5813 - Seismic Refraction Prospecting PDF

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ALBERT
SOCIETY
Edited by
W.
SEISMIC
Mobil Oil Corporation

MUSGRAVE
REFRACTION
OF EXPLORATION
PROSPECTING
GEOPHYSICISTS
Copyright ( 1967
By
THE SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS
All Rights Reserved

This book, or parts thereof,may not be reproduced
in any form without permissionof the publishers
PublishedJune 1967
Library of CongressCard No. 67-22554
Publishedby
THE SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS
P.O. Box 1067
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Composedand Printed by
GeorgeBanta Company, Inc.
Menasha, Wisconsin
To Henry C. Cortes
For his early and continuedinterestin refractiongeophysics

This page has been intentionally left blank

FOREWORD
The purposeof the RefractionVolumeis to gathertogetherthe newertechniques

of refractionseismicsurveyinginto onevolumefor the Societyof ExplorationGeo-
physicists.An effort was made to make the informationmore easilyavailable to
those wishing to work with refraction methods. This volume contains a seriesof
articleswritten principallyby membersof the SEG who are specialistsin refraction
techniques.The volumecontainsonly new material, paperswritten and/or editedfor
this volume, with a bibliographyof referencesto all other refraction material avail-
able to the editorial committee.The volume representsthe efforts of a number of
geophysicists over a periodof severalyears.
The useof the refractionmethodhas had its ups and downsover the period of
seismicexplorationhistory. One of its particular high points was during the late
1950's.In the fall of 1960it wasdecidedto compilea refractionvolume.At that time
it was somewhat difficult to enlist authors who were able to obtain releases for their
refractionmaterial from their respectivecompanies.
In 1960-1961a requestwassubmittedto a numberof peopleknown to be inter-
ested in refraction work. This group of peoplewas designatedas the Refraction
VolumeCommitteeandis listedon a followingpage.They wererequestedto submit
a list of topicswhich would be of interest to them in a Refraction Volume. Sixteen
replieswere receivedto this query, and someof them were quite comprehensive.
The committeewas then askedto submitone or morerefractionpapersor to ap-
proachmembersof their companiesor other acquaintancesto submit refraction
papersthat would coversomeof the recommendedtopics.
An outlineof the RefractionVolumewasformulatedfrom the list of topicssub-
mittedby the RefractionVolumeCommittee,andfrom thisoutlinea list of symbols
was established. This list is included in the volume. The authors were asked to uti-
lize thislist sothat commonsymbolswouldbe established, makingit easierfor the
readerto equatesimilar quantitiesfrom one paper to the next.
Out of approximately45 paperssubmitted,31 wereacceptedand are includedin
this volume.The desirabilityof havingrefractioncasehistorieswasrecognized,but
very few of the paperssubmittedwereof a casehistorytype. Thosethat weresub-
mitted and are classified
hereas casehistoriesgenerallyrepresented
relativelysmall
amountsof refraction data, which were then comparedwith other geophysical
methods,rather than beingverifiedby the drill.
Most of the paperssubmittedfor this volumeare of a "techniquetype," describ-
ing someparticularinterpretationtechniquethat may be usedfor betterinterpreta-
tion of specialrefraction data. The very nature of refraction work lends itself to
many interpretationtechniques.Refractionsurveyingis a goodprocedureto solve
particular problemsand, in the hands of an expert, from it many things can be
learned.A possiblecausefor the riseand fall of refractionutilizationWasthe flooding
of the market with the type of anomalythat waseasilyfoundby refractionmethods.
vi Foreword
Subsequently, inadequateinterpretationmay have contributedto further "lossof

face" by the technique.In eachof theseslumpsof the refractionmethod,a lossof
thosetrained and skilledin the art to other parts of the industry and to other types
of businessand the lack of training of newpeoplewereharmful to the continuedand
even successof the refraction technique.
Individual papers in this volumevary widely in their content and manner of
presentation,althoughsomeuniformity was attemptedthroughsymbolism.The
editorsleft the papersstrictly in the form originatedby the authors.For this reason
we are includingan introductionand a brief introductoryparagraphat the begin-
ning of eachminor sectionsothat a readermay determineroughlywhichpaper or
how many paperstouch on the subjectof his immediateinterest.
The generalmethodutilizedin processing the paperswasto allowtwo membersof
the central committeeto read eachpaper, commenton it, andreturn it to the author
for rewritingor reformingvariouspartsof the paper.Then the changes of the author
were checkedagain by the central committee,and the paper was sent to the SEG
officewhereit was checkedfor editorial changesin grammar,punctuation,and for-
mat. The galleyproofsweresent to the authors,the editorof Geophysics, the assis-
tant editor and his staff in Tulsa, and the Refraction Volume editor. The error nota-
tionsby thesepeoplewerecompositedand corrected.New galleyproofsweremade
and checkedand pageproofsmadefrom these,allowingseveralchancesto pick up
asmany errorsaspossible;still, we realizethat surelysomeerrorswill haveslipped
by all of us,sincemany of us doingthe work are not trainedin editorialchores.
The editor wishesto expresshis extreme gratitude for the time and effort ex-
pended by the Refraction Committee, especiallythe central Refraction Com-
mittee in Dallas, and particularly for the great amount of time spent by Mr. E. J.
Stulken and Mr. W. C. Woolley.
A. W. MJSGRAVV.,
Editor
Dallas, Texas (April 15, 1967)
REFRACTION VOLUME COMMI'I-FEE
A. W. MUSGRAVE,Chairman and Editor PAUL LYONS

K. E. BURG, Assistant Editor A. B. MALONE
C. G. DAHM, Assistant Editor D. T. MCCREARY
HELEN GRAY, Assistant Editor JOHN E. MCGEE
E. J. STULKEN,AssistantEditor HAROLD MENDENHALL
W. C. WOOLLEY,Assistant Editor E. J. NORTHWOOD
Josea ADLER R. L. PALMER
A. J. H. G. PATRICK
KENNETH L. COOK CARL H. SAVIT
C. HEWITT DIX LORENZ SHOCK
M. B. DOBRIN R. R. SINGER
S. NORMAN DOMENICO NELSON C. STEENLAND
MAURICE EWING H. E. STOMMEL
L. Y. FAUST LEWIS TUCKER
L. W. GARDNER F. A. VAN MELLE
J. G. HAGEDOORN E. J.P. VAN DER LINDEN
R. F. HAGEMANN GLENN C. WERTH
JOaN C. HOnnXSZEI ALEXANDER WOLF
A. A. HUNZICKER J.P. WOODS
CURTISH. JOHNSON
vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword ........................................................... v
Refraction Volume Committee ......................................... vii
Introduction ........................................................ xi
List of SuggestedSymbolsfor SeismicRefraction Volume.................. xiii
Section1--History of Early RefractionWork ............................. 1
Early Refraction Practices.......................................... 3
J. E. McGee and R. L. Palmer
Section 2--Refraction Models ........................................... 13
Analog Model Studiesof the Simple Refraction Problem................ 15
StanleyJ. Laster,Milo M. Backusand RichardSchell
A Method of SeparatingOverlappingRefraction Arrivals............... 67
C. R. Bruce and J. E. White
Section3---Amplitudeof RefractionSignal............................... 83
The Use of Amplitudesin SeismicRefraction Survey ' 85
P. N. S. O'Brien
Method for Calculatingthe Amplitude of the Refraction Arrival ......... 119
Glenn C. Werth
Refraction Along an EmbeddedHigh-SpeedLayer ..................... 138
J. W. C. Sherwood
The Efficient Use of Large Charges................................... 152
P. N. $. O'Brien
Modified "Gardner" Delay Time and "Constant Distance Correlation"
Interpretation................................................... 171
C. Layat
Section4--Determination of Weathering or LVL Thickness by
Refraction Methods .................................................. 19S
Multilayer Near-SurfaceRefractionComputations..................... 197
W. A. Knox
A Curved Path Refraction Method ................................... 217
John C. Hollister
Practical Application of BlondeauWeathering Solution................. 231
A. W. Musgraveand R. H. Bratton
Refraction Refinement Technique.................................... 247
H. L. Mendenhall
Section5--Interpretation Techniquesfor Refraction Work ................ 257
A. G,,R^, IT,RP,TV, T,CIQJ,s .............................. 259
The Midpoint Method of Interpreting a Refraction Survey............ 260
M. R. MacPhail
A Method of In-line Refraction Profiling ............................ 267
W. C. Woolley,A. W. Musgraveand Helen Gray
Outline of a Systemof Refraction Interpretation for Monotonic Increases
of Velocity with Depth ......................................... 290
Haakon M. Evjen
ix
x Contents
B. GRAPHS AND NOMOGRAPHSFOR REFRACTION INTERPRETATION ......... 295

Nomogramfor Curved-RayProblemin Overburden
.................. 296
E. J. Northwood
Constructions,Graphs and Nomographsfor Refraction Computations.. 304
E. J. $tulken
Refraction Profiling Using Average Velocity to Near-Horizontal Beds 330
Carl tt. Sayit
C. THE DEt, AY-TIE METIOO ...................................... 337
Refraction SeismographProfile Interpretation ....................... 338
L. W. Gardner
Delay Time and Its Application to Refraction Profile Interpretation 348
K. M. Barry
D. WAVEFRONT METHOOS ........................................... 362
A General Wavefront Method ..................................... 363
Donald W. Rockwell
Refraction Solutions and Wavefront Targeting ....................... 416
Frederick L. Schenck
Outliningof Salt and ShaleMassesby Refraction Methods............ 426
A. W. Musgrave,W. C. Woolley,and Helen Gray
E. ERRORS IN REFRACTION INTERPRETATION .......................... 458
Notes on Errors in Refraction Interpretation ........................ 459
E. Y. Northwood
Section6--Field Techniquesfor RefractionShooting..................... 467
SomeAspectsof RefractionShootingthroughScreeningLayers.......... 469
M. E. Trostle
OperationalProblemsin Marine RefractionWork...................... 482
RobertE. Sheriff
Section 7--Case Histories of Refraction Methods ......................... 491
RefractionProspectingin the Rub' al Khali ........................... 493
John tt. ttoke
RefractionSurveyin the Heletz-NegbaArea, Israel.................... 505
Michael I. Behr and Avihue Ginzburg
SomeApplicationsof SeismicRefractionTechniquesin Mining Exploration 522
Charles L. Elliot
Seismicand Gravity Profile Acrossthe Northern Wasatch Trench, Utah 539
KennethL. Cook,JosephW. Berg, Jr., and Daniel Lum
A SeismicSectionof the SverdrupBasin, CanadianArctic Islands........ 550
GeorgeD. Hobsonand A. Overton
Section8--Bibliographyof RefractionPapers............................ 563
A. SEG BIBLIOGRAPHY 565
B. OTHER U.S. BIBLIOGRAPHY 568
C. OUTStOEU.S. BtBntOGRAPaY 572
D. COMPAGNIEGENERALEDE GEOPItYSIQUEBIBLIOGRAPItIE 584
Index .............................................................. 595
INTRODUCTION
The seismicmethod is divided into reflection and refraction techniques,based

on whether or not a wave undergoesa reflection at the extent of its travel. Thus,
while most refracted events have not been reflected, most reflected events have been
refracted, becausea refraction occursacrossany velocity interface in accordance
with the simple and basic Snell'slaw. This law states that the sine of the angle of
incidenceis to the sine of the angle of refraction as the velocity on the first side of
the interface is to the velocity on the secondside of the interface.
Where the refraction angle is large, and not near to zero as it is in the caseof re-
flection work, there are many considerationsconcerningthe geometry of the ray-
path that have to be made in refraction interpretation. Basically, the papersin this
volume describevarious techniquesfor separatingout specialraypath solutionsand
makingapproximationsthat give us a structuralgeologicpicturefrom the study of
theseapproximationsor specializations.
The followingfactorsare of extremeimportancein refraction surveying'
1) Distance' Surveying must be accurate in order to make correct depth de-
terminations of the refractor by the use of the refraction method.
2) Velocity' The velocity of the varioushorizons,through which the refracted
wave passes,must be known if an accurate structural picture is to be de-
termined. Many of thesevelocitiescan be determinedfrom the refraction
data, and, in fact, the refraction method is a good means of establishing
many of the velocitiesneededfor thesecalculations.
3) Time' Accurate time information is a prerequisite,although this is no more
the casein refraction than in reflection work. In most instances,refraction
informationis to be recordedto the nearest1/1,000 secfor explorationpur-
poses.
The distanceparameter will be discussedfirst. In many surveys the distance be-

tweenthe shotand receivermay be extremelylong (25 to 50 miles),and the require-
ment for accuracyis just as vital as if this distancewerevery short (a few hundred
feet). Becauseof the differential velocitiesinvolved, distance errors can causeerrors
in depth greater than the distanceerrors themselves.For somecases,in the expe-
rienceof the editor, the depth error may be three times the distanceerror.
The velocityis very critical in refractioninformation.Of particular importanceis
the refractor velocity, which is often used to determine the time to be subtracted
from the total time path to determine that amount of time which is near vertical
or can be convertedto a vertical path time. Sincethis subtractionmust be precise,
the refraction velocity must be accurate,particularly for long distances.There are
methods describedin the volume which aid in obtaining an accurate refractor ve-
locity.Thesemethodsusuallyincludethe so-calledreversedrefractionmethod,where
the phasevelocity is measuredboth updip and downdipas nearly as possibleon a
zoneof linear slopeon the refractor.The refractorvelocity can be establishedfrom
xi
xii Introduction
this information,but thereare many pitfalls; sothe velocityshouldbe established in

