce diameters when necessary.
Some comp:Lnies have claimed a moderate degree
of success with the mass flow meter, notably with
the one produced by the General Electric Co.
Cost-Wise, the oririce meter has them all at
a disadvantage. From an accuracy standpoing, the
oririce meter is comparable, at least, ir properly
maintained and operated.

Fm = manometer ractor (corrects ror the PIPELINE FLOW EQUATIONS

weight or gas column above the mercury in "wet"
There are a number or equations whic!:\ will
meters) predict the pressure drop in gas pipelines with
varying degrees or accuracy. Allor them have
The rirst quantity measured in oririce meter-
ing is the dHrerential pressure across the ori- roughly the same rorm, and some of the more com-
rice. From thiS, the velocity is inrerred. The monly used are listed herein. For a more compre-
product or the velocity and the area is the hensive study, the U. S. Bureau or Mines'ME-
volumetric rate or rlow at pipeline conditions. graph No.6 is recommended.
SPE-26 E. JACK TURNER 38
These equations can be subdivided into Pittsburgh formula:
three categories: (1) those which consider the
friction factor a constant; (2) those which con-
sider the friction factor to be a function of Q = 48.469 d 5/2
line diameter; and (3) those which consider the
friction factor to be a function of Reynold's
number. The following are formulas wherein the co-
efficient of friction is expressed as some func-
In general, those in the last classification tion of diameter.
yield more accurate results than those in the
second, but they are more difficult to handle. Oliphant formula:
Those in the second classification usually give
better results than those in the first, and they
usually are just as easy to handle. 42 1/2
Q =
The general form of the gas flow equation (8)
theoretically can be predicted to be

_ To
~ - K Po
[(pl -
G T L F
P22) d 5] 1/2
(3)

in Which Unwin formula:

~ = volume, cu ft/hour at Po and To'

To =base temperature, ~,
Q : 3302
.0044 d(1
5
f 12
7d
J 1/2

Po =base pressure, psia,

K = constant 1.6156,
PI = inlet pressure, psia,
. P2 = outlet pressure, psia,
d internal diameter of pipe, in.,
G = specific gravity, air 1.0, = Assumes f = .044
r ~ p1
,2

(1 + 12)
1/2

T ~ flowing temperature, 7d
L = length of pipe, miles, and
f = coefficient of friction. Weymouth formula:
For canparison purposes, all equations are
listed in the same form, which will not be the
same as those appearing in most literature.
(10)
The following are formulas wherein the co-
efficient of friction is assumed to be a Assumes f = .008
constant. d 1/3
Cox formula: California (modified Weymouth) formula:

43.867 d 5/2 ~12 ~ p221. 1/2 1/2

E j .. (4)
(11)
Rix formula:
Spitzg!ass formula:
= 48.607 d 5/2
. .Q = 59925 1/2

Towl formula:

= 50.028 d 5/2 I;_....J 2_~_--'-'pz....21. 1/2 1/2

_ L j .. (6) (12)
Assumes f : 1 + ..l:.2. + .03d
d
39 SURVEY OF NATURAL GAS PROGRESS SPE-26

The following formulas express the coef-
ficient of friction as a function of Reynold's
number. (All formulas define the value of the
coefficient of friction (f) for substitution in
the "General" equation.)
the same time, "kerosene" became available, and it
too found a ready market. In 1,859, there were 50
coal-oil and kerosene plants in the U. S. produc-
ing 22,750 gal/day and which, eventua~, dis-
placed the whale-oil market.

Fritzsche formula: To study the cost of natural gas, an under-

f :.0048 N - 1/7 ... ...... standing is needed of the markets in which gas
must compete with other fuels. The end markets
for gas are divided into three general areas -
wherein N : Ib of fluid flowing/second. domestic, commercial and industrial. Of the three
markets, the Texas Div. of The Dow Chemical Co.
Lees formula: is primarily concerned with the industrial market.
Being a large consumer of gas, we natural~ are
f = .0018 + .12.3.
(Rd)
... . (14) deep~ interested in costs of fuel gas. In 1937,
according to the U. S. Bureau of Mines, industrial
.35
gas consumption in the U. S. was I-trillion 882
White formula: billion cu ft' which represented approximately
80 per cent of the total gas consumed. In 1950,
f = .08 .25 industrial consumers accounted for 73.7 per cent
Rd of the total gas consumed in the u. S., and by
1958 it was slight~ over 66 per cent. This in-
McAdams and Sherwood formula: dicates that the domestic and commercial markets
are expanding faster than the industrial market.
f : .0054 + 4f.3j6
Rd (16) The industrial market is usual~ broken down
into several categories - field use, carbon-black
This list would not be complete without the manufacturing, electrical utilities, petroleum
Panhandle equation. refining, cement making, and other industrials.
Of these categories, field uses predominated in
Q = 435.87 (To) 1.0788 1937, but in 1958 the "other industrial uses If
(po) (which include chemical companies) accounted for
more than 60 per cent of the industrial market.

