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 8 uniondaily.net Vol.5, No.277, 14-10-2017, Saturday

Colin Elman
Introduction
Real i sm
Often described as the
dominant worldview in the
study of International Re-
lations (IR) (Forde 1992:
373), political realism has
been implicated in every
major debate in IR over the
last 50 years. In describ-
ing and appraising the re-
alist worldview, it is cus-
tomary to differentiate re-
India, and China. Smith
(1986) and other survey-
ors, for example, suggest
that Thucydides history
of The Peloponnesian War
illustrates realisms skepti-
cism for the restraining
effects of morality. Thucy-
dides (Strassler 1996: 416)
notes in a speech attribut-
ed to the Athenians in the
Melian dialogue that
right, as the world goes,
(2002:14) similarly notes
that Kautilya focuses on
the position of the poten-
tial conqueror who always
aims to enhance his pow-
er at the expense of the
rest.
Realists also claim Nic-
colo Machiavelli (1469-
1527) among their number
(Can 1946: 63-4). Starting
from a deeply pessimistic
view of human nature,
Political realisms pro-
longed existence gives it a
distinct advantage over
relatively youthful liberal
alternatives. It is impor-
tant, therefore, to note that
realist interpretations of
antiquarian writings are
often contested. Garst
(1989), for example, argues
that Thucydides history
cannot be read as an ana-
logue of modern realism.
This chapter distin-
guishes between two main
variants of realism_ classi-
cal realism and neorealism
_and four flavors of con-
temporary realism: rise
and fall, neoclassical, de-
fensive structural, and of-
fensive structural realism.
While this ordering is not
intended to suggest a
strict temporal or intellec-
tual succession, classical
(1948), Kennan (1951), and
Butterfield (1953) formed
part of the realist canon. It
was, however, Mor-
genthaus Politics Among
Nations: The Struggle for
Power and Peace, which
became the undisputed
standard bearer for politi-
cal realism, going through
six editions between 1948
and 1985.
According to classical

alism from other world-
views and to separate re-
alist theories into distinct
subgroups. In this chap-
ter, I first describe the
contested antiquarian and
classical roots of realism,
before moving on to de-
scribe six varieties of twen-
tieth-century realist schol-
arship. Despite their differ-
ences, they largely share
the view that the charac-
ter of relations among
states has not fundamen-
tally altered. Where there
,
is only in question be- Machiavelli argues for Similarly, Butterfield realism is usually held to realism, because the desire
tween equals in power, strong and efficient rulers (1966:132-3) argues that be the first of the twenti- for more power is rooted
in the flawed nature of
humanity, states are con-
tinuously engaged in a
Realists also claim Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) among their
struggle to increase their
number (Can 1946: 63-4). Starting from a deeply pessimistic view of capabilities. The absence
human nature, Machiavelli argues for strong and efficient rulers for of the international equiv-
whom power and security are the major concerns. Unlike individuals, alent of a states govern-
ment is a permissive con-
such rulers are not bound by individual morality: any action that can dition that gives human
be regarded as important for the survival of the state carries with appetites free reign. In
it a built-in justification (Smith 1986: I2). Realists also identify with short, classical realism ex-
plains conflictual behavior
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and his notion of a state of nature by human failings. Partic-
where the absence of overriding authority allows human appetites to ular wars are explained, for