severalplacesto be surethat it is not beingdistortedby someanomalouscondition.
Inherent in the requirementof goodtimeaccuracyis the necessityfor goodequip-
ment for establishingthis time accuracy;that is, amplifierswhich have little or no
phasedistortion,and accuratetime breakson the records.A reproduciblerecording
procedureallowsgain equalizationand other reprocessing of the data. It may be
necessaryto transmit accuratetime breaksvia radio. Many refractionproblemsare
more dependentupon the differential time between two receiversthan upon the
total time. In these events it is important that sufficientoptical presentationsare
made, so that accuratetime differencesmay be establishedbetweensimilar phases
of the refraction wavelet. Normally, broad-band recordingis most desirablein re-
fraction work, with bandwidth rangingfrom as low as 2 cpsup to 40 to 100 cycleson
the high end of the spectrum.However, this is dependentupon the problem, and
different problemspresentdifferent requirements.
Becauseof the above named requisitesfor refraction shooting,and becausere-
fraction raypaths follow Snell'slaw and have somerather sharpbends,it is neces-
sary to make speciallayouts to solvespecialproblems.Each problemhas its own
particular type layout, and care shouldbe given to laying out a programthat will
solvethe problemat hand. For instance,onesuchproblemwhich hasto be solvedis
that of the weathering(near-surfacevariation in the low-velocitylayer). There are
severalarticles describingmethodsof solving this type problem. The specifictype
of answerneededwill alsodictate the specifictype techniquethat shouldbe used to
solve the problem. If a deep conformableor nearly conformablehorizon is to be
mapped,then someof the in-line techniquesshouldbe used.A numberof theseare
describedin the volume. If a diapiric or piercementtype anomaly is to be mapped,
there are descriptionsof methodsusedto solvethis type problem.
In any case,it is well to shootboth forward and reversewhereverpossible.It is
preferableto lay the line at right anglesto the strike of the interfaceto be mapped.
If this cannotbe doneit is importantthat the problembe solvedin threedimensions,
and, frequently,the only way this solutioncanbe accomplished is by taking a large
number of readingsand establishinga boundary along which the velocity change
occurs.
When the problemto be solvedrequireslargerdistances,it is normallynecessary

to increasethe amount of explosiveon successively longershotsto compensatefor
the powerlosswith distance.Sometimes,if this is not possible,there are techniques
of compositingdata from smallershotsby meansof reproduciblerecords,thus in-
creasingthe signal-to-noiseratio.
In summary,it is difficultto emphasizesufficientlythe needfor' (1) accuratesur-
veying,(2) the bestpossible velocityinformation,and (3) the highestquality of in-
strumentationfor recordingrefractioninformation;but they are neededif accurate
interpretationsare to be obtainedby the interpretationtechniquesdescribedin
this volume.
LIST OF SUGGESTED SYMBOLS FOR

SEISMIC REFRACTION PROSPECTING
I. Elements
Shot or shotpointlocation s
additional points subscripted S1, S% S,

Receiver,geophone,or seismometer location R
additional points subscripted Ri, R2, R,
II. Layer 1, 2,. n

Weathered layer 0
III. Interface(numbercorresponds to baseof layer) 1, 2, .n

Baseof weathering(surfacein absenceof wx) o
Surface(in presenceof weathering) oo
IV. Elevation E
Shotpoints&, S% S Ex, E,
Receivers R1, R% R E, E,
V. Horizontal distance
Multiple receiversand singleshotpoint
Multiple shotpointsand singlereceiver
Multiple receiversand shotpoints
Critical distance
Interface
Intersectiondistance(distancefor coincidenttime)
Refraction along interfacesn, n-t--k
H
VI. Depth (vertical)
Interface Hi, H%' ' H.
h
VII. Apparentthickness(vertical)
Layer h, h, h,
At element R hn,Rn
VIII. Thickness z
Layer z1, z% . . . z.
At element in, Rn, * ' '
If dipping;measured
normalto whatinterface Zn, Rn,,
IX. Time (refraction,two-way,surface-to-surface,

shot-to-receiver) T
Intercept time To
Interface Tox,To, To,,
For distance and interface
For critical distance of interface n Tn
XlII
xiv List of Suggested Symbols
One-waytime (a portionof T, not traversingbed in

two directions)
X. Velocity V
Averagevelocity (vertical) to interfacen V,V2,... Vn
Average velocity to interface n at location VnR.or
Interval velocity for layer n V, V2,''' Vn
Interval velocity for layer n at location VRor
Instantaneousvelocity (initial) at any layer n
Instantaneousvelocity (maximum)at any layer n rm
XI. Dip angle(angleinterfacemakeswith horizontal) ot
Interface Otl or2,
XII. Angle of incidence i

Layer, refracting layer i1, ' ' ' i,+1
XIII. Angle of refraction
,Layer, refractinglayer ?'1,2 ' ' ' ?'n
XIV. Raypath/XT//XX P
R4
/
H2
/
/
/
h2 /
/ V2
2
Seismic
Reraction
Prospecting

Section
1
HISTORY OF EARLY REFRACTION

WORK
Section 1
History of Early RefractionWork
Commercial exploration for minerals by seismicrefraction methods have been

carried on sincethe early 1930's. "Early Refraction Practices," written at the re-
quest of the Refraction Volume Committeeby McGee and Palmer, givesa good
accountof someof the early refraction surveys.
EARLY REFRACTION PRACTICES
J. E. McGEE* AND R. L. PALMER**
INTRODUCTION
When one of the writers of this paper suggestedthat the Refraction Volume
shouldcontain an article on the refractionpracticesin the early days, it was with the
idea that it would be written by one of the old-timerswho had been on the refrac-
tion scenein the mid-twenties.When the suggestionbackfiredand he was askedto
participatein writing the paper he accepted,assumingthat a sufficientnumberof
excerptscouldbe taken from the best of the early papersto createreaderinterest
in the subject,and references to the paperswouldcompletethe job. Unfortunately,
he was wrong again. After a searchof the literature, it becameapparent that no
paperswere written, at least nonewerepublished,during the heyday of the early
refractionwork and very little regardingthat work was publishedlater. Therefore,
much of the information containedin this paper is basedon memory of discussions
throughthe yearswith someof the old-timers,plusrecentinterviewswith, and the
suggestionsof, a few whowereengagedin the refractionactivitiesof thirty to forty
years ago.
The first papersfoundon the subjectwereby Barton (1929)and Helland (1929).
A part of the discussion on Heiland's paper by Rieber points out the paucity of
publishedinformationat that time. It reads,"Dr. Heiland appearsto have drawn
the materialfor his excellentpaperlargelyfrom experiencewith earthquake seismol-
ogy, including,of course,such direct adaptationsof earthquakeinstrumentsas
the mechanicalseismographs usedin geophysicalwork.
"He saysthat he has beenhandicappedin presentinga more completepaper by
the fact that practically nothing has been published,to date, with regard to the
electricalmethodsof receivingand recordingvibrations, ."
HISTORY
This paper was not conceivedas a history of the refractionseismograph, but it

would not be completewith'outsomehistory. Fairly completehistorieswere given
by DeGolyer (1935) and Weatherby (1940), and shorterhistoricalaccountscan
be foundin the bookson geophysicalprospectingpublishedin and since1940.It is
interestingto note that eachaccountis influencedto someextent by the associa-
tions of its writer, which is quite natural. The brief accountgiven here will be no
exception.It shouldalsobe mentionedthat the literature containsa few discrep-
anciesin the datesof certainfirsts.It is improbablethat thesecan be resolvedat this
late date
No historyof the seismograph,
even the refractionseismograph,
would be co_m_-
* ConsultingGeophydcist,Houston,Texas.
** Ray GphysicalDivision,MandrelIndustries,Inc., Houston,Texas.
3
History of Early Refraction Work
pletewithout
mention
ofthefirstattempt
at seismic
workin thiscountry,
which
wasby thereflectionmethod.Drs.W. P. Haseman,
BurtonMcCollum, E. A.
Eckhardt,
andJ. C. Karcherwereengaged
duringWorldWarI, at theBureauof
Standards,
in thedevelopmentofsound-ranging
equipment
to beusedin locating
theenemyartillery.
Duringthisworkseismic
energy
aswellastheairwavewas
studied.Theideaoccurred
to themthat it shouldbepossible
to mapgeologic
struc-
tureby means
ofreflected
seismic
energy.
Theybegan
experimental
workonthe
ideain 1919.Afternumerous
tests,in manyareas,a two-trace
recordwasobtained
thatpositively
indicated
a shallow
reflection.
Thusencouraged,
theyorganized
the
Geological
EngineeringCompany in1921,withthesupport
ofsomeindependent
oil
operators,
andbegan fieldoperations
in Oklahoma.Short
testprojects
were
shotin
a fewscattered localities,
thelastbeingnearPoncaCity.Theresults obtainedin
oneor twoof thesedidnotagreewiththeaccepted localgeology.
In at leastone,
thatnearPoncaCity,thereflection response
ispoorevenwithtoday's equipment
sotheirresultstherewerediscouraging.
Earlyin 1922thebackersof theoperations
withdrew theirsupport, sothreeof thefourprincipals
returnedto otheroccupa-
tions.McCollurn tookovertheequipment andcontinuedthereflection
experiments.
He alsodirectedsomeof hisresearch
efforttowardtherefractionmethod.
After he had madesufficientteststo be certainthat the refractionseismograph
waspractical,
hesubmitted
apatent
application
totheUnited
States
Patent
Office,
in which
heclaimed,
inpart,thathewasusing
sound
waves
whichtraveled
along
the
surface
ofa high-velocity
bedwithsome oftheenergy
beingdiffracted
backtothe
surface
ofthegroundwhere it waspicked
upbydetectors
andrecorded.
Therewas
noonein thepatentoffice
at thattimewhowasfamiliar
withtheseismograph
so
thequestion
arose
astowhatsection
should
handle
theapplication.
Whenit was
noticedthat soundwaveswereinvolved,the application
wasturnedoverto the
musicsection
forinvestigation.
Thatsection,afterreviewingtheclaims,
notified
McCollumthat thepatentwasdeniedbecause the methodwastechnically
un-
sound.
Hethenpresentedsome ofhisfielddatatoprovethatthemethodworked,
after whichthe applicationwasapproved.
Thefirstcommercial
useofthemethod by McCollum wasin 1924,in Mexico,
for
theCortezOil Company,a subsidiary
of TheAtlanticRefining
Company. Some
success
wasencountered
onthisundertaking,
andthefirstproducer in Mexicoto
belocated
bytheseismograph,
theNo.1,Lot199,Amatlan,intheZacamixtle
field,
wascompleted
in 1925.
Althoughthiswasa fieldextension
well,theseismograph
gets
thecredit
forit because
it was
onalease
which
was
scheduled
tobeabandoned
on the basisof the subsurfacegeology.
Therefraction
method
worked
in oneareain Mexicoin whatmightbetermeda
negative
sense.
There
were
twosystems
offaults
approximately
atrightangles
to
eachother.Wheretwoof thefaultsintersected,
thelimestone
wasfractured
suf-
ficiently
tocreate,
insome
cases,
anoilreservoir
ofcommercial
importance.
These
intersections
weretheobjectives
of therefraction
search.
Goodarrivals
wereob-
tainedwhennofaultwasinvolved
in therefraction
path.Theenergydropped
off
considerably
when onefaultwasinvolved,
butpractically
nonewasreceived
when
Early Refraction Practices 5
the path passedthrough the intersectionof two of them. So it turned out that the
absence of data was the criterion for which to look.
While McCollum, Eckhardt, Karcher, and Haseman were working on sound
ranging during the war, Dr. L. Mintrop was engagedin a similar project on the
German side of the conflict, and for the next few years their paths seem to run
parallel. After the war, he continued experimentingwith the in-line method of re-
fraction shootingand in 1919 appliedfor a patent on it in Germany. He organized
a companyin Germanyunderthe nameof SeismosG.m.b.H. In 1923,that company
startedrefractionwork in Mexico for the Mexican Eagle Oil Company.It is reported
that its attempt to map the extensionof the Tomasoporidge in late 1923 was "with-
out very satisfactory results." Also, in 1923, a Seismoscrew was brought to this
country by the Marland Oil Company. It began work along the fault trend near
Mexia, Texas, where its chancesof successwere about the same as thoseof the Geo-
logicalEngineeringCompany'sreflectioneffort a year or soearlier,near PoncaCity,
Oklahoma. The results were also about the same. Work done by this crew late in
1923, along the Gulf Coast, did demonstratethat the method had possibilities.The
Gulf Production Company hired a Seismoscrew in 1924 to work in the Gulf Coast
area. In a short time it discoveredthe Orchard dome, the first salt dome to be found
in this country by the refractionseismograph.The crewfound severalother domesin
a short time. This gave such impetus to the method that others soon entered the
field. Consequently,after 1925 the history of the refraction seismographbeginsto
include several names.
FAN SHOOTING
Although the first salt domes were found by Mintrop's in-line method, the so-
called "fan shooting"techniquewas adopted by all engagedin the salt dome refrac-
tion campaign soon after its development in late 1925, or early 1926. An excellent
brief account of the developmentof this method is found in Weatherby's (1940)
paper' "L. P. Garrett of Gulf was responsiblefor this company'strial of the method
and to him goesthe credit for starting the use of refraction fans. The Germanshad
experiencedgreat difficulty with the interpretation of their profiles.Becauseof the
type of sectionin the Gulf Coast,it was almost impossibleto obtain easily recog-
nizable breaks in the velocity of the different layers and to calculate the depths of
these layers. Garrett suggestedthat two equal-length shots, one acrossa known
dome and the other off the dome, should show marked time differences.The field
trial was highly successfulbecauseof the relatively high velocity of the salt, and it
was at onceapparent that a geometricalarrangementsuchas a fan would give this
time comparisonover a large area from a minimum number of shot points. This
was a tremendousstep forward, for had it been necessaryto use profiling,as orig-
inally intended, the costof coveragewould have beenvery much greater."
In fan shooting,as the name implies, the detectorswere arranged roughly in a
fan pattern with the shotpointat the center.They were usually placedalongroads
(Figure 1) or on the banks of streams,bayous,or canalswhen available to save
set-up time. Therefore, the shot-detector distance was seldom constant for all
History of Early Refraction Work
geophonesin a fan but mightvary asmuchasa mileor more.The distancein the

