6.10.

THE BINOMIAL SERIES 375

6.10 The Binomial Series

6.10.1 Introduction
This section focuses on deriving a Maclaurin series for functions of the
k
form f (x) = (1 + x) for any number k. We use the results we obtained in
the section on Taylor and Maclaurin series and combine them with a known
and useful result known as the binomial theorem to derive a nice formula for a
k
Maclaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x) for any number k.

6.10.2 The Binomial Theorem

k
This theorem deals with expanding expressions of the form (a + b) where k is
a positive integer. In the case k = 2, the result is a known identity
2
(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2

It is also easy to derive an identity for k = 3.

3
(a + b) = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

There is also a formula for k in general. That formula is known as the Binomial
k
Theorem. Before we state it, let us explain it a little bit. (a + b) will be a
sum of terms. Each term will contain a coe cient as well as powers of a and b.
More precisely, we will have
k
(a + b) =
k (k 1) k 2 2 k (k 1) (k 2)
ak + kak 1
b+ a b + ak 3 3
b
2! 3!
k (k 1) (k 2) ::: (k n + 1) k n k
+::: + a b
n!
+::: + kabk 1 + bk

We see from the formula that the powers of a and b are of the form ai bj
where i decreases from k to 0 and j increases from 0 to k. The coe cients
k (k 1) (k 2) ::: (k n + 1)
which appear in this expansion are called bino-
n!
mial coe cients. We use a special notation for them.

Denition 6.10.1 (Binomial coe cients) The binomial coe cients, denoted
k
n , are dened by:

k k (k 1) (k 2) ::: (k n + 1)
= if n 1
n n!
k
= 1
0
Remark 6.10.2 The numerator of the fraction in the denition has exactly n
terms. This is helpful when guring out the coe cients.
376 CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

This notation allows us to write:

Theorem 6.10.3 (Binomial Theorem) Suppose that k is a positive integer.

Then
Xk
k k k n n
(a + b) = a b
n=0
n

4
Example 6.10.4 Find n for n = 0; 1; 2; 3; 4.
4
0 =1
4
1 =4

4 4 3
2 = =6
2!
4 4 3 2
3 = =4
3!
4 4 3 2 1
4 = =1
4!
4
Example 6.10.5 Expand (a + b) .
From the binomial theorem, we have

X4
4 4 4 n n
(a + b) = a b
n=0
n
4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4 4 4
= a + a b+ a b + ab3 + b
0 1 2 3 4
= a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
k
For what follows, we will be interested in expanding (1 + x) . In the case k
is a positive integer, the binomial theorem gives us

Xk
k k n
(1 + x) = x
n=0
n

6.10.3 The Binomial Series

The binomial series extends the binomial theorem for 1
cases when k is not an
integer. For example, how would we expand (1 + x) 2 ? In other words, given
k
f (x) = (1 + x) , for any k, what is a Maclaurin series for f ? We derive it like
any other Maclaurin series. That is, we have
1
X
k xn
(1 + x) = f (n) (0)
n=0
n!
6.10. THE BINOMIAL SERIES 377

So, we need to nd f (n) (0).

k
f (x) = (1 + x) f (0) = 1
k 1
f 0 (x) = k (1 + x) f 0 (0) = k
00 k 2
f (x) = k (k 1) (1 + x) f 00 (0) = k (k 1)
k 3
f 000 (x) = k (k 1) (k 2) (1 + x) f 000 (0) = k (k 1) (k 2)
.. ..
. .
k n
f (n) (x) = k (k 1) ::: (k n + 1) (1 + x) f (n) (0) = k (k 1) ::: (k n + 1)
k
Therefore, the Maclaurin series for (1 + x) is
1
X
k xn
(1 + x) = k (k 1) ::: (k n + 1)
n=0
n!
X1
k n
= x
n=0
n

This series is known as the binomial series. To study its convergence, we use
the ration test.
jan+1 j
=
jan j
n+1
jk (k 1) ::: (k n)j jxj n!
n
(n + 1)! jk (k 1) ::: (k n + 1)j jxj
jk nj
= jxj
n+1
So, since
jk nj
lim =1
n!1 n+1
we have
jk nj
lim
jxj = jxj
n+1n!1

By the ratio test, this series converges if jxj < 1. Convergence at the endpoints
depends on the values of k and needs to be checked every time.

Denition 6.10.6 (Binomial Series) If jxj < 1 and k is any real number,
then
X1
k k n
(1 + x) = x
n=0
n
k
where the coe cients n are the binomial coe cients. This series is called the
binomial series.