Since industrial consumers are the major

d ~.6182 purchasers of gas, it is natural that they are
.5394 concerned with costs in comparison with costs of
various fuels and raw materials that can substi-
......... tute for gas. The main portion of gas costs ~
be broken down into two parts: (1) wellhead price.
of gas, and (2) transmission costs. Of the two
It is well established that a correlation costs, the wellhead price constitutes the major
exists between the friction factor and the pipe portion of cost and present~ is the cost most
diameter. It is !Uso established that a corre- easi~ influenced. Involved in determining well-
lation exists between the Reynold's number and head prices are factors such as state gas taxes,
the friction :factor. What this latter relation gas quality, size of-reserves, availability of gas
is, is not so well established. There are too to existing transmission lines, etc. The cost of
many variables peculiar to individual pipelines, gas, as in any product, is always influenced by
e.g., line scale, water in low places, etc. To _ the law of supply and demand.
predict pressure drops, we use Weymouth's formu-
la. A more accurate way would be to run tests on The demand for natural gas in 1950 was ap-
a line immediate~ after installation. proximately 6 trillion cu ftj in 1954, it was 10
trillion cu ftj and by 1975, the demand is ex-
COST, UTIUZATION, AND COMPARISON OF GAS WITH pected to reach 22.5 trillion cu ft, &ccording to
OTHER FUElS Daniel Parson of the AGA. This amounts to an
annual increase in demand of approximate~ 5
The natural-gas industry must be ever mind- per cent.
ful of the fate of short-sighted industries such
as whale oil. As the demand for whale oil in- It was necessary for the gas transmission
creased, the supp~ became scarce. Thus, in ccmpanies to expand to meet the increased demand.
1859, the price of the product rose to $2.50/gal, Gas had to be transported from the field to the
which gave incentive to other industries to move market place. To do this, the miles of transmis-
in on the illuminating-oil market. sian pipeline more than doubled from 1945 to 1958,
as reported by the American Petroleum Institute.
"Coal oil", discovered by James Young of The 1200-mile, 200-MMcf/D pipeline laid by
Scotland, found a ready market in 1849. About
SPE-26 E. JACK TURNER
Tennessee Gas Transmission Co. contributed
greatly to extending the area of :use and the
demand. The number of miles are significant,
but it should be pointed out that the diameter
of line laid in 1945 was generally smaller than
the line laid in 1958. Obviously, this leads to
a tremendous increase of pipeline capacity.
Since the demand is increasing constantly,
it follows that selling prices are increasing.
In 1945, the average cost to industrial con-
sumers in Texas was 9.1/Mcf, as reported by the
U. S. Bureau of Mines; by 1953, the cost had
risen to ll.7/Mcf. Currently, the average cost
to industrial consumers in Texas is about 17./Mcf
The consumption, cost and miles of transmission
pipeline are plotted in Fig. 2.
In trying to predict future costs of natural
gas, a trend was developed by surveying Dow's
past contract prices and looking into the long-
range escalation clauses of present contracts.
From this came a prediction that an average in-
crease of 3/4 per year is probable until 1970.
At that time, the cost of gas should begin to
level out - an increase of l every five years
is anticipated. These costs should be an indica-
tion for the middle Gulf Coast area only. In
1965, the wellhead prices paid for gas Rhould be
in the range of 2l to 23/Mcf, and by 1975, 25
to 27/Mcf.
The cost to the industrial consumer in this
area should be increased from 4 to 5/Mcf for
transmission costs. The industrial user would
then pay around 31/Mcf in 1975. I f the presentl~
forecasted increases continue at the predicted
rates, the use of gas as a fuel will face compe-
ti tion from other fuel sources. It is felt that
the leveling-off of gas prices in the 1970's will
be primarily caused by competition from the coal
industry. However, not to be over looked as a
factor in the establishing of .prices is the re-
cent decision of the U. S. Supreme Court which
upheld the Federal Power Commission's statement,
" considering the factors of end-use of gas and
the price to be paid in considering the case".
Coal, enough for 1,500 years, lies in the
midwest and the north. Shipped by water, it
could serve industries of the south for a long
time after oil and gas are presumably gone.
Long-range estimates of gas and oil reserves
have been placed at 100 years; however, this is a
much-disputed figure.
To ascertain the price relationship between
coal and gas for use in firing boilers, the
curve of Fig. 3 was prepared by D. W. Watzke of
Dow. This curve compares the cost of gas and
coal, taking into consideration the following:
(1) difference in fuel combustion efficiency;
(2) outage time; and (3) 35 to 45 per cent less
investment cost for gas equipment.
40
The curve does not take into consideration
the additional cost of ash-handling equipment,
additional labor, or coal storage facilities.
From this curve, it can be said that gas de-
livered at 20/Mcf can meet and beat the compe-
tition of coal at $2.50/con. If the curve pre-
dicting future costs of gas was placed with the
comparative price of gas and coal, we could pre-
dict what the cost of coal would have to be in
1970 to compete with gas. This has been done in
Fig. 4. From this curve, it appears that coal
would be competitive in the 1980's. In fact,
industries and utilities on the waterways are
now considering the desirability, and in some
instances in Louisiana, of constructing their
gas-fired boilers high enough to install coal-
burning eqUipment when gas becomes more expen-
sive than coal.
No study dealing with today's fuels can be
complete without at least some passing note on
the possibilities of atomic energy. It should
be emphasized that all sources of energy - wood,
coal, oil, natural gas and atomic energy are
interchangeable and that the choice of a particu-