veryearlydaysof themethodwasusuallyin theorderof threeto threeandone-half
miles.It wasincreasedlater. Oneof the menwho participatedin the early shooting
reportsthat therewereactuallythreefan campaigns in someparts of the Gulf
Coast.The first,employingthe 3- to 3-milefans,foundonlyquiteshallow,pierce-
ment-typedomes.Then whenthe equipmentand techniques had beenimproved
sufficientlyto obtainusabledata with 5-milefans,a secondcampaignwascarried
out to find somewhat deeperdomes.The third campaignusedfansof about8-mile
radii. In a few casesdistancesup to 10 mileswere usedin an effort to get deep
penetration.
Beforeany fanswereshotin an area,a normaltime-distance
curvefor the area
2 ROAD :5 4 12
13 5
I0
II
NE
6 15
I 2 $ 4
I ! I I
CALl BRAT ION OR
SCALE-MILES
NORMAL PROFILE
Fro.1. Fanshooting map,showing locations

of twoshotpoints
(A and B) andcorresponding
detector
locations.
Circlesaboutshotpoints showscaleforindicating
time"leads."Shadedareasshowmagnitudes
of timeleadscorresponding to a domein theapproximate position
indicated.
(FromGeophysical
ros-
pecting
for Oil, by L. L. Nettleton.Copyright1940.McGraw-HillBookCompany, Inc. Usedby per-
mission)
-5
-4
TIME-DISTANCE POINTS
FOR NORMAL PROFILE
DISTANCE- FEET
5ooo 15,000 20,000 2:5,000 30,000 55,000 40,000 45,000
Fro. 2. Time-distancerelationsfor fan shooting.The line showsa "normal" curve of time versusdis-
tancefor the normal sedimentarysectionin the area beinginvestigated.Points below the line indicate
"fast" firstarrivalsof wavesthat havepenetrateda dome.Numberscorrespond with numbereddetector
positions
of Figure! (fromNettletonop.cit.).
was obtainedby shootinga calibrationor normalprofile (Figure 1).suchthat no

dome was involved. The first arrivals for the various detectorsin a fan wereplotted
on the graphof the normalcurve (Figure 2). If any of thesefell belowthe normal
curve, the time differencewas called a time "lead." Time leads of 0.! sec or less
werenot considered to be significant,but thoseof 0.2 secor more were assumedto
be causedby the wave paths passingthrougha salt dome. The leadswere plotted
on the fan map as shownin Figure 1, then a secondfan was shot to get the ap-
proximatelocationof the dome.Figures1 and 2 weretakenfrom Nettleton (1940).
Two types of instrumentswere employedin this early work' Mintrop's crews
usedhis mechanicalseismograph,which required a separaterecordingcamera for
eachunit. The othersusedelectricalgeophoneswith which the outputsof more than
one couldbe recordedby a singlecamera.However, in fan shooting,the geophones
were usuallyso widely spacedthat a separatecamerawas usedwith each.Use was
made of the air wave (i.e., soundwave traveling through the air) in most of the
fan shootingoperations.When the chargewasburiedsodeepthat it producedlittle
or no air wave, an auxiliary chargewas detonatedsimultaneouslyabove groundin
orderto set up one.The mechanicalseismograph, which, by its nature, had to be set
up on the surfaceof the ground,woulddetectand recordthe airwave.The electrical
geophone whenburiedto reducenoisewouldnot detectthe air wave,soan/[uxiliary
geophone, sometimes calleda blastphone,wasusedfor thispurpose.
8 History of Early Refraction Work
The first crews had no radios with which to transmit the time break from shot-
point to recorders.Sometimesthey strungwiresfor this purpose,but usuallythey
measured,or estimated, the shot-detectordistance,calculated the traveltime of the
air wave, then set the time-break back from the arrival of the air wave. After radios
were adopted to transmit the time-break, the crews dispensedwith the cost and
time required to survey the shot-detectordistance, and calculatedit from the air
wave, taking into accountthe velocity and direction of the wind and sometimesalso
the temperaturesand the barometric pressure.The inaccuraciesinherent in these
procedurescouldnot be toleratedin today'srefractionwork, but were permissible
in the earlyfan shootingwheretime leadswerecalculatedin tenthsof a second,not
thousandths.
Radioswereadoptedby mostof the crewssometimeduringthe fan campaigns.
Oneunpublished
reportindicatesthat thiswasthe principalimprovement
in equip-
ment which permitted the secondfan campaignto be successful. While the radio
wasusedto coordinatefield operations, its primary advantagewasin transmitting
the time-breakto the severalrecordingunits, therebypermittingmuchgreaterac-
curacyin determiningthe first arrival timesfor all geophones. This increasein the
accuracywas essentialto the discoveryof deep domesbecausethe sedimentary
velocitiesincreasefairly rapidly with depth in the Gulf Coast;therefore,the time
lead causedby a dome whosetop is 6,000 ft below the surfacewould be far lessthan
that of a dome of the samesizewhich risesto within 1,000 ft of the surface.
Competitionwaskeen betweenthe oil companiesengagedin the salt domecam-
paignof the middleand late twenties.Each companyhad scoutswatchingthe ac-
tivities of other companies'troopsto try to guesswhat they werefinding.This is
wellillustratedby the followingpassage from Barton's(1929)paper.In discussing
the field procedureafter the first indicationof a dome was obtained,he says:
"Theoretically, it is advisableto repeat the shotsand to throw a fan acrossthe sus-
pecteddomefrom another angle. But, unlessthe rival scoutscan be sidetrackedor
unlessthe suspected domeis wholly under land controlledby the company,any
apparent halting to reshootmost commonlywill bring one or more rival crewson
the groundwithin forty-eight hours.The attempt, therefore,ordinarily is made to
sneaktwo or threeadditionalshotsacrossthe domewithoutseemingto be doing
any reshooting.The companythen blocksthe prospectingas quietly as possible
andlater sendsa troopbackin to determinewhetherthe relaykey stuckonsending
out the time of the explosion,whethera stray limestonebed may have beenpicked
up, or whether a salt dome is present, and if so, to outline it and determine its
depth."
One of the few publishedpapers,and a goodone,whichdescribes fan shootingis
the casehistory of the Vermilion Bay salt dome by Rosaire and Lester (1932).
Other descriptionsof the method can be found in the bookson geophysicalex-
ploration.
OTHER METHODS
A variationof the fan shootingtechniquewasdescribedby McCollurnandLaRue

(1931). In this methoda detectorwasloweredto the bottomof a deepwell. It be-
Early Refraction Practices
came the center of the fan and the shotpointswere locatedaround the periphery,
the reverseof the normal fan shootingpractice. The advantageof the method was
deeperpenetration of the refraction path for a given shot-detectordistance than
when both the shot and the detector were at, or near, the surfaceof the ground.
The methoddoesnot appearto have beenwidely used.The samepaper introduced
a methodof detailingthe flanksof a salt dome by utilizing one or more deepflank
wells, a method which is still in use, therefore,it doesnot fall within the scopeof
this paper.
A system of ring, or arc, shootingemployed before 1933 in southwestPersia
wasdescribedby Jones(1934). While this is the only publishedpaperon the method
that is known to the writers, McCollum pointed out in a private interview that he
appliedfor a patent in 1923,whichwasgrantedin 1929,coveringthe basicprinciple
of the method.He saidhe usedit extensivelyin the 1920's.The detectorsetupwas
somewhatsimilarto that of fan shooting,however,the objectiveof the methodwas
to map refractinghorizons,not to discoversalt domes.For eachring, or circle,the
shotpointwaskept fixed at the centerwhile the detectorsoccupiedvariouspositions
around its circumference.The assumptionwas made that the delay time at the
shotpoint end of all trajectorieswas constant. Therefore, the variations in delay
time amongthe variousdetectorswereassignedentirely to variationsin depth of the
refractinghorizonat the detectorendsof the trajectories.This is an approximation
which might be permissibleif the offset distancesat the shotpoint were small, i.e.,
the refractingbed wereshallow,and/or if the bed werefairly levelin the vicinity of
the shotpoint.By a proper layout of overlappingcirclesabsolutedepths could be
determined. Gardner (1939) describeda variation of this method in which the ob-
jection just mentionedis eliminated.In it the shotpointis displacedfrom the center
of the circleby the offsetdistanceso that the refractionpath entersthe refracting
horizon at the circle'scenter. Other than the use by McCollum mentionedabove,
this methodseemsto have seenonly a limited usein this country.
EARLY FIELD PROBLEMS
Many of the routine tasks of the middle and late twenties would be considered
hardshipsby a field crew today. While the Model "T" was reliable, the roads, es-
pecially in winter, were sometimesalmostimpassible.There were no drill rigs to
dig shotholes.They weredug with an augerby two men who bent over, bore down,
and turned to the right. The holeswere usually dug to a depth of 20 to 30 ft, and
sometimesas many as 20 were required for a singlerefraction shot. As mentioned
earlier, there were no radios on the first crews, so when exact overall time was
needed,as on most profileshooting,it was necessaryto string a conductorbetween
the shotpointand the recordingsetup,which couldbe a distanceof many miles.
Quite a lot of refractionprofiling was carried out in South America during the
late twentiesin which no overall time was recorded.The interpretation depended
only on interval times betweengeophonestations. Since radio or telephonecom-
municationbetweenthe operatorand the shooterwasnot absolutelyessential,none
was provided.It then becamenecessaryfor the operatorto sendsomekind of mes-
sage to the shooterto tell him when to fire the shot. This was accomplishedby
lo History of Early Refraction Work
having two pocket watchesso carefully calibrated that the drift between them was
known to a fraction of a secondby the operator.To insurethat care was taken at all
timeswith the watches,they werealwayscarriedin paddedsaddle-soap cans,which
not only protectedthem from physicalabusebut alsofrom outsidemagneticfields.
When all geophoneswere in place and everything was ready for the shot to be
fired, the operatorwould checkthe watches,then sendoneof them by a native down
the "pica" (cut trail) to tell the shooterto fire on the 60th secondcomingup at a
predeterminedminute, allowing ten minutes for each kilometer the native had to
travel. The operator would calculate the time of arrival of the refraction energy,
taking into considerationthe drift of the watchesand the velocity at which the
energy would travel along the refracting formation. He would allow several seconds
for possibleerrors when starting his recording camera. This method worked so
effectively that during one 18-month contract, only two shots were missed. On
one occasionthere was a large river between the detector setup and the shot-
point. In this case,it was necessaryto give the shooterhis watch and to set the
firing time the night before,becausehe had to spendthe night acrossthe river from
the recordingequipment. The shot was successfullyrecordedwhen it was fired on
the 60th secondcomingup at 9'00 o'clockthe next morning.
REMAINING IMPRINTS OF EARLY REFRACTION PRACTICES
Those who participated in the early refraction were the pioneersof the seismic
profession.
(1) They altered trucks to make them more useful in seismicfield work which
has led to present specializedautomotive equipment.
(2) They adoptedthe radio to field operations,and today it is an essentialpiece
of equipment in all refraction work and in most reflection operationswhere the
shootingand the recordingunits are separatedby more than a few hundred feet,
especiallyin water, marsh, and swamp work.
(3) They developedat least four refractiontechniques'
(a) Fan shootingwhich, though currently inactive, would certainly play a
major role in a new salt dome province shouldone be discovered.
(b) Arc shooting,whichnow seemsto be dormant,may still have someprofit-
able applications.
(c) Radial-refractionshooting,a methodof outlininga salt domeby utilizing
a deep well bottomed in or near the salt, is still in use.It will be discussedin
a later paper of this book.
(d) The basicprinciplesof the in-line refractionmethodof mappingsubsurface
horizons which, with some refinements,is in current use. It will also be
discussedlater by others.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are deeply grateful to the followingmen for their suggestionsand
comments:D. ?. Carlton, E. A. Eckhardt, J. J. Jakosky, J. C. Karcher, W. W.
LaRue, O. C. Lester, Burton McCollurn, L. L. Nettleton, and Paul Weaver. The

authors would also like to thank the Society of Petroleum Engineersfor allowing
the use of material from their publication in this paper.
REFERENCES
Barton, D.C., 1929, The seismicmethod of mapping geologicstructure' Geophys.Prosp., A.I.M.E.,

p. 572-624.
DeGolyer, E., 1935, Notes on the early history of applied geophysics
in the petroleumindustry: Jour.
Soc.Pet. Geoph.,v. 6, p. 1-10. (Reprintedin Early GeophysicalPapers,SEG, p. 245-254.)
Gardner,L. W., 1939, An areal plan of mappingsubsurfacestructuresby refractionshooting:Geo-
physics,v. 4, p. 247-259.
Heiland,C. A., 1929,Moderninstrumentsandmethodsof seismicprospecting: Geophys.Prosp.,A.I.M.E.,
p. 625-653.
Jones,J. H., 1934, A seismicmethodof mapping anticlinal structures:Proc. First World Pet. Cong.,
p. 169-173.
McCollurn,Burton, and LaRue, W. W., 1931, Utilization of existingwellsin seismograph work: Bull.
A.A.P.G., v. 15, p. 1409-1417.(Reprintedin Early Geophysical Papers,SEG, p. 119-127.)
Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysicalprospectingfor oil: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company,Inc.
Rosaire,E. E., and Lester,O. C., Jr., 1932,Seismologicaldiscoveryand partial detail of VermilionBay
salt dome,Louisiana:Bull. A.A.P.G., v. 16. (Reprintedin TransactionsSoc. Pet. Geoph.,v. 3, p. 51-
59; Early Geophysical Papers:SEG, p. 381-389;Geophysical CaSeHistories,SEG, v. 1, p. 135.)
Weatherby,B. B., 1940,The historyand developmentof seismicprospecting: Geophysics, v. 5, p. 215-
230.

