Air conditioning systems

This lecture and the following lectures on air-and-water and all-water systems are based
upon a common context. Key to this context is the idea of a thermal zone.

A zone is an area of a building that must be provided with separate control if design intent is
to be met. From an HVAC system perspective, the design intent that is most commonly of
concern when establishing zones is the provision of thermal comfort. Providing for
acceptable indoor air quality may also influence zoning decisions (as is noted later relative
to VAV system analysis).
All-Air Central System
All-air systems provide sensible and latent cooling capacity solely
through cold supply air delivered to the conditioned space.
No supplemental cooling is provided by refrigeration sources within
the zones and no chilled water is supplied to the zones. Heating may be
accomplished by the same supply airstream, with the heat source
located either in the central system equipment or in a terminal device
serving a zone. A zone is an area controlled by a thermostat, while a
room refers to a partitioned area that may or may not have a separate
thermostat.
System arrangement:
In all-air system, all air condition processes (cooling, cooling and
dehumidification, heating, humidification and air filtration) are done
with Air Handling Unit AHU at the machine room. The conditioned
air is supplied through duct network to one or several zones. Air is
returned to machine room through return duct network or false ceiling
or direct to AHU.
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Advantages:
Outside air is introduced and mixed with return air is done at
machine room.
Humidification process can be executed at machine room with all-
air system.
All maintenance work is done at machine room.
Condensate resulting from dehumidification is executed only at
machine room.
Major noise-generating equipment is centrally located in a space that
can be acoustically isolated, allowing for reasonable noise control
opportunities.
There is no condensate drain piping or HVAC power wiring in
occupied areas

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Among the specific advantages of all-air systems are:

Such systems are well suited to air-side economizer use, heat recovery,
winter humidification, and large-volume outdoor air requirements.

They are the best choice for close control of zone temperature and
humidity.

They are generally a good choice for applications where indoor air quality
is a key concern.

They are amenable to use in smoke control systems.

There is simple seasonal changeover.

Such systems generally permit simultaneous heating and cooling in

different zones.

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Disadvantages:

Duct networks occupy respectable volume as well as zones heights. Also,

in most applications duct network needs to hide above false ceilings.

Skelton ( beams and columns ) of building may cause obstacles for

networks.

Individual zone control is carried out via additional terminal equipment

otherwise zones may be subjected to different temperatures according to
part load of each one.
All-air systems use significant amounts of energy to move air
(approximately 40% of all-air system energy use is fan energy).

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Individual Zone Control:
Terminal Variable Air Volume VAV:
The air is supplied at the normal supply condition. If certain zones
are subjected to part load condition, room thermostat obtains signal
to damper motor DM to close a damper D partially to obtain less
supply air flow rate. The supply fan at machine room shall be
provided with frequency inverter.

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Terminal Reheater:
The air is supplied at the normal supply condition. If certain zones
are subjected to part load condition, room thermostat obtains signal
to zone reheater to increase the temperature of the supply air.

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Combined Terminal Variable Air Volume VAV and Reheater:
The air is supplied at the normal supply condition. If certain zones are
subjected to part load condition, room thermostat obtains signal to
damper motor DM to close a damper D partially to obtain less
supply air flow rate for minimum 50 % of the original flow rate. With
further decrease in load, Thermostat begins to actuate the zone
terminal reheater. The supply fan at machine room shall be provided
with frequency inverter.

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 SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND BASIC PSYCHROMETRICS
Proper representation of each load on a psychrometric chart will help you
understand the interaction of the loads and their effects on system design.
The following figure (a) shows a schematic diagram of a representative
single-duct, single-zone, all-air system. Figure b shows a psychrometric
analysis for this system in cooling mode; Figure c shows a heating mode
analysis. Heat flows (denoted as q) and airflows are indicated by arrows, and
temperatures are indicated as t. Subscripts
identifying points in the sequence of airflow are:
R = room
rp = return plenum
rd = return duct
o = outdoor air
m = mixed air
cc = cooling coil leaving air temperature
hc = heating coil leaving air temperature
rf = return air fan sf = supply air fan
sd = supply ductwork
s = supply 11
qSR: room sensible
qLR: room latent loads
qSo: outdoor air sensible
qLo: outdoor air latent loads
qcc: total cooling load

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Note that the air discharged from the cooling coil absorbs heat from the
supply air fan and the supply air ductworkbefore air enters the
roomaccounting for the difference in dry-bulb temperature between
points cc and s in Figure. Room sensible and latent loads due to
occupants, lights, equipment, solar radiation, opaque envelope
transmission, etc., are picked up and carried to the return air plenum by
the return airstream. Additional heat may be picked up from recessed
light fixtures, a floor or roof above, and a return air fan, accounting for
the increase in temperature between points R and r. Some of the air is
exhausted, while outdoor ventilation air (o) is taken in, resulting in a
mixed airstream condition m, which is cooled and dehumidified by the
cooling coils, producing the state of air at cc. In this arrangement a
heating coil is provided immediately downstream of the cooling coil to
raise the air temperature as required to provide winter heating. Usually,
the heating coil is upstream of the cooling coil and acts as a preheating
coil in winter. Such an arrangement provides some freeze protection for
a chilled water cooling coil. 13
 USEFUL EQUATIONS FOR AIR-SIDE SYSTEM DESIGN