is change, it tends to oc-
cur in repetitive patterns.
State behavior is driven by
leaders flawed human na-
ture or by the preemptive
unpleasantness mandated
by an anarchic internation-
al system. Selfish human
appetites for power, or the
need to accumulate the
wherewithal to be secure
in a self-help world, explain
the seemingly endless
succession of wars and
conquest. Accordingly,
most realists take a pessi-
mistic and prudential view
of IR (Elman 2001).
The roots of the realist
worldview
Realists regard them-
selves as heirs to an ex-
tended intellectual tradi-
tion (Waltz 2002: 198). It is
customary to trace realism
back to antiquity, with
claims that its arguments
can be found in important
works from Greece, Rome,
be pursued without restraint_individuals engage in constant conflict,
with their lives being concomitantly solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and
short (Hobbes 1962: 100).
while the strong do what
they can and the weak
suffer what they must.
Realists also argue that
Thucydides (Strassler
1996:.49) explains Greek
city-states behavior by
their power relations, fa-
mously observing that
[t]he growth of the power
of Athens, and the alarm
which this inspired in Spar-
ta, made war inevitable.
Realist arguments can
also be found in Kautilyas
Arthashastra from India,
which, Seabury (1965:l)
argues, is concerned with
the survival and aggran-
dizement of the state and
clearly instructs. . . in the
principles of a balance of
power system. Haslam
for whom power and secu-
rity are the major concerns.
Unlike individuals, such
rulers are not bound by
individual morality: any
action that can be regard-
ed as important for the
survival of the state car-
ries with it a built-in justi-
fication (Smith 1986: I2).
Realists also identify with
Thomas Hobbes (1588-
1679) and his notion of a
state of nature where the
absence of overriding au-
thority allows human ap-
petites to be pursued with-
out restraint_individuals
engage in constant con-
flict, with their lives being
concomitantly solitary,
poor, nasty, brutish and
short (Hobbes 1962: 100).
Hume is mistaken in his
interpretation of Polybius
account of Hiero and that
the idea of the balance of
power...did not exist in the
ancient world. Regardless
of ones views on the lon-
gevity of realist thinking,
however, there is more
consensus that the millen-
nia-long record of inter-
group conflict seems to
support realisms pessimis-
tic worldview. While real-
isms interpretation of par-
ticular episodes has been
disputed, even its critics
(Wendt 2000) acknowledge
that humankind has, in
most times and in most
places, lived down to real-
isms very low expecta-
tions.
,
eth-century realist research
programs.
Classical realism
Twentieth-century clas-
sical realism is generally
dated from 1939 and the
publication of Edward Hal-
lett Carrs The 20 Years
Crisis. Classical realists are
usually characterized as re-
sponding to the then-dom-
inant liberal approaches to
international politics (Don-
nelly 1995: 179) although
some scholars (Kahler
1997: 24) disagree on how
widespread liberalism was
during the interwar years.
In addition to Carr, work
by Shuman (1933), Nicol-
son(1939), Niebuhr(1940),
Schwarzenberger(1941),
Wight (1946), Morgenthau
example, by aggressive
statesmen or by domestic
political systems that give
greedy parochial groups
the opportunity to pursue
self-serving expansionist
foreign policies. For clas-
sical realists international
politics can be character-
ized as evil: bad things
happen because the peo-
ple making foreign policy
are sometimes bad (Spir-
tas 1996: 387-400).
Although not employ-
ing the formal mathemati-
cal modeling found in con-
temporary rational choice
theory, classical realism
posits that state behavior
can be understood as hav-
ing rational foundations.
As Morgenthau (2005
[1948]: 5) notes,
[W]e put ourselves in
the position of a states-
man who must meet a
certain problem of for-
To be continued on P-9
Vol.5, No.277, 14-10-2017, Saturday uniondaily.net 9
Continued from P-8 three elements: an order- comes, except for the min- domestic political arrange- system is characterized by momentum to the question
eign policy under cer- ing principle (anarchic or imal assumption that states ments, both through time complex nonlinear relation- of whether bipolar or mul-
tain circumstances and hierarchical), the character seek to survive. and through space. ships and unintended con- tipolar international sys-
we ask ourselves what of the units (functionally In addition, whereas Waltzs purpose is to ex- sequences. Outcomes are tems were more war-prone.
the rational alterna- alike or differentiated), and classical realism suggest- plain why similarly struc- influenced by something Partly because of its pop-
tives are from which a the distribution of capabil- ed that state strategies are tured international systems more than simply the ag- ularity, and partly because
statesman may choose ities (Waltz 1979: 88-99). selected rationally, Waltz is all seem to be character- gregation of individual of its own take-no-prison-
who must meet this Waltz argues that two ele- more agnostic. According ized by similar outcomes, states behaviors, with a ers criticism of competing

,
problem under these ments of the structure of
circumstances (pre- the international system
suming always that he are constants: the lack of
acts in a rational man-
ner), and which of
these rational alterna-
tives this particular
statesman is likely to
choose. It is the test-
ing of this rational hy-
pothesis against the
actual facts and their
consequences that
gives theoretical mean-
ing to the facts of in-
ternational politics.
State strategies are
understood as having
been decided rationally,
after taking costs and ben-
efits of different possible
courses of action into ac-
to Waltz, state behavior even though their units
can be a product of the (i.e. member states) have
competition among states, different domestic political
arrangements and particu-
lar parochial histories.
[W]e put ourselves in the posi- Waltz concludes that it
tion of a statesman who must must be something pecu-
meet a certain problem of for- liar to, and pervasive in,
eign policy under certain circum- IR that accounts for these
stances and we ask ourselves commonalities. He there-
fore excludes as reduc-
what the rational alternatives
tionist all but the thinnest
are from which a statesman may of assumptions about the
choose who must meet this prob- units that make up the
lem under these circumstances system _ they must, at a
(presuming always that he acts minimum, seek their own
in a rational manner), and which survival.
By ignoring unit-level
of these rational alternatives
variables, Waltz aims to
this particular statesman is like- identify the persistent ef-
ly to choose. It is the testing of fects of the international
this rational hypothesis against system. Jervis (1997: 7)
the actual facts and their con-
tendency toward unin-
tended and ironic out-
comes. As a result, there
is a gap between what
states want and what
states get. Consequently,
unlike classical realists,
neorealists see internation-
al politics as tragic, rather
than as being driven by
the aggressive behavior of
revisionist states (Spirtas
1996: 387-400). The inter-
national political outcomes
that Waltz predicts include
that multipolar systems
will be less stable than
bipolar systems; that in-
terdependence will be low-
er in bipolarity than multi-
polarity; and that regard-
less of unit behavior, he-
theories, Waltzs Theory of
International Politics be-
came a prominent target.
As time went by, detrac-
tors (e.g., the contributors
to Robert Keohanes 1986
edited volume Neorealism
and its Critics) chipped
away at the books domi-
nance. Nonrealist work, in
particular neoliberal insti-
tutionalism and investiga-
tions of the democratic
peace, became more popu-
lar (Keohane and Martin
2003; Ray 2003). Realisms
decline in the 1990s was
amplified by international
events. The closing years
of the twentieth century
seemed to provide strong
support for alternative