lar type of fuel is dictated by a variety of
factors including cost, convenience of utiliza-
tion, location of supply, etc. However, any one
of them can be used to produce the equivalent of
any of the others.
In the decomposition of I Ib of uranium,
the heat produced is approximately 36 million
Btu. On complete combusion, 1 Ib of coal gives
approximately 12,000 Btu, and 1 Mcf of natural
gas gives approximately I-million Btu. Thus,
the decomposition of 1 Ib of uranium produces
heat equivalent to 3-million Ib of coal, or
36 MMcf of natural gas.
With coal at $5.00/ton or natural gas at
21/Mcf, on a heat basis, 'I lb of uranium decom-
position would be worth $8,000. While the cost
of heat alone is not a fair comparison, it does
indicate the relative range; and after allowing
for the new problems associated with atomic
energy, it is probable that the cost per pound
of the uranium decomposed would have to be some-
where in the range of $4,000 to $8,000.
Estimating the time at which atomic power
will be economically available is difficult be-
cause of the rapidly changing character of the
field. Several such estimates, ranging from 5
to 25 years, have been made by various engineers
and scientists. It is significant that, in
general, those who are most familiar with the
field tend to give the shorter estimates.
I have discussed the use of gas as a fuel,
which in the case of Dow is very Significant;
but our interest in gas is not limited to this
use alone because gas is one of the prime raw-
material sources for the manufacture of
petrochemicals.
41 SURVEY OF NATURAL GAS PROGRESS
According to A. P. Beutel, vice-president
Dow and general manager of Dow I s Texas Div ., "a
discussion of natural gas and petroleum in the
south is in order since they have attracted many
a company southward. The industrial development
of the south, and much of our nation, was set in
motion by Spindletop, the great gusher well
drilled in Beaumont in 1901. Spindletop and the
thousands of wells which followed, supplied the
petrochemical industry with essential raw
materials and low-cost energy."
The petrochemical industry is characterized
by tremendous growth in less than 40 years.
In 1920, two companies had a production of 75
tons per year of petrochemicals. Today, about
200 companies deliver a production approaching
20 million tons per year. The petrochemical
pioneers were Union Carbide Chemical Co. and
Standard Oil Co. (N. J.). Carbide is regarded
to be one of the founders of the industry since
it pioneered the manufacture of ethylene and its
conversion into a whole line of useful inter-
mediates and end-products. Jersey Standard
pioneered in manufacture of isopropyl alcohol,
using propylene from cracking still gases.
Today, isopropyl alcohol is still the major
product derived from propylene.
In 1930, petrochemical production was 0.14
billion Ib, or 1 per cent of the total chemical
production in the U. S. In 1957, petrochemical
production was 38 billion Ib, 26 per cent of the
total chemical production in the U. S. Accord-
ing to W. E. Kuhn in an article published in
the Oil and Gas Journal, of the 38 billion Ib of
production, approxilllately 80 per cent is produced
in the Gulf Coast area. This has resulted in
a substantial increase in the consumption of
natural gas. The intra-state consumption of the
natural gas produced in Texas has increased from
25.7 per cent in 1928 to 52.1 per cent in 1955.
Kuhn predicted that petrochemical prodUction will
be 85 billion lb in 1965, or 40 per cent of the
total U. S. chemical production.
The prediction of increased chemical pro-
duction will cause the industry to look for
greater quantities of raw materials to meet this
demand. An estimate of raw-materials demands for
1965 is approximately 50-per cent more than is
now being consumed. Where are these raw materi-
als to come fran? Presently, about 50 per cent
of the petrochemical industries I raw material
comes from by-products of the refinery opera-
tions, and the rest from natural gas and LPG.
Supplies of raw material from these sources
should be adequate to meet the demand of the near
future. However, same adjustments will come
about in the amount each supplier will contribute
to the industry.
At present, roughly 35 per cent of the
danestic refinery capaCity is located in Texas
and LOUisiana, as is 80 per cent of the petro-
SPE-26
chemical manufacture capacity. It is signifi-
cant to note that, in the years between 1954 and
1956, polymerization has increased 13 per cent
of the total capacity in the U. S.; in contrast
to thiS, there was l8.2-per cent reduction in
polymerization capaCity along the Gulf Coast.
Undoubtedly, the increased demand of the petro-
chemical industry for raw materials was an
important factor affecting this decrease.
The estimate is that the petrochemical
industry will contiOue to grow at a"faster
rate than expansion of the refined product
capacity. The percentage gain may be twice as
big for petrochemicals as for refined products
over the period to 1965.
If this is true, then the petrochemical
industry must turn to natural gas and LPG for
more raw materials, or to other sources such as
by-products from coal, or agricultural material.
How much of this market natural gas can capture
is doubtful at this time. In the past, we have
seen gas as a prime raw material for chemicals;
at this time, however, natural gas is pricing
itself out of the market in favored localities
where a trend to propane, or even butane, has
developed in the manufacture of olefins.
Companies such as Carbide and Dow are turning
back to cracking of heavier petroleum factions
to make ethylene.
It is apparent that the natural-gas industry
faces challenges in the near future from compet-
ing energy sources and raw-materials markets;
but just as these challenges arise, scientific
researchers are uncovering new uses for natural
gas almost daily. Market patterns will change,
costs will rise, but the Gas Age is well under-
way - and it seems certain to last for a long,
but undeterminable, period.
 PIPELINE RIGHT-OF-WAY COSTS & TREND