Remark 6.10.7 This formula is very similar to the binomial theorem. In this
case, we have an innite sum. In the case of the binomial theorem (k is a
positive integer), we have a nite sum because nk = 0 whenever k > n (why?).
378 CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

1
Example 6.10.8 Expand as a power series.
1+x
1
We have already done this using substitution and the power series of . We
1 x
found
1
= 1 x + x2 x3 + :::
1+x
1
X n
= ( 1) xn
n=0

We just derive the series to illustrate our new technique. From the formula
above, we will have
1 1
= (1 + x)
1+x
1
X 1 n
= x
n=0
n

So, we need to compute n1 . Remember that there is a separate denition

depending on whether n = 0 or n 1. So, we need to handle both cases. As we
will see in the examples, sometimes the formula we get for n 1 also works for
n = 0, but not always.
1
=1
0
and
1 ( 1) ( 1 1) ( 1 2) ::: ( 1 n + 1)
=
n n!
Remember that the numerator has n factors. So, we get
n
1 ( 1) (1) (2) (3) ::: (n)
=
n n!
n
= ( 1)

This formula also works in the case n = 0, so we can combine both cases and
get
X1
1 n
= ( 1) xn
1 + x n=0
Which is the same formula as we had found using a di erent method.
1
Example 6.10.9 Expand p as a power series.
1+x
First, we notice that
1
1
p = (1 + x) 2
1+x
6.10. THE BINOMIAL SERIES 379

1
So, we use the formula above in the case k = . We obtain:
2
1
X 1
1
p = 2 xn
1 + x n=0 n

where
1
2 =1
0
and if n 1,
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 ::: n+1
2 2 2 2
2 =
n n!
1 3 5 2n 1
:::
2 2 2 2
=
n!
The numerator has n factors. We get
1
n (1) (3) (5) ::: (2n 1)
2 = ( 1)
n 2n n!
This formula does not work when n = 0, so we cannot combine it with what we
found when n = 0. Therefore,
1 1 (1) (3) (1) (3) (5) 3
p = 1 x + 2 x2 x ::::
1+x 2 2 2! 23 3!
X1
n (1) (3) (5) ::: (2n 1) n
= 1+ ( 1) n
x
n=1
2 n!

6.10.4 Problems
5
1. Using the binomial theorem, expand (a + b) .
k k k k k k
2. Write and simplify the expression for 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , k 1 , k .

k
3. In many books, the binomial coecients are dened by the formula =
n
k!
. Prove that this is the same formula as the one given in the
n! (k n)!
notes.
4. Using the binomial series, nd the Maclaurin series for the functions below.
In each case, nd the radius of convergence.
p
(a) 1 + x
380 CHAPTER 6. INFINITE SEQUENCES AND SERIES

1
(b) 3
(2 + x)
x
(c) p
4 + x2
3
5. Using the binomial series, nd the rst three Taylor polynomials of (1 + 2x) 4 .
Graph the function and the Taylor polynomials.
1
6. Consider f (x) = p
1 x2

(a) Using the binomial series, nd the Maclaurin series for f .

1
(b) Using part a, nd the Maclaurin series for sin x.

6.10.5 Answers
5
1. Using the binomial theorem, expand (a + b) .
5
(a + b) = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5

k k k k k k
2. Write and simplify the expression for 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , k 1 , k .

k
=1
0

k
=k
1
k k (k 1)
=
2 2
k k (k 1) (k 2)
=
3 3!
k
=k
k 1
k
=1
k

k
3. In many books, the binomial coecients are dened by the formula =
n
k!
. Prove that this is the same formula as the one given in the
n! (k n)!
notes.

4. Using the binomial series, nd the Maclaurin series for the functions below.
In each case, nd the radius of convergence.
6.10. THE BINOMIAL SERIES 381

p
(a) 1+x
1
p x X n 1
(1)(3)(5):::(2n 3)
1+x=1+ + ( 1) xn and R = 1
2 n=2 2n n!

1
(b) 3
(2 + x)
1
X
1 n (n + 1) (n + 2) n
3 = ( 1) x and R = 2
(2 + x) n=0
2n+4

x
(c) p
4 + x2
X1 (1)(3)(5):::(2n 1)
x 1 n
p = x+ ( 1) x2n+1 and R = 2
4 + x2 2 n=1
23n+1 n!

5. Using the binomial series, nd the rst three Taylor polynomials (T1 , T2 ,
3
T3 ) of (1 + 2x) 4 . Graph the function and the Taylor polynomials.
3
T1 (x) 1+ x =
2
3 3 2
T2 (x) = 1 + x x
2 8
3 3 2 5
T3 (x) = 1 + x x + x3
2 8 16

1
6. Consider f (x) = p
1 x2
(a) Using the binomial series, nd the Maclaurin series for f .
1
X (1)(3)(5):::(2n 1)
1
p =1+ x2n
1 x2 n=1
2n n!

1
(b) Using part a, nd the Maclaurin series for sin x.
1
X (1)(3)(5):::(2n 1)
1 x2n+1
sin x=x+
n=1
2n n! 2n + 1