Basic Calculations
1. Sensible heat capacity or load; qs, Btu/h [W]
qs = (specific heat) (density) (mass flow rate) (temperature difference)
[qs = (1.006 kJ/kgK) (1.204 kg/m3) (1000 W/s kJ) (0.001 L/m3) (t)]
[qs = (1.2) (L/s) (t)]

where
qs = sensible heat corresponding to a change in dry-bulb temperature
(t) for a given volumetric flow of standard air

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Latent heat capacity or load; qL, Btu/h [W]
qL = (latent heat of vaporization) (mass flow rate) (difference in
humidity ratio)

[qL = (2503 kJ/kg water) (1.20 kg air/m3) (0.001 L/m3) (W)]

[qL = (3.0) (L/s) (W)]
where
qL = latent heat corresponding to the change in (absolute) humidity
ratio
W= change in humidity ratio, pound of water per pound of dry air
[g/kg]

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Total heat capacity or load; qt, Btu/h [W]
qt = (air mass flow rate) (change in enthalpy)
[qt = (1.20 kg air/m3) (0.001 L/m3) (1000 W/s kJ) (L/s) (h)]
[qt = (1.2) (L/s) (h)]
= qs + qL
where
qt = total heat corresponding to change in enthalpy for given volumetric
flow of standard air
h= difference in enthalpy, Btu/lb [kJ/kg]

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 Fan Laws
The fan laws are used to predict the effect on fan performance of a
change in the properties of air, fan operating speed, or fan size.
The fan laws are given here in one of their several variations (see the
ASHRAE Pocket Guide or the ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems
and Equipment for these laws in equation format). Five commonly
used versions of the fan laws state:

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Example 1. A fan installed in a new system operates at 800 rpm and
provides a measured flow rate of 4100 cfm [1935 L/s] working against
a static pressure of 2.8 in. of water [697 Pa]. The catalog rating of the
fan at these conditions specifies a power requirement of 4.5 hp [3.4
kW], and a 5 hp [3.7 kW] motor has been selected. Instead of the
current flow rate of 4100 cfm [1935 L/s], 4500 cfm [2124 L/s] is
desired. What are the consequences of increasing the fan speed to
achieve 4500 cfm [2124 L/s]?

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Original and revised operating conditions for Example 1

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Example 2. Measurements made on a newly installed
air-handling system show: 1200 rpm fan speed, 4500 cfm
[2124 L/s], l.9 in. of water [473 Pa] static pressure, and 3 hp
[2.2 kW] shaft power when the air temperature is 70F [21.1C]
and the pressure is standard atmospheric. In actual use, the fan
and duct system are to handle 150F [65.6C] air. If the fan
speed remains 1200 rpm, what will be (a) the volume rate of
airflow, (b) the static pressure, and (c) the power requirement?

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All-Water Central System:
System arrangement:
In all-water system, water is chilled (with Water Chiller) or heated (with boiler via
heat exchanger) at the machine room. Water is pumped to terminal conditioner called
Fan/Coil FCU. It should be noticed that the heating process at zone can be done
with electric heated included in FCU. Piping system can be arranged as following:
2-Pipe System: In which water is supplied either chilled or hot.
3-Pipe System: In which water is supplied chilled and hot with common return.
4-Pipe System: In which chilled and hot water are supplied and returned separately.

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Advantages:
Unlimited range of cooling and heating capacity.
Individual zone temperature control is carried out at each zone as well
as variation of supply air for each FCU.
Piping networks occupy small volume.

Disadvantages:
Outside air can not be introduced.
Humidification process can not be executed.
Some maintenance works are done at zones.
Condensate water resulting from dehumidification of FCUs are
executed at each zone.

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Air-Water Central System
System arrangement:
In air-water system, water is chilled (with Water Chiller) or heated
(with boiler via heat exchanger) at the machine room. Water is
pumped to terminal conditioner called Induction Units IU.
Outside air is supplied to each IU using AHU through high pressure
high velocity spiral duct network. The high pressure air from AHU
(primary air) is supplied to each IU through nozzles which sucks the
return air from room. Piping system can be arranged as following:
2-Pipe System: In which water is supplied either chilled or hot.
3-Pipe System: In which water is supplied chilled and hot with
common return.
4-Pipe System: In which chilled and hot water are supplied and
returned separately.

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Advantages:
System overcomes the disadvantages of all-air and all-water systems.

Disadvantages:
Sensitivity of mixing ratio depends on nozzle area and supply
pressure of primary air.

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General Central System
System arrangement:
In most applications, mixing between All-Air and All-Water is used.
Water is prepared as All-Water system at the main machine room.
Water is pumped to FCUs at zones and AHUs at secondary machine
rooms. AHUs supply air through duct networks as All-Air system.

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