- - Cost Trend COST & CONSUIIPTION OF NATURAL GAS &

MILES OF NATURAL GAS TRANSIIISSION LINES
- Actual Costs
SOURCE: U.S. BUREAU OF MINES & API
- - Miles of Gas Transmission Lines
- - Consumption of Natural Gas
--- .. Cost

160

,, 14 150

....
12 130 ::;!
~1;; , .;
;;
,,=
~o

..-;:
8
, ii ~!
;
~ ~

'" i
>-
/ 110
~
~!!:

!
10
~ ~ / ~:
-,;:.
i. '.,
/
i8
0

"' & / !IO

~

J ;::. /
~ /
/ 111

/ .2!1 f~
./ 0>
~

-
./ ,-" ,;" .15 ;;; ~G
0<>
/" -,' "'- ~;
--~.~
"
-,'
.10
~ ,e:
!;;
.115 i&
Fig. 2

EQUIVALENT COSTS OF GAS & COAL BASED ON

--- - --
BTU CONTENT

--- ---
-=-=::-- ---
-r-
_ Actual fuel Btu comparison
- - True fuel comparison
--- - --
Extension of del coal costs witb 1'1 HIlIII increase
& 1~ anDual decrease iR cost.
10

---
--- --- ---
Conversion of del. coal cost to del. gas cost - True
.38
/
.30
J -::::..:::/=- - - -,."..,-_.:=----=
Fuel comparison
--
_ ..,.,
---
=: - , -

-----~
~
<>
S .22
Predicted middle Gulf Coast cost of gas del. to
Industrial Consumer.
Avg. cost of gas d'\dUSlrial Consumer - Texas.
'"
.14
SOURCE: U.S. BUREAU OF MINES

.06L--~~1~94~8-------~19~56~--------~19~64~------'1~~~2---------~1930
Gas Cost, $ Per MCF Fig. 4
Fig. 3