REFRACTION
Section
2
MODELS
Section 2
Refraction Models
Model studiesprovide an excellentmethod of investigatingany geophysical

method.The analogmodel is a methodof studyingthe refractionproblemwith
physicalmaterialsthat may be modeledto simulatethe actualfieldproblemwith
properphysicalratiosfor the simulation.
A secondtype of modelis that obtainedby makingup a reproducible synthetic
refractionoutput record,whichwouldsimulatethat obtainedfrom refractionfield
work. Processing experimentationcanthen be accomplished on thissimulateddata.
A third typeof modelis the mathematicalmodel,whichwill be utilizedmoreand
morewith the widespreadpopularity of digital computers.
The analogmodelis ably described by Lasteret al. in "AnalogModel Studiesof
the SimpleRefractionProblem"showing not onlytheresultsfroma modelbut also
a seriesof variationsthat givesonean insightinto what will happenwhen similar
variations occur in the field.
Syntheticrecordmodelsare described in the secondpaperby BruceandWhite,
"A Methodof SeparatingOverlappingRefractionArrivals."A particularphaseof
the velocityfilteringtechnique
is illustratedby the useof the syntheticrefraction
record.
Examples of mathematical modelsareusedin Werth'spaperunderthesectionon
"Amplitudeof the RefractedSignal"andagainby Woolleyet al. underthe "Wave-
front Methods"part of the "InterpretationTechniques
for RefractionWork."
14
ANALOG MODEL STUDIES OF THE
SIMPLE REFRACTION PROBLEM
STANLEY J. LASTER, MILO M. BACKUS,

ANt) RICHARD SCHELL*
ABSTRACT
A two-dimensionalanalog model with a cylindrical structure has been constructedto simulate the
simplerefractionproblem.Experimentalseismograms showingthe first refractionare presented.From
suchrecordstraveltime curvesare constructed.The structure,as predicted,appearsas an anomaly in
the traveltime.Plotsshowingrefractionamplitudeversusdistancealsoshowan anomalyin the neighbor-
hood of the structure.
A numberof othercoherenteventsappearon the experimentalseismograms, all exhibitingthe horizon-
tal velocityof the refractor.Theseare shownto be refractedreflectionsand reflectedrefractions,many
of which containcompressional-to-shear conversions.The structuralsignificance of theselater events
is shownby traveltimeanomaliesand amplitudeanomaliessimilarto thosefor the first refraction.
Finally, a brief discussion
of the shallowrefractorproblemis included.In this case,the traveltime
difference betweenthe multiplerefractions is small,sothe seismogram hasa ringing,"mode"structure.
DESCRIPTION OF MODEL
The G.S.I. two-dimensionalanalog seismicmodel is a permanent facility built

up to aid in the understandingof propagationproblemswhich arisein the field. The
theoretical basis for two-dimensionalmodeling (Oliver, Press, and Ewing, 1954)
dependson the peculiaritiesof wave propagationin thin plates. Due to the nature
of the boundaryconditionsat the free surfacesof the plate, shear,$H, wavesprop-
agatein the plate in directionsparallelto the surfaceswith the samevelocity (and
without dispersion)as shear waves in an infinite isotropic medium. Compressional
wavesof wavelengthmuch longer than the plate thicknessexhibit nondispersive
propagationparallel to the surfaceswith a velocity about 5 percentlessthan the
infinite medium compressional velocity. Thus, if we excite waves of sufficiently
longwavelength,the plate may be treatedas a sliceout of an infinite mediumwhose
compressional wave velocity is slightly smaller than that of the material actually
used. Ordinary ray-theory conceptsmay then be applied.
The particular model considered(Figure 1.1) here consistsof a thick brasslayer
overlyingan "infinitely" deep stainless-steel basement.Both materials are made
from 1/16-inch thick sheets.Machined into the brass-steelinterface is a cylindrical
structure. The cornersof the structure have been joined to the flat portion of the
interface with fillets to minimize scattering.Detailed dimensionsof the structure
are given in Figure 1.2. The 1 cm-1,000 ft scalingbringsthe modelinto suitable
agreementwith field situations.With this scaling,oneusecrepresentsabout30 ms.
Elasticwavesare excitedin the modelby a bariumtitanate crystal(markedsource
in Figure1.1) drivenby an electricalpulse.The wavemotionis detectedby a similar
barium titanate crystal. This receiveris usually mounted on the top edge of the
Texas Instruments,Inc., Dallas, Texas.

15
16 Refraction Models
SOURCE

BRASS I 9CM
CONTOUR
CENTER
77CIV
'STAINI,I:.S
STEEL !
WAVE VELOCITIES (M/SEC.) SCALING
P WAVE S WAVE ICM = 1000 FT.
BRASS: 3850 Z 1oo 11zS = 30 MS.
STEEL: 5290 3100
Fro. 1.1 Schematicdiagramof two-dimensional

analogmodel.
modeland is movablesoas to providecontinuousprofiling.The modelseismograms

are recordedfrom an oscilloscopewith a Polaroid camera.Most field seismometers
are constructedto measurevertical ground velocity, while the crystal used here
respondsto vertical acceleration.However, the correspondence between the two
measurementssimply requiresassuminga different shot function.
1.2 Detailed dimensions of structural contour.

Model Studies of Simple Refraction 17
R 60 cm
/ DELAY
130
/ NORM
GAIN IO
f SWEEP 2/. $eC/cm
FILTER * L.C 500 CPS
HC 2 50 KC
Fro. 2.1 Typical refractedpulse.Measuredat the interface.
In someinstances,it is desirableto make measurements "at depth." For this

purposethe modelis equippedwith a side-mountedtransducerwhich respondsto
motionin the planeof the model.By rotatingthe crystalit is possibleto measure
both horizontal and vertical motion with this device.
Figure2.1 showsa typicalrefractedpulsefor thismodel.Thispulsewasmeasured
with the side transducer near the interface at a horizontal source-receiver distance
of 60 cm.In thisinstance,thereceiverrespondedto verticalacceleration.
Figure2.2
showsthe amplitudespectrumfor this pulse.The passband is approximately60 kc
to 300 kc with the spectrumpeakedat 180kc. This scalesapproximatelyto a band
of two cps to 10 cpspeakedat 6 cps.At thesefrequencies the dominantwave-
length of the refraction is about 3 cm (3,000 ft).
CONVENTIONAL REFRACTION RESULTS
Generaltheory
Model seismograms wererecordedfor a continuous profilestartingat 5 cm from
the sourceand extendingto 205 cm from the sourcein one-cmincrements.Figure
3.1 and 3.2 showtypical recordsfor moderatesource-receiverdistances(35-55 cm).
(Note that theserecordsare takenovera flat portionof the interface.)The direct,
refracted,and reflectedeventsare identified. Relevant raypaths are shown in
Figure 4. For distancesup to about 40 cm the direct wave, P, is the first arrival.
Beyondabout 50 cm the refraction,P., is the first arrival. Somewherebetweenthese
two distancesthe crossoverpoint is reached.The reflection(denotedP.x) is never
the first arrival, but is of largeramplitudethan eitherthe direct or refractedpulses.
From theserecordstraveltime curveswere constructedfor the direct, refracted,
and reflectedevents.Theseare shownin Figure5.
Having presentedtypical recordsand identifiedthe refraction,it is worthwhile
to considersomeresultsof theoreticalinvestigations describedin the literature. In
particular,we quote Jeffreys(1926) and Heelan (1953). Jeffreysconsideredthe
point-sourceproblemfor two liquid layerswith a commoninterface,althoughhis

resultsare not particularly affectedby the fact that the materials were layers. The
following assumptionswere made.
(1) The horizontalrangeis muchlarger than the distanceof the sourceor receiver
from the interface.
(2) The dominantwavelengthis muchsmallerthan the horizontalrange.
When theseconditionsare satisfied,the followingresultsare obtainedfor timesnear
the arrival of the refraction (i.e., the "first" motion).
(1) The reflectedand refractedeventstravel alongleast-timepathsaspredictedby
simple ray theory.
(2) The refractionamplitudedecaysas
SCAL, ED FIEQqJENCY (CPS)
R. rJ.,ATI'VE
AJdPL, ITIJDI:
SO 100 IS0 200 2S0 300 3S0 400
FREO.
UENCY
(Kcps)
Fro. 2.2 Frequencyspectrumfor refractedpulseP2 as shownin Figure 2.1.
Measured at 60 cm from source.
DELAY
I0 and I p sec Irkers
R (pSEC)
36
37
38
39
4o I00
Norm. Gain - I
FILTER: L.C. - CPS
H;C. '- 2) KC
Fro. 3.1 Typicalmodelseismogram traverserecorded with top transducer.

R=35 cm to R--45 cm.
Recorded overa flat portionof the interface.Direct,refracted,and reflected
pulsesare identified.
Vertical motion.
2O Refraction Models
128
itom. Gain - I
FILTERI L.C. - 00 CPS
20 XC
Fro.3.2 Typicalmodelseismogram traverse

recordedwithtoptransducer.
R=45 cmto R= 55cm.
Recordedovera flat portionof the interface.
Direct,refracted,
andreflected
pulses
are identified.
Vertical motion.
rl D
FIG. 4. Schematicraypathsfor direct,P, reflected,Px, and refracted,P, pulses.
(3) If the direct wave has a pulse shapef(t), the refraction has a pulse shape
ff(t)dt.
(4) The amplitudeof therefraction
is proportional
to [1--(a/a2)2]-/2.Thus,the
refracted amplitude is larger for small velocity contrasts.The amplitude ap-
pearsto have a singularityfor a =a.. However,for this casethe refractedwave
and direct wave mergeinto oneevent, the direct wave for an infinite medium.
Heelan consideredthe point-sourceproblem for two solid materials in contact
with assumptionssimilar to thoseof Jeffreys.However, he did not require that the
rangebe muchlarger than the distanceof sourceor receiverfrom the interface. For
times near the arrival of the refraction, the following resultswere obtained'
(1) The amplitude decay relationshipis given more accurately by 1/(r/'La/')
where L is the distance traveled in the refractor. Note' For the two-dimensional
situation this factor is 1/L a/'(Newlands, 1952).
(2) The relative amplitudesof the reflectedevent are proportionalto the plane-wave
reflection coefficientsevaluated at the appropriate angle of incidence. The
amplitudesof the refractedeventsare evaluatedin a different mannerfrom the
sameexpression.Heelan too finds that the refracted wave pulseis the integral
of the direct wave pulse.
The two works cited are primarily aimed at discoveringthe propertiesof the
critical refraction. However, these and other authors do briefly considerthe reflec-
tion. The primary resultsfor this case,valid near the reflectiontime, are as follows'
(1) For distancesfrom the sourcelarge enoughto ignore wavefront curvature, but
insidethe critical angle, the reflectionhas very nearly the samepulseshapeas
the direct arrival.
(2) Outsidethe critical angle the reflectionpulseshapeis altered slightly by what is
variously termed "phase distortion," the "pseudo" reflection, or the refraction
"tail." This effectis discussedby Dix (1961). Even here however,the reflected
and direct waves have rather similar pulse shapes,so that the refraction pulse
shapeis roughly the integral of the reflectionpulse shape.This is borne out by
the experimental recordsin Figure 10.5.
The previousresultsare examplesof the use of "near-front" or "first-motion" ap-
proximation which yield expansionsof the solution around the arrival time for a
particular event. It is also possibleto obtain exact closedform solutions(at least
for a two-dimensionalmodel) by the method of Cagniard (1939; 1962). In this
instance, the total motion as a function of time is given for each ray. (The term
"ray" has a slightly different meaning here; thus the ray which leaves the source
as a compressionalwave, touchesthe interface once,and returns to the receiver as
a compressionalwave includesboth the P. refraction and the Px reflection.) An
extensionof the Cagniardmethod due to de Hoop (1960) is particularly simpleand
elegant. Using this method, exact seismogramscorrespondingto model records
have been computed for various distances. These will be discussedin more detail
later. However, as a typical example, the vertical displacementfor the PP ray
200
time (i sec)
160
Reflection
2 Refraction
p
120 2x
Direct P
80
40
distance (cm)
0 20 40 60 80
FIO. 5. Experimentaltraveltimecurvesfor direct,P, reflected,P, and refracted,P, pulses.