count. The 1960s saw clas-
sical realism coming under
increasing scrutiny. Schol-
ars who disagreed with
Morgenthau and other
classical realists on sub-
stantive grounds studied
their work to find incon-
sistencies and contradic-
tions. In addition, advo-
cates of new behavioral
,
observes that [w]e are gemony by any single approaches. The Soviet
sequences that gives theoreti- dealing with a system state is unlikely or even Unions voluntary re-
cal meaning to the facts of in- when (a) a set of units or impossible. trenchment and subse-
elements is interconnect- Waltzs Theory of In- quent demise; the contin-
ternational politics. ed so that changes in some ternational Politics proved uation of Western Europe-
elements or their relations to be a remarkably influ- an integration in the ab-
an overarching authority either because they calcu- produce changes in other ential volume, generating sence of American-Soviet
means that its ordering late how to act to their best parts of the system; and new debates and giving competition; the wave of
principle is anarchy, and advantage or because (b) the entire system ex- new impetus to existing democratization and eco-
the principle of self-help those that do not exhibit hibits properties and be- ones. For example, the nomic liberalization
means that all of the units such behavior are select- haviors that are different book began a debate over throughout the former So-

and quantitative method-
ologies questioned the
value of the traditional
approach to inquiry. The
1970s saw the pendulum
swing further against real-
ism, with work (Keohane
and Nye 1977) focusing on
interdependence, and non-
state actors finding new
prominence and populari-
ty (Elman 2003).
Neorealism: Waltzs the-
ory of international poli-
tics
The realist worldview
was revived and revised
with the publication of
Kenneth Waltzs 1979 The-
ory of International Poli-
tics, which replaced Mor-
genthaus Politics Among
Nations as the standard
remain functionally alike.
Accordingly, the only
structural variable is the
distribution of capabilities,
with the main distinction
falling between multipolar
and bipolar systems.
One difference be-
tween classical realism and
neorealism is their con-
trasting views on the
source and content of
states preferences. In
contrast to classical real-
ism, neorealism excludes
the internal makeup of dif-
ferent states. As Rasler and
Thompson (2001: 47) note,
Morgenthaus seminal
statement of classical real-
ism relied on the assump-
tion that leaders of states
are motivated by their lust
ed out of the system. Al-
ternatively, states behav-
ior can be a product of so-
cialization: states can de-
cide to follow norms be-
cause they calculate it to
their advantage or because
the norms become inter-
nalized. Since Waltzs the-
ory provides such a mini-
mal account of state pref-
erences, it makes only in-
determinate behavioral
predictions, and Waltz is
correspondingly reluctant
to make foreign policy pre-
dictions. He nevertheless
suggests that systemic
processes will consistent-
ly produce convergent in-
ternational outcomes. IR
are characterized by a dis-
heartening consistency;
,
from those parts. Because whether states concerns viet Union, Eastern Europe,
systems are generative, over relative gains imped- and the developing world;
the international political ed cooperation and added and the improbability of
war between the great
powers all made realism
One difference between classi- seem outdated (Jervis
cal realism and neorealism is 2002). It appeared that lib-
their contrasting views on the eral or constructivist the-
source and content of states ories could better appreci-
preferences. In contrast to clas- ate and explain the chang-
sical realism, neorealism ex- es taking place in the in-
ternational arena. Not sur-
cludes the internal makeup of
prisingly, the post-9/l I era
different states. As Rasler and seems much more chal-
Thompson (2001: 47) note, lenging and it comes as no
Morgenthaus seminal state- revelation that political
ment of classical realism re- realism is regarded as be-
lied on the assumption that ing better suited to address
threats to national securi-
leaders of states are motivated
ty. It is, however, ironic
by their lust for power. Waltzs that its renaissance is at
theory, by contrast, omits lead- least partly owed to tran-
ers motivations and state char- snational terrorist net-

bearer for realists. Waltz
argues that systems are
composed of a structure
and their interacting units.
Political structures have
for power. Waltzs theory,
by contrast, omits leaders
motivations and state char-
acteristics as causal vari-
ables for international out-
the same depressingly fa-
miliar things recur over
time. This repetitiveness
endures despite consider-
able differences in internal
,
acteristics as causal variables works motivated by reli-
for international outcomes, ex- gious extremism, actors,
cept for the minimal assump- and appetites that lie well
outside realisms traditional
tion that states seek to survive. ambit.
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