IMPULS!.
SEISMOORAM
140 150 I 0 170 180 190
P2x
SEISMOGRAM FOR
IMPULSE CONVOLVED
WITH SOURCE PULSE
i !
I
EXPERIMENTAL
SEISMOGRAM
135 155 175
TIHE (.ICROSECOHDS)
Fro. 6. Comparison of theoreticalandexperimental seismograms

at R=60 cm. Top traceis theoretical
seismogram for impulsiveforcesource.Middle traceshowsresultof convolvingtop tracewith a source
pulse.Bottom trace is early part of experimentalseismogram.
Vertical motion.
(mentionedabove)is shownin Figure 6 for a horizontalsource-receiver distanceof

60 cm. The top trace showsthe result when an impulsive force sourceacts at the
surface of the ground. The secondtrace showsthe same event convolved with a
sourcepulserepresentativeof the model.For comparison,the third trace showswhat
was actually measuredon the analog model. This third trace contains more than
the oneray, so correspondence is not exact. The representative sourcepulsewas
arrived at in the followingmanner.The linear time operatorwasdeterminedwhich
transformed the theoretically computed refraction event at r--200 cm into the
experimentallymeasuredevent at the same distance.This operator included re-
sponsecharacteristicsof the sourceand receiver transducers,and the electrical
system.This was assumedto be the correctsourcepulsesinceit successfully trans-
formed all other theoretical seismogramsinto the correspondingexperimental
seismograms.
Effects of structureon thefirst refraction

The effect of the structure on the primary refraction is a matter of great practical
consequence.This present model is particularly important sinceit representsa case
where the exact shapeof the structure is known and can be comparedto the experi-
mental results.Figures 7.1 to 7.5 showa suite of recordswhich includesa traverse
across
thestructure.
These
arewide-band,
high-resolution
records
tak'en
withhigh
gain and fast sweepso that only the early part of the first arrival (refraction) is in-
cluded. The errors in reading times from theserecordsare certainly no greater than
one-tenthtsec.Traveltime curveswere constructedfrom thesedata. Then by taking
the differencebetween the predicted flat interface time and the observed times, a
residual time curve is obtained. Similar curves were obtained from narrow-band
recordswith centerfrequenciesat 200 kc (scaled6 cps) and 80 kc (scaled2.6 cps).
The three experimentalresidualsare presentedin Figure 8.1. The dominant wave-
length in each caseis shown. It is immediately apparent that there is little if any
frequency dependencefor these residuals,though the resolutionis somewhatbetter
at the higher frequencies.The solid line in Figure 8.1 is the predicted time anomaly
basedon the simple,minimum-time raypath of the type shownin Figure 8.2. Agree-
ment is fairly good between predicted and measuredanomalies.
An interpretation basedon the data in Figure 8.1 was prepared by Mr. Clement
Blum, using standard field interpretation techniques.This and the actual structure
are shownin Figure 8.3. The structureis somewhatsmoothed,and the total height
is slightly in error but the agreementis good. In particular the real and computed
structure are centeredat the sameplace.
The recordsin Figures7.1-7.5 suggestthat the amplitude of the refractionsuffers
a marked decrease as the traverse crossesthe structure. In order to study this
phenomenon,the amplitude of the refraction is plotted versusL (distancetraveled
in the refractor) on a log-log scale(Figure 9.1). Also for the comparisonthe pre-
dicted L -a/ line is plotted. In the flat interface region of the model the observed
amplitudes fall very close to the predicted line. However, as the traverse moves
acrossthe structure, there is an abrupt decreasein the amplitude. Thus, in a man-
ner similar to that above, we can construct an amplitude residual curve, such as
that shown in Figure 9.2. The time-anomaly curve is reproducedin Figure 9.2
for comparisonwith amplitude. Although it is not evident how to constructa struc-
tural interpretationfrom this amplitudedata, it is significantthat (1) the anomaly
is roughly the same shape as the structure, and (2) the trough of the anomaly,
when migratedback one critical refractiondistanced, coincidesapproximatelywith
the top of the structure. No attempt is made here to quantitatively explain this
amplitude anomaly, but certain contributory effectsmay be suggested.First is the
defocussing
effectof the convexstructure.Secondis the changein angleof emer-
genceof'refracted ray due to the structure. Third is the destructive interferenceof
pulsestraveling alongslightly differentpaths. Finally, we may cite the effectof back
scatteringof the refractedwave by the structure.The total anomalyis probablydue
to a combination of these effects.
25
Model Studiesof Simple Refraction
I p sec Markers ,
DELAY
IO6
o? 232
io8
o9 g36
IiO
III 21;0
112 2
113
11,5 8
Norm. Gain - I00

FILTER: L.C..e .500 CP$
HtC. I 2.0 KC
FxG.
7.1
High-gain
records
forfirst
arrival.
Sweep
rate
one
sec/cm.
Vertical
motion.
DELAY
I p sec Harkers
R (,sEc)
gr7
gl9
I17
118
119
12o
Igl
12'2 261
g63
IgJ
g6T
Norm. Gain -
F I LTER: L.C. - .500 CPS
H.C. - 20 KC
Fxo.7.2 High-gain
records
forfirstarrival.Verticalmotion.
Sweep
rateonesec/cm.
Model Studies of Simple Refraction
DELAY ! Sec Markers

R (SEC)
127
13o
131
132
133
134
13.5
Norm. Gain = 200

FILTER: L.C. = 00 CPS
H.C. = 2.50 KC
FzG.7.3High-gainrecords
for firstarrival.Sweepone/sec/cm.
Verticalmotion.
DELAY I I sec Harkers

R (,sgc) ..%.-- . A._
28
136
137
138
139
IO
111.2
Nora. Gain - 200
FILTER:
L.C.
- CPS H.C. - 20 KC ./
Fro. 7.4High-gain
records
forfirstarrival.Sweep
rateonetsec/cm.
Verticalmotion.
/ /
DELAY
R
310
31
/

318
3:
Nora. 6aln =
FILTEr=
FiG.7.5High-gain
records
forfirstarrival.
Sweep
rateonesec/cm.
Vertical
motion.
RESIDUAL TRAVEL TIME ACROSS STRUCTURE

,
PHYSICAL LOCATION
f OFSTRUCTURE
-0
/
I
-1.0
RESIDUAL TIME 200 KC ---

COMPUTED ON BASIS WIDE BAND .......
-Z.0 80 KC ,,
OF SNELLS LAW
-3.0
I I I I I I I ,
110 1Z0 130 140 150 160 170
DISTANCE (cm)
FIG. 8.1 Traveltime residualsfor first refraction,P., in the neighborhood

of structure.The length
of the line showingthe legendfor eachfrequencyis approximatelyonewavelength.Solidline is Snell's
law computationof residual.
LATER REFRACTION ARRIVALS
Identification of later events

A study of Figures3.1 and 3.2 showsthat while we have identifiedonly the direct
pulse,reflection,and first refraction, there are a number of other coherenteventson
the records.To further substantiatethis, and alsofor future reference,a reasonably
completetraversefrom R-5 cm to R-205 cm is shownin Figures 10.1-10.16.In
order to point up this effect, attention is drawn to Figure 10.6, where the first re-
fraction, P2, has becomewell separatedfrom the next arrival. The secondarrival is
somewhatsmallerthan P2 and appearsto travel with the samehorizontalvelocity.
Since the horizontal velocity of P: is the velocity of compressional wavesin the
stainless-steelbottom, it seemsreasonableto assumethat the secondarrival is also
a refractioncoupledto the underlyingsteel.It is tentatively identifiedas the sum of
the PS and $P refractions. (These events have the same traveltime for sourceand
receiverboth on the surface.)At still larger distances,another similar event is ob-
SOUR CE RECEIVER
FIG. 8.2 Minimum time raypathfor Snell'slaw computationin Figure8.1. Not to scale.
OFFSET (FEET)
120,000 I$0,000 140,000 150,000
I I I I
6.5 6500
7.0
7000
(.
7.5 7500
8.0 8000
r 8.5 e5oo
9.0 9OO0
ACTUAL STRUCTURE
COMPUTED STRUCTURE
I i i I
120 I$0 140 150
OFFSET (cm)
FIO. 8.3 Structuralinterpretationof experimentaltime residuals.Solidline is actual structure.
Vertical scalegreatly exaggerated.
servedwhich is identified as P4. The raypaths for theseevents are shown in Figure
12.1. Observationof higher gain records(Figures10.9-10.16) showsthat the wave-
form of theseevents are quite stable. Indeed, a long succession of stable arrivals, all
propagatingwith the refractor velocity is evident. For reference,Figure 11 shows
theoretical traveltime for the most important events.
Some confusionseemsto exist concerningthe raypaths possiblefor a multiple
refraction. Considerthe raypaths for P4 shownin Figure 12.2. The top and middle
raypaths are possible,and both occur,as will be shown later; the bottom raypath
is impossible.The first path representsthe refraction of a reflectedwavefront. The
reflected wavefront is of coursecurved, and may give rise to a refracted event of
finite amplitude. The secondraypath showsa refraction that has been reflected.
The refractionis a plane wave (in three dimensionsa conicalwave), and thus does
not give rise to anotherrefractionwhereit touchesthe lower boundary.This latter
fact thus excludesthe third raypath. Pictures of the wavefronts for the first two
raypathsare shownin Figure 12.3at two differenttimes.The smallfront C" is the
wavefront for both the raypaths considered.If an observerlocated on C" looks
forward, it appearsthat C" is a continuationof the fronts C and C', i.e. a reflected
refraction.Looking backward,C" appearsto be a simplerefractionconnectingthe
doublyreflected
wavefront
B" withthewavefront
D in thebottom.Thus,C" con-
tains both a reflectedrefraction and a refracted reflection.It is quite important to
understandthat the wavefront D' arisesfrom the refraction of B', not the refraction
of C'. In caseswheretheinterfaceis not flat, the twocomponent

partsof C" will be
separated.
Wavefrontsconsistentwith geometricaloptics(the basisof ray theory)cannotbe
constructedfor the third raypath in Figure 12.2. The readeris urged to try to do
this.
As a meansof definitely identifying the later arrivals, exact theoreticalseismo-
gramswerecomputedby the methodof de Hoop discussed previously.The first !7
ray eventswere computedfor severaldistances.Actually, fewer than 17 measurable
events resultedsincemany of the mathematicallydifferent rays have the same
traveltimes.Only the sumsof sucheventscan be identified.Examplesare shown
in Figures 13.1 to 13.4. All of the resultsshownhave beenconvolvedwith a suitable
sourcepulse.Shownin additionare corresponding experimentalseismograms from
the model.
A number of important resultsare evident from theserecords.First, our iden-
tificationof the variousarrivalsis justified.For instance,it is seenthat PS and P4
1.0
A=C
Oo
.Ol
L
FiG.9.1 Peakamplitudefor first arrival,P2,versusdistance,
L, traveledin refractor.Straightline is
theoretical
prediction
ofamplitudebehavior. Noteamplitudeanomalyin neighborhood ofthestructure.
PHYSICAL LOCATION
OF STRUCTURE
1.0

Z. 0
4.0
/ AMPLITUDE
RESIDUAL
!

6.0
-1.0
-Z.0
IDUAL
-3.0
-4.0
i i i i i i i i i
100 110 lZ0 130 140 150 160 170 180
DISTANCE (crn)
FIG. 9.2 Peak amplitudeanomalyin decibelsfor first arrival, P., plotted versussource-receiver
dis-
tance,R. (At top) For reference,the wide-bandtraveltime anomalyis shownat the bottom.
are both somewhatsmaller than P. and both have oppositepolarity to P.. Also, the
PaS refraction is larger than the first arrival P.. These predictionsare borne out by
the experimentalseismograms.Second,it is seenthat while all the refractionshave
the samepulseshapefor about the first cycle, the trailing edgesof the pulsesdiffer.
For example, the /'4 pulse is measurably different from that of P.. Finally, the
importance of the ray events involving compressional-to-shear energy conversions
is shown.Refractionsof this type make up a large part of the later arrivals.
It must be admitted that some disturbing discrepanciesstill exist between the
experimentaland theoretical results. First, the sourcepulse for the model has not
Refraction Models
I
10 and I sec Iarl
DELAY
R (SEC)
10
11 22
12 2
13
14
15 30
FIG.10.1Typical
model
seismograms
recorded
withtoptransducer.
Vertical
motion.
DELAY !0 and ! p sec Markers

(SeC)
T ,/
18
19
23
Non.. Gain- I
FtLTER: L.. - CPS
H.. -eO Kg
Fro. 10.2 Typicalmodelseismograms

recorded
with top transducer.
Verticalmotion.
IO and I p sec Harkers

DELAY
R (.SEC)
26
3o
31
33
7o
PS
Norm. Gain - I
FILTER: L.C. - ,OC)CPS
H.C. - 2.0 KC
Fro. 10,3 Typical modelseismograms

recordedwith top transducer.Vertical motion.
I0 and I p sec Pmrkers

,,,,,,J,........l.,,,,,,, &,,,,,,,Ji,,,,,,,i........t
_ _
4O lOO
41 1 O2
ilo
,,,,
Norm. Gain - I
FILTER: L.C. - CPS
H;C. - 2,0 KC
FIO. 10.4 Typical modelseismograms

recordedwith top transducer.Verticalmotion.
Refraction Models
DELAY I0 and I I sec Harkers

(SEC)
.....
A........
,llll,,,,
........
........
......,,,,,,,,Ji,,,,,,
.....
,,,J......
;.
0.5 ypica] modelscismog:ams

eco:dedwith top t:asduce:.Ve:dca]modo.
I0 and I I c Markers
DELAY
(,sc)
99 210
97 212
I oo
IOl 216
217
218
: :. Id

P2 PS+SP P2x ,
Norm.
FILTER; L.C. - X) CPS
#c.. 2o KC
Fro.10.6Typicalmodel
seismograms
recorded
withtoptransducer.
Vertical
motion.
DELAY I0 and I rker$ NORH.

- GAIN
231
107
IO8
IiO
Ill
112
238
FILTER: L.C:. - C:PS

N.C. - 20 KC
Fxo.10.7Typicalmodelseismograms
recorded
withtoptransducer.
Verticalmotion.
DELAY
(,SEC)
I0and
I.sec
r,rs .

'
116
117
118-
119
2 :
121
122 27
P PS+SP 4 2x
Norm. Giln = I0
FILTER: L.C. = CP$
#.(:. - 2,10 K(:
Fro. 10.8 Typicalmodelseismograms

recorded
Verticalmotion.
;
VI
DELAY I0 end I I sec Markers
(,soc)
I17 gag
118
119
,,_J
12o
121
122
gJ8
gJ9
P2x 'i
PS+SP
Norm. Gain - .0
FILTER: L.C. - CPS
H.C. - 2.0 KC
FIG. 10.9 Typicalmodelseismograms

recorded
Verticalmotion.
128
3o
131
133
DELAY
261
(SEC)
Model Studies of Simple
Refraction
i
I0 nd I I sec Irkers
;
.I
43
I0 nd I I sec Markers
DELAY
R (,SEC)
139
: : :
.
137
139
PS SP P' '
Norm. Gain - ,0
FILTER: L.C. - CPS
H.C.
Fro.10.11Typicalmodel
seismograms
recorded
withtoptransducer.
Vertical
motion.
DELAY I0 and I p, sec Harkers

(,SEC)
3o0
3Ol
3O'2
303
3o
3o:
3o6
3o7
3o8
3o9
310
Norm. Groin - ,0
FILTER: L.. - 00 PS
#.. - E'JO K
FIG. 10.12 Typical modelseismograms

DELAY I0 and I I sec Markers

R (.SEC)
155 320
156 321
157 322
159 321
16o
I
163 38
39
16.5 330
SP+PS
Norm. Gain - :50

FILTER: L.C. - K)O CPS
H.C. - 250 KC
Fro. 10.13 Typical modelseismograms

DELAY
IO and I a see s
b, SEC)
3
166
167
168 31+3
17o
172 31+7
173 38
39
, Ill
3o
p. SP+PS P
Norm. Gain = 0
FILTER: L.. = PS
#.c. =oKc

DELAY
(.SC)
36o
176 36l
177
178
179
180
.181
182
183 368
369
370
Norm. Gain . .50

FILTER: L.C...500 CP$
H.C. -LOKC
DELAY
(SEC
390
197
393 ,
199
201
397
399 -
P2S2
Norm. Gain - .O
FILTER: L.C. - )O IP$
#..
Fro. 10.16 Typical modelseismograms

been determined with sufficientaccuracyas yet. This means that somedisparity

exists between the theoretical and experimental seismogramswe are comparing.
Asidefrom this effect however,there is an unexplainabletiming error. Velocitiesin
the stainless steel are known to within +_.01 mm/usec and cause no trouble. The
500
.o
time (izaec
440 Rayleigh
Wave
,
P4X ,...'
.'"'..?....-
'"'/'"'
/ P6
....' ....'.;:)'
.....'
,' ..... ....;,<//.
380 / ...."...'2.?//('/.('
. ....
..' /'...'.'/
...'/....r_.:y
/ / ,/ //
.....'/..,?/
...'/....>;;''/
320
..'-).X?
.././).::.r
..//.-"2'::'"'
/...'/?.. :::.'
//'
/...'./.....:.."// ./
260
>, ...:' // -
/ ./,...<";.::';,5

Pzsz/ ../-./...-"..-.':-?/
.-
/ 4'':.""..'"?/' '
/ //'....":', ,'
///......../'
zoo
/
/.//...."....:<..;;;'
/.."...' /..'...
/ ...'...'//?'
/ ...'....' .....'
/ ...'.,.//...'/
140
.?/....::.."//
...::,"/ ...'?/
8O
.. distance (cm)
0
0 30 60 90 IZO 150 180
Fro. 11. Theoreticaltraveltimecurvesfor the major eventsseenin Figures10.1to 10.16.Thesetimes

are computed
for the firstbreak,soa smallconstanttime correction
mustbe addedwhenusingthese
curvesto identify peaksor troughs.
Model Studiesof Simple Refraction t
SOURCE RECEIVER
P S
.///// //////////////////////Qz,//////////////////////!/!
S P
. !//I//I//////li////////////////////-/////////////////
r'! o
'1111IIIIIIIIIIIIIZ . / / / / / / // / / / / / ///r/////////////////////.
,/11t//////////////,/,//,,,,,,,H ////////////////////?
FIG. 12.1 Raypathsfor typicallater refractedevents.
brassvelocitieswere determinedfrom very precisemeasurementsof the direct P

moveoutvelocity.The waveformof this eventappearsto be very stable.Also,as
the measurementswere carried out at different placesin the model and for both
verticaland horizontalprofiles,thereappearsto be no significantanisotropy.The
brassRayleighvelocitywasdetermined
directlyandthe shearvelocitycomputed
from the Rayleighand compressional
velocities.Yet generally,the experimental
refractionsarrive later than their theoreticalcounterpart,while the experimental
reflections arrive earlier than the theoretical reflections. The late arrival of the re-
fractionsmayberelatedto imperfectcouplingof thebrassandsteelat theinterface,
whilethe earlyreflections
may indicatethat ourvelocitymeasurements are really
too low. The two questionsare unresolved,
but they do not in any way alter the
identification of the later events.
Somefurtherlight is thrownon theselater refractions by recordings of seismo-
gramstakenalonga verticalprofile(Figure14).Thelowesttraceis takenwiththe
receiverat the interface,whilethe uppertraceis taken at the surface.The inter-
mediatetracesare taken in the layer at two-cm increments.The first event meas-
SOURCE RECEIVER
SOURCE RECEIVER
SOURCE RECEIVER
Fro.12.2Raypaths
for/>4
refraction.
Topandmiddle
diagrams
represent
possible
raypaths
forarrivals
ofnonvanishing
amplitude.
Bottomraypathisnotpossible
in a flatinterface
model.
uredat theinterfacecontains energythat left thesource

asa P wave,wascritically
refracted,and is travelingalongthe interface.Someof thisrefractedenergycon-
tinuallyleaksawayintothelayer,bothasa P waveandasanS wave.Theradiated
P-waveenergy is thefirstenergymeasured
at eachof theupperstations
andwhen
SOURCE RECEIVER
B C
SOURCE RECEIVER
" '/k I^/, c '
Fro.12.3Wavefronts
in thelayerat twodifferent
times,A isdirectwave;B isuptraveling
reflection
frombottom;B' is downtraveling
reflection
fromsurface;B" is secondreflection
frombottom;C is
primary
refraction;
C' isreflected
refraction
(fromsurface);
C isa combination
ofthereflection
ofC'
fromthebottom(a reflected
refraction)
andtherefraction
of B (a refracted
reflection);
D andD are
successive
wavefrontsin the refractor.Compressional
frontsonly are shown.
Theoretical
Vertical
Motion
R = 200 cm
PS+SP
s2
PS
395 415 4:55 4 55 475 495
Time in p. Sec.
Fxo. 13.1 Summationof theoreticalray eventsto yield theoreticalseismogram.R = 200 cm. Theseevents
have been convolvedwith a typical sourcepulse.Vertical motion.
it touchesthe surfaceit is recognizedas the P2 refraction.At the surfacethis energy

is reflected back down into the layer, again producing both a P and an S wave.
These may be traced in Figure 14 as they travel down toward the interface. Con-
sider now the energyradiated from the interface as an S wave. This event may be
traced upward to the surfacebecauseof its low apparent velocity. It representsthe
Refraction Models
P:sS
t I I I
i
II I I i
i
i
R = 60 cm
', I
I
I I t
i
I I t
I II I
I t
I i I I I
155 175 19.5 215 255
Time in j.z.Sec.
P6x
P2x
P2 P3S
PSx
R= 80cm
175 195 215 235 255 275
Time in Sec.
Fro. 13.2 Comparison of theoreticaland experimentalseismograms for representative
distances.
Verticalmotion.Theoreticalseismograms havebeenconvolvedwith a sourcepulse.Theoreticalseismo-
gramis at top in eachpair.
R = I00 cm
215 235 255 275 295 $15
Time in p, Sec.
Pzx P3S
R = 120 crn
255 275 295 :515 :535 355
Time in p, Sec.
FIO. 13.3 Comparisonof theoreticaland experimentalseismograms for representativedistances.
Vertical motion.Theoreticalseismograms
have beenconvolvedwith a sourcepulse.Theoreticalseismo-
gramis at top in eachpair.
PS
R = 160 crn
3.25 345 365 385 P$S 405 425

Time in/j Sec.
PS+SP
,, R = 180 cm
I
I
365 385 405 425 445 465
Time in Sec.
Fro. 13.4 Comparisonof theoreticaland experimentalseismograms for representativedistances.
Vertical motion.Theoreticalseismograms
have beenconvolvedwith a sourcepulse.Theoreticalseismo-
gram is at top in eachpair.
DELAY I0 ond I/z sec MARKERS

R
( sec.)
SURFACE
IOO 221 ,
P .
, \,,, !i
, / ..,' '.., NORM GAIN = 50

FILTER' L.C.= 500CPS
H.C.= 250 KC
,
sP P4
Fro. 14. Seismograms
recorded
withsidetransducer
alonga verticalprofilein a
layer. R- 100 cm. Vertical motion.
/'S refraction
andcontributes
to thesecond eventmeasured at thesurface.
Finally,
consider thesecond
eventmeasured at theinterface.
Thisrepresentsenergywhich
left thesource
asan$ wave,wascritically
refracted,
andistravelingalongtheinter-
face.Thiswavealsoradiates
intothelayerboth/' and$ energy. The/' energymay
be tracedupwardto thesurface,yieldingtheS/' refraction
andcontributing the
remainder
of the second
eventmeasured
at the surface.This analysiscouldbe
carriedmuchfurther sincethereare a numberof otheridentifiableeventsrecorded.
However,the previousdiscussion is adequateto give someidea of how the seismic
disturbance
is formed.It is apparentthat evenin a simpleone-layermodelwith a
flat interface,wavepropagationcan be quite complicated.
Theobservation of theselaterrefractions
in thefieldoffersmoredifficultythanin
the caseof the model.For onething,the later arrivalsfroma deeprefractorare
almostalwaysobscured by simultaneouslyarrivingeventswhicharecoupled to
near-surfacelayers.Thisisa serious problem,
butcanbeovercome to a largeextent
by useof velocityfiltering.Thetwotypesofinterference of greatest
importance are
shownin Figures15.1and15.2.In Figure15.1theinterfering eventsarerefractions
fromnear-surface interfaces.Theseeventsarerelativelyhighamplitude, butcanbe
eliminatedby velocityfiltering.Thesecond kindofinterfering events (Figure15.2)
cannotbeseparated fromthedeepmultiples by velocityfilteringsincetheyhavethe
samehorizontalvelocity.However,theseeventsradiateenergybackinto the
groundso their amplitudedecaysrapidly.
A second difficultyin identifying
latereventsis attenuation.
Thereis goodevi-
dencethatearthmaterials attenuateshearwavesmorestrongly thancompressional
waves. For example, most shear waves that have been identified have much lower
frequencythan associatedcompressional waves.A direct measurementof attenua-
tion in PierreShale(McDonal et al., 1958)indicatesthat the shearattenuationis
SOURCE RECEIVER
NEAR SURFACE LAYER
DEEP REFRACTOR
FIo. 15.1 Disturbancesinterferingwith identificationof later refractedeventsfrom a deeprefractor;

in this case,the disturbancesare refractionsfrom near-surfacelayers.
eight times as great as compressionalattenuation. This effect tends to downgrade

somewhatthe dominanceof convertedevents. Even for solely compressionalevents
the attenuation is important, since later events have traveled a longer distance
through the absorbingmaterial.
These observations are not intended to eliminate the later refractions from con-
sideration in the field. Instead, it is hoped that they indicate the differencesthat
might be expectedbetween our idealizedmodel and the typical field problem.
The e2ectof the structureon later arrivals

It has been seen that the later refraction arrivals can be simply interpreted as
multiplesof the first refraction,someof which containP and S conversions. Thus,
it is of interest to considerthe effectsof the cylindrical structure on these events.
Again, the most obviouscourseis to seekarrival-time anomalies.Sincewe are un-
SOURCE RECEIVER
NEAR SURFACE LAYER
DEEP REFRACTOR
15.2 Disturbancesinterferingwith identificationof layer refractedeventsfrom a deep refractor.

This kind of disturbanceis near-surfacereverberationof an earlier deeprefraction.
able to pick the first breaksfor theselater events,it is necessaryto baseour arrival
times on the time of somearbitrary peak or trough. In using this procedureit is
tacitly assumedthat the waveformof the event doesnot measurablychangeas the
profile crossesthe structure. The primary justificationsfor this assumptionare the
resultswhich will be presented.However, in generalthis will be true so long as the
dimensionsof the structureare large comparedto the dominant wavelength.
Only the secondand third refractionshave been considered.Since fast sweep
recordswere not recordedfor this time region of the seismogram,the times were
taken from Figures 10.6-10.16. Resolutionwas probably no better than one-fourth
tsec. From these times anomalies were constructed. The two refractions considered
each consist of two events which have identical traveltimes in the flat interface re-
gion of the model. The secondrefraction containsPS and SP. Near the structure,
both of thesearrive earlier than they would in the absenceof the structure. However,
PS arrivesbeforeSP, sincein the formercasethe structureshortensthe slowS leg of
the refraction, while in the latter caseit shortensthe fast P leg. The third refraction,
P, consistsof two eventsone of which is reflectednear the source,P', and the other
reflected near the receiver, P". Again, the structure causesboth events to arrive
early, but the event reflectednear the receiverarrivesearlier than that reflectednear
the source,primarily becausethe structureshortenstwo legsin P" and only onein
Thus, four anomalies are observedrather than two. Of these four, SP and P4'
are very similar to the wide-band P. anomaly discussedearlier. The anomaliesfor
PS and P4" are much larger, but are obscuredover a portion of the traverse. The
observationof two distinct P anomalieslendsfurther support to the earlier discus-
sion of raypaths possiblefor a multiple refraction.
The experimental anomaliesare shown in Figure 16 along with the predicted
anomaliescomputed on the basisof Snell's law. Compare this to the wide-band P2
anomaly(Figure 8.1). There is muchmorescatterin the later refractionanomalies,
but this is attributed to the lower resolution of the records from which the times
were picked. The refractionoffsetat the receiverfor thoseeventsendingin S is dif-
ferent from those ending in P, so each event must be migrated the correct amount
to fall on top of the structure. However, the differencein these offset distancesis
small on the distance scale used, so the anomalies appear to be centered at the
same place. No attempt was made to constructan interpretation from these later
refraction anomalies,though no difficulty should be encounteredin doing so.
As in the caseof the first refraction,P2, attention hasbeengiven to the amplitude
behavior of the secondrefraction. A plot of maximum amplitude versus distance
traveled in the refractor is presentedin Figure 17. These later eventsalso decay as
L-a/2, though L differs for each event. This general behavior is shown in the flat
interfaceregionsof Figure 17, though the scatter is rather severein this case.The
amplitudeanomalyin the regionof the structureis again apparent. Using this data
and the L-a/2 law, an amplitude anomaly curve is plotted (Figure 18). The results
are similar to the curve for P, but the anomaly is very much larger. This may be
possiblyexplainedas follows.The secondrefractionconsistsof two events--PS and
$P. In a flat layered model with source and receiver both on the surface, these
TIME ANOMALY
FOR SP
A t{sec}
ol,0
-2,0
-3,0
-4,0
f PHYSICA.L
LOCATION
OF
STRUCTURE
TLME ANOMALY
FOR PS
THEORETICAL
--'---- EXPERENTAL
DISTANCE (CM)
-9,0
110 120 130 140 1SO 160 170
Fro. 16.1 Traveltimeanomalies

for laterrefractedevents.Boththe experimental
and
computedanomaly are shownfor each event.
TLME ANOMALY
FOR P'
4
At(joec)
01,0
' THEORETICAL
------ EXPERIMENTAL
-Z,0'
..3,0
PHYSICAL. I,O(;ATION OF ST!tUCTUltE

04, 0
TIME ANOMALY
FOR P REFLECTION .
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
TH EOR E TIC AL
-7.0
------ EXPERIMENTAL
-.8,0
DISTANCE (CM)
-9,0
110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Fro. 16.2 Traveltimeanomalies

for later refractedevents.Both the experimental
and
computed anomaly are shownfor each event.
I.O
O.I
ee
.01 , ,,I _ , ,
60 I00 00
L
Fro. 17. Peak amplitudefor the secondrefractionversusdistance,L, traveledin the refractor.The
straight line representstheoreticallypredictedamplitude behavior for flat interface model. Note the
large amplitude anomaly in the neighborhoodof the structure.
events have the same arrival time. In the presenceof the structure, however, the PS
event arrivesearlier than the SP event. Thus, in addition to the defocussingmen-
tioned earlier, we have two other attenuating effects.First, the energythat was in
the singlepulseis spreadover a longer time, thus decreasingthe maximum ampli-
tude. Second,as the profile movesonto the structure, the arrival time splitting in-
creasesand the two events PS and SP may destructively interfere. These two ef-
fects almost eliminate the secondrefraction near the top of the structure.
OTHER INTERFERENCE PHENOMENA
In the model presently under considerationthe later arrivals are well-spaced,

distinct pulses.This is a result of the traveltimesthrough the layer being greater
than the pulse length. In other equally likely modelsthis condition may not hold.
Then the first and succeedingarrivals begin to merge into an unbroken train of
waves,a phenomenonreferred to in earthquakeseisinologyas the Pt mode (Oliver
+2
A/VIPLITU DE RESIDUAL
-Z
-!

-4
db _
-8
-10
-1Z
-14
-16
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
50 100 150 200
R (cm)
Fro. 18. Peak amplitudeanomaly(in decibels)for secondrefractionplotted

versussource-receiverdistance,R.
and Major, 1960). This problemhas been consideredin detail by Knopoff, Gilbert,
and Pilant (1960), who explained the important features in terms of the multiple
refractionspreviously considered.They computed typical seismogramsby the first
motion approximation.We have taken the samedata and computedexact seismo-
gramsby de Hoop's technique.A typical exampleis shownin Figure 19. The top
seismogram showsthe vertical groundmotionfor a sourceconsistingof an impulsive
force acting at the ground surface. The arrival of each of the first ten refracted
events is shown.Even with this small number of events a modelike structure begins
R= 80cm
P6
PS
s
'1=
I I I I I I
154 156 158 160 162 164
TIME (,LZ.
S)
R= 70cm
I I I I I I
134 136 138 140 142 144
TIME (/.LS )
Fro.19.Comparison
oftheoretical
andexperimental
PLmode
seismograms.
Toptraceistheoretical
seismogram
forimpulsive
force
source,
containing
26rays(10distinct
arrivals).
Noteemerging
mode
structure.
Middle
traceshows
theoretical
seismogram
afterconvolution
witha source
pulse.
Lower
trace
isearlypartofexperimental
Pt.modeseismogram.
Verticalmotion.
FIG. 20. Typical seismicnoisespreadshowingPL mode. Early portion of recordindicatestwo modes

interfering.After about .4 sec,high-frequencymode disappears.
to emerge.The middle seismogramshowsthe convolutionof the impulsive seismo-

gram with a sourcefunction typical of our model. Finally, the lower trace is the
early part of an actual modelseismogram(Gilbert and Laster, 1962). The velocities
for the theoretical model are somewhat different than for the experimental model,
and the seismogramsare for different distances.However, the agreementbetween
theory and experiment appears to be satisfactory.
As mentioned above, this ringing PL mode phenomenonis fairly common in
earthquakework. It is alsoseenin many instanceson explorationfield records.Even
in caseswherethe traveltime to a deeprefractor is larger than the pulse length, we
see PL modes coupled to shallow refractors. Thus, the P mode may contribute
strongly to near-surfacenoise.A typical exampleis shownin Figure 20. This is part
of a noisespread shot near Sherman, Texas. The first few cycleson the record show
pulselike events indicating the interferenceof two or more modes; but with in-
creasingtime the higherfrequenciesdecayleaving the familiar ringing P structure.
At about 0.9 sec the P mode is obscuredby the onset of the trapped (normal)
modes.
SUMMARY
A simple, but hopefully realistic, analoguerefraction model has been studied in

detail. It has been shown that traveltimes based on geometric ray theory give
adequate results when the dominant wavelength is considerably less than the
horizontal dimensionsof the structure. Also, interpretation based on field tech-
niquesgivesresultsin agreementwith measurements.It is further shownthat the
events succeedingthe first arrival are also refraction events, and as such contain
essentiallythe same structural information as the first arrival. These events should
contributestronglyto mostfield seismograms.
Amplitude anomaliesare shownto be presentin profilesthat crossthe structure,
both for the first and later arrivals. While it is not yet feasible to construct inter-
pretations from amplitude information, these data should provide a qualitative in-
terpretation tool, and further may serve as a check on interpretations based on
traveltimes.
REFERENCES
Cagniard,L., 1939,Rflexionet rfractiondesondesseismiquesprogressives:

Gauthier-Villars,Paris.
, 1962,Reflectionandrefractionof progressive
seismicwaves:Translatedby Dr. Edward A. Flinn,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
de Hoop, A., 1960,A modificationof Cagniard'smethodfor solvingseismicpulseproblems:Appl. Sci.
Res. B, v. 8, p. 349-356.
Dix, C. H., 1961, The seismichead pulse,reflectionand pseudo-reflection pulses:Jour. Geophys.Res.,

v. 66, p. 2945-2952.
Gilbert, F., and Laster, S., 1962,Experimentalinvestigationof PL modesin a singlelayer: Bull. Seism.
Soc.Am., v. 52, p. 59-66.
Heelan, P., 1953,On the theoryof headwaves:Geophysics, v. 18, p. 871-893.
Jeffreys,H. 1926, On compressional wavesin two superposedlayers: Proc. CambridgePhil. Soc., v. 23,
p. 472-481.
Knopoff,L., Gilbert, F. and Pilant, W. 1960,Wave propagationin a mediumwith a singlelayer: Jour.
Geophys.Res.,v. 65, p. 265-278.
McDonal, F. J., Angona,F. A., Mills, R. L., Sengbush,R. L., Van Nostrand,R. G., and White, J. E.,
1958,Attenuationof shearand compressional wavesin Pierre Shale:Geophysics, v. 23, p. 421-439.
Newlands,M., 1952, The disturbancedue to a line sourcein a semi-infiniteelasticmediumwith a single
surfacelayer: Royal Soc.[London]Philos.Trans. A, v. 245, p. 213-308.
Oliver, J., and Major, M., 1960,Leakingmodesand the PL phase:Bull. Seism.Soc.,Am., v. 50, p. 165-
180.
Oliver, J., Press,F., and Ewing, M., 1954, Two-dimensionalmodel seismology:Geophysics,v. 19,
p. 202-219.
A METHOD OF SEPARATING OVERLAPPING

REFRACTION ARRIVALS
C. R. BRUCE* ^D J. E. WHITE*
ABSTRACT
Phase-velocityfilteringis a techniqueby which seismicarrivalshaving a certainphasevelocityare

eliminatedfromthe record.The mainapplicationis considered to bein refractionexplorationareaswhere
overlapping arrivalsarea problemin interpretation. Filteringactionis accomplished by useof a receiver
array at eachreceiversiteand a particularway of combiningthe signalsfrom the elementsof the array.
The array consistsof two receiverson a line whichincludesthe shotpoint.
The two ways of combiningthe signalsare called the time-delaymethod and the signal-gradient
method.In the former,the signalfrom the receivernearestthe shotis delayedprior to beingsubtracted
from the signalof the farthest receiver.In the latter method, the gradient or instantaneousdifference
signalof the two receiversdepends inverselyuponphasevelocity.The difference signalis referredto the
sumsignalof the array to obtainfiltering.Experimentswith seismicmodelsshowthat both methodsare
effective.The time-delay methodrequiresthe least data manipulation,so it is consideredthe better
methodfor fieldapplications.
The fielduseof phase-velocity filteringwill requireonly minor changesin field procedureand con-
ventionalmagnetic-recording and data-processing equipment.In the laboratorytestsit wasnotedthat
nonuniformreceivercouplingin an array was a problem.Nonuniformityof receiverplant may also
presenta problemin field application.
INTRODUCTION
The method of separatingoverlappingrefractionarrivals describedin this paper

is, in simplestterms, a filteringtechnique.The value of electrical filters in seismic
explorationis an establishedfact. The band-passfilter is universallyused to elim-
inate frequencieswhichare outsidethe frequencyrangeusedin seismicexploration,
thereby simplifyingrecordsfor easierinterpretation. In caseof noiseat a frequency
in the useful seismicrange, a notch filter which rejects only the noisefrequency is
used.
Although electricalfilters operatein the frequencydomain, filtering can also be
accomplishedin the space-timeor velocity domain. Receiver arrays and mixing
(Piety, 1953; Seelis,1960; Wolf, 1947, 1959) have beenusedto eliminateundesired
signalsfrom seismicreflection records.A pattern of receiversacts as a high-pass
velocity filter. High velocitiespass,but low velocitiesare attenuated by patterns.
The characteristicsof the spatial filter are determined by the geometry of the re-
ceiver array and the systemof combiningthe signalsfrom the receivers.By using
a certain receiverarray and a particular systemof combiningsignals,notch filtering
also can be achieved in the velocity domain. The spatial notch filter is called a
phase-velocityfilter hereafterfor it attenuatesseismicwaveswhichhave a particular
phase velocity.
It is apparent then that phase-velocityfiltering can be applied to the problem of
overlappingor interferingrefractionarrivals, sincethe interfering signalswill have
differentphasevelocities.Althoughno testswith regular field equipmenthave been
* Marathon Oil Company,Denver ResearchCenter,Littleton, Colorado.
67
made on phase-velocity filtering, it is anticipated that this technique could be

applied using some of the more modern explorationequipmentby making only
slightchangesin field procedures.Becauseadditionalequipmentis not required,the
cost of using this techniqueshouldnot be excessive.In fact, the method could result
in cost reduction by reducing the amount of shooting required to obtain useful
records.
THE PRINCIPLE OF PHASE-VELOCITY FILTERING
?hase-velocitfiltering is a spatial type of filtering; and, as such,its functioning

dependsupondetectorspacingin an array of detectorsat a receiversite. The array
requiredfor phase-velocityfiltering consistsof only two detectorswhich are placed
on a line with the overall receiver spread or, in other words, in line with the shot-
point. The physical arrangementof the array is shownin Figure 1. The distance
betweenthe twodetectorsin an arrayis criticalasit determines,in part, the response
of the filter systemto phasevelocity. The other important factor of the systemis
the manner in which the electrical signals from the two detectors are combined.
There are two ways the signalscan be manipulated to achievephase-velocityfilter-
ing. One is called the time delay method, and the other is the signal-gradientmethod.
Time-delay method
The time-delay method will be discussedfirst as the principle of this systemis
easier to visualize. The detectorsin the array will be called i and 2 in order from
the shotpoint. The normal sequenceof electrical signalsfrom detectorsI and 2 for
an ideally isolatedwavelet is shownin Figure 2a. Sincedetector I is nearer to the
shot by distanceXX, the refraction wavefront will arrive at detector I a short time
fit beforeit arrives at detector 2. The time interval fit dependsupon the array
length fix and the speedof soundV in the ith refractinglayer. This velocity is also
the phasevelocity of the refraction wavefront at the receiver site. The time interval
is given by the relationship /T--/X/V,. Recall that the objective is to combine
signalsI and 2 in sucha way that the output of the systemis zerofor wavespassing
with a certain phasevelocity and is nonzerofor waves traveling at other velocities.
This can be done by first delayingsignalI in time by an amount XT, as shownin
SURFACE
HOLE
REFRACTING REFRACTION
SHOT
INTE POINT
RAY
PATH
__
Fro. 1. Phase-velocityfilter array.

Separating Overlapping Arrivals 69
TIME
A. NORMAL SEQUENCE OF SIGNALS I ond 2
TIME
B. SIGNAL I DELAYED/T IN TIME
TIME
C. SIGNAL I DELAYED ond INVERTED
Fro. 2. Signalcompositing
processin time-delaymethod.
Figure2b, and then invertingit as shownin Figure 2c. Assumingthe wave shapes
are the same,the sum of signal1, inverted and delayed,and signal2 is zero at all
times.Since/XTis a fixedparameterin the system,wavespassingat other velocities
will not be nulled. However, the output of the systemwill be the derivative of the
actual wave shapeas it would be recordedin the conventionalmanner and, hence,
will have higherfrequencycontent.A more rigorousmathematical treatment of this
system follows.
A plane wave propagatingwith velocity V in the positive direction, which is
taken to be away from the shotpoint,is describedmathematicallyby the function
1. Thisfunctiongivesnot onlytheposition
of the wavefrontin time
but also describesthe shapeof the wavelet, although the latter property will not
enter directly in the discussion.
It will be assumedthat the waveletshapeis nearly
constant withrespectto [T- (X/Vi) ] overthedetector
array.If thesignalat detector
is[[r- ], thentheinverted anddelayed signalwillbe (x/a ].
The time delay is negative in this function sinceat time T-t-AT it is desiredthat the
function be just the same as the undelayedfunction at time T. The signal from
detector 2 at positionX+AX is given by
x+/xx)
v
The sum of these functions
f T-- --fT--AT =F
Vi
representsthe output of the filter system. To proceed,it is necessaryto use the

analytical definition of the partial derivative of a function,
Og(w,y) g(w q- Aw, y) -- g(w, y)
= lim
Ow Aw--,O Aw
If the increment Aw is very small, then

Og(w,y) g(w q- Aw, y) -- g(w, y)
Ow Aw
is a goodapproximation.
The outputof the filter systemcanbeput into thisformby
addingand subtractingf[r-(x/v3] to give
x+
T-- AT
So, using the above definition, the filter output becomes
F=AX [ AT--,
OX OT
where AX and AT must be small.

Next, the derivativesin the aboveexpressionare replacedby f', the derivative
off[T-(X/V)] withrespect
to theargument
[T-(X/V)]. Thenecessary
expres-
sions are
of of
OT OT
or
OT
Of_/, T '
and
0 T
o/ __
of
OX OX 0 T
or
OX: -- Vif' T
Substitutionof theseexpressions
into the equationfor the filter output gives
AX
Finally, sincethe filter parametersAT and zXXare related in the expression,
AT = --, the output of the filter can be written as

This expression showsthe filter output is zero whenthe phasevelocity V is equal to
V and the waveletshapeis the derivativeof the originalwave shape.Althoughthis
equationindicatesa larger filter, output is obtained with a greater spacingof de-
tectors in the rray, an earlier limitation that X be small was imposed.More
specifically,
therequirement
is that besmallrelative
to thedom-
inant period for all phasevelocitiesrecordedso that the output waveform will be
the differential. In practice, X should be made as large as possibleto maintain
signal strength and still be consistentwith the above statement.
Signal-gradient mthod
The secondmethod of combiningsignalsto achievefiltering is called the signal-
gradient method becausethe instantaneousdifferenceof the signalsfrom the two
detectorsis used.The magnitudeof the spacegradientdependsinverselyupon the
phasevelocity. This dependencemay best be explainedby again referring to Figure
2a which showsthe normal sequenceof the electrical signalsI and 2. Signal 2 lags
signal1 in time by an amount whichis inverselyproportionaltp phasevelocity.
As the phasevelocity increases,the lag decreases until at infinite phasevelocity the
two signalswill be coincident,and, thus, the differencewill be zero. In this method,
the detector spacingshouldbe small enoughto obtain a true gradient signal, so

Figure 2a is not a goodexamplein that the lag is about one cycle. While the ampli-
tude of the gradient is dependent on phase velocity, it is also dependenton the
amplitude of the seismicsignal. Therefore, the gradient signal must be compared
with the normal signalwhich is the averageof the sum of signals1 and 2. The com-
parisoncannotbe made directly as the gradientis a differentialof the normal signal
and hasa differentshape.Thus, it is necessaryto either integrate the gradientsignal
with respectto time or differentiatethe normal signalto obtain comparativewavelet
shapes.To facilitate this discussion, assumethe gradient signalis integrated.The
integrationprocesswill have a gainG associated with it sothe output will be propor-
tional to the ratio GIVe. Now the differenceof the normal signaland the processed
gradientsignalwill be proportional
to [1-(G/VO] whichwill vanishwhenthe
phasevelocity V is equal to the gain factor G. Hence, the phase velocity to be
filtered may be varied by adjusting the gain of one channelof the system.Notice
that this method involvesmany more stepsand more data manipulation than does
the time-delay method. A mathematicaltreatment of this method follows.
Againlet thefunction
f[T--(X/V)] represent
the seismic
wavepropagating
at
velocity V. It is consistentwith the physicalprocessdescribedlater to let X be the
distanceto the centerof the array so that detector1 is at distance(X-/XX/2) from
the shot and detector2 is at (X+,SX/2). The averagesignalfrom the two detectors
is approximatelythe signalat distanceX, as representedin the equation
F(T
- -) --X--X/2.'
=I/2[f(T Vi / +f(T--X+l /_!'
if XX is small. The differencesignal denotedby 8 can be put into differentialform
usingthe approximationof the definitionof the partial differentialas before.First,
thefunction
fiT-(X/VO] is addedandsubtracted
fromthedifference
X+/xX/2' f(T---)
- f(T - x-V
_x/2}l
/J'
where the differenceis signal 1 subtractedfrom signal 2. Then by definition the
differencesignal may be written as
8= AX
ox
for/xX small, or
8- f' T
V
Integration of the differencesignalwith respectto time puts this signalinto a form

1.5
0.5
I
0 0.5 I 1.5 .5
FrG.3. Filter response

versusreciprocalphasevelocity.
which can be comparedwith the sum signal,
f f r
where K is the integration factor. The factor K/tX is the gain of the/ channelrela-
tive to the sum channeland will be called V/since it has units of velocity. Finally,
comparisonof the sumsignaland the integrateddifferencesignalis accomplished by
summing.The result is the filter output which is describedby the expression
(,_
The filter output is zero when the phasevelocity is equal to V/, and V/can be varied
by adjustingthe relative gain of the differencechannel.Increasingthe detector
spacing/xX would increasethe differencesignal level, but/xX must be kept small
relative to the dominant wavelength of the refraction wavelet to obtain a true
gradient signal.
The amplitude of the filter output referred to the unfiltered signal is shown as a
function of the reciprocalof phasevelocity in Figure 3. The phasevelocity is nor-
malized to the filter setting. At very high velocities the output of the filter ap-
proachesthe normal signal of a singledetector. However, at velocitieslessthan one-
half the filter setting, the filter systemhas a greater signal output than a single
equivalent detector.
LABORATORY DEMONSTRATION
Phase-velocityfiltering was demonstratedin two laboratory experiments. One

of thesedemonstrationswas with an analogmodelin air while the other was with a
two-dimensionalplate model. Figure 4 showsa situation which producesoverlapping

refraction arrivals. This is the situation that was modeled. It consists of two refract-
ing beds for which the seismicvelocitiesare V. and V3, respectively, with velocity
increasing with depth. The refracting surfacesare assumedto have zero dip. The
overlying bed has velocity V and thicknessh. The first refracting bed has thickness
h. and the thickness of the second refractor does not matter. The traveltime for the
refraction wave in refractor 2 is given by
TxR.
--V. 2.hi
tan
V. _ V1cos
hii,. '
where i,2-sin - (V/V.) is the critical angle of incidencefor refraction from the
surfacelayer to refractor 2. Likewise, the traveltime for the refraction raypath in
refractor 3 is given by
Tx. = X 2(h
Va tan
i,a
q-h.o.
tan
i.,a
-- h -- h. ),
Va V cos i,a V cos
where i.,a=sin-1 (V./V3) is the critical angle of incidencefor refraction from re-
fractor 2 to refractor 3 and i,a-sin-: (V/V) is the angie of incidenceof the ray-
path at the first interface. The traveltimes along the two paths may be equal for
rn..any
combinationsof valuesof the velocitiesand bed thicknesses. For example,the
designof the plate model specifiedthe bed thicknessh and h.to be two wavelengths
thick and the critical anglesat both boundariesto be 45 degrees.Then, fixing any
velocity also fixes all other parameters including the shot-to-detector distance at
which the arrivals are simultaneous.
The air analog model is an arrangement of soundsourcesthat producestwo wave-
fronts which have different phase velocities at the receiver spread. This model is
ideal for the purposeof demonstrationsince only the two waveletsof interest are
present during the early part of the record. The plan of this model is shown in
SHOT DETECTOR
POINT X STATION
\ \ I
V2
V$
Fro. 4. Overlappingrefractionsituation.
SOURCE SOURCE
B A
21,5'
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\\
-\\4DETECTOR
/5 SPREAD
6
Fro. 5. Layout of air analogmodel.
Figure 5. There are two loudspeakers,A and B, which emit simultaneouspulsesof

sound.The circular wavefrontstraveling out from thesesourcesmay be considered
plane wavesat the receiverspreadif the source-to-receiverdistanceis severaltimes
greater than the length of the spread. The wavefront from sourceA travels along
the spreadwith a phasevelocity which is equal to the velocity of soundin air, but
the wavefront from sourceB, which is displacedfrom the spread by angle 0, has a
greaterphasevelocit.
y alongthe spread.The phasevelocityof B is the velocity of
sound in air divided by cos 0. Thus, in the case shown here the phase velocity of
wavelet B is 1.4 times greater than the phase velocity of A since the angle is 45
degrees.
The apparatusused to obtain recordsfrom this model was standard laboratory
equipment.The receiverswere crystal microphones.The electronicsof the labora-
tory systemis shownin Figures6 and 7 for the time-delaymethodand the signal-
gradient method, respectively.Note that the time delay is obtainedmechanically
SPREAD LINE
TO SOURCE A

TUBE
DETECTOR 2
',,[_---
DETECTOR
I
I iNVERTER
1 OSCILLOSCOPE
RECORDING
SYSTEM
Ft6. 6. Time-delaymethodof phase-velocityfilteringappliedto air model.
by means of tubes. The tube on detector 1 is two incheslonger than the tube on
detector 2 so the delay is 0.15 ms if the velocity of soundin the tube is 1,100 ft/sec.
Otherwise, the system is explainedby the diagrams. Recording was done with a
cathode-ray oscilloscope and an oscilloscope camera.
Recordstaken with the air analogmodel are shownin Figures 8 and 9. The time-
SPREAD LINE
TO SOURCE A
INVERTER GRADIENT
AND INTE ORATOR
ADDER -(-2)
,j
2 ADDER
SUM
(1+2)
OSCILLOSCOPE BAND-PASS
RECORDING FILTER
SYSTEM
ADDER
250-800 cps
FIG. 7. Signalgradientmethodof phase-velocity

filteringappliedto air model.
Separating Overlapping Arrivals
A B
Fro. 8. Filtering by time-delaymethoddemonstratedon air analogmodel.

(a). Normal recordwith interferingwavelets.
(b). Low velocity filtered out.
(c). High velocity filtered out.
delay method was used to obtain the wavelet separationshown in the recordsin
Figure 8 while the signal-gradientmethod was used to obtain the recordsshownin
Figure 9. The resultsof the two methodson the air model are equivalentas far as
Fro.9. Filteringby signal-gradient

methoddemonstrated
onair analogmodel.
(a). Normalrecordwith interferingwavelets.
(b). Low velocityfiltered out.
(c). High velocity filtered out.
resolutionof thetwowaveletsisconcerned.
Onthenormalrecord,a, thetwowaves
interfere
strongly asseenby thechangeof waveletshapefromtraceto trace.How-
ever,whenthefilteris usedto eliminate
oneof thewavelets,asin recordb, where
the wave of lower velocity is filtered out, the wavelet shaperemains nearly the same
from trace to trace. The phase velocity of wavefront B is easily obtained from
record b. Likewise, the phase velocity of wavefront A is taken from record c where
the faster wave has been eliminated. In each case a small amount of the filtered
wavelet can be seen by careful observation. This residual signal is a result of not
being able to adjust the laboratory system to completebalance. A much finer filter
balance is possible with geophysicalequipment.
A two-dimensional plate model was used in an attempt to show the action of
phase-velocityfiltering in a more realistic manner. The model was constructedto
reproduce the layering shown in Figure 4. There were three regions with velocities
V, V2, and Va equal to 6,250, 7,150, and 10,500 ft/sec, respectively.Thus, the
model representeda vertical plane with the top edge being the line between the
shotpoint and the detector spread. This model was cast of epoxy resin which was
modified with various filler materials to produce the different velocities.The plate
was inch thick. The width, which correspondsto depth, was 4 ft, and the length,
which correspondsto the maximum shot to detector distance, was 6 ft. The in-
dividual layer widths, h, h2,and ha,were 0.5, 0.71, and 2.79 ft, respectively.In the
case of h and h this is about two wavelengths at a frequency of 20,000 cps. It is
frequency that determines the scaling factor of the model. For instance, if field
recordshave a dominant frequencyof 10 cpsand the modelis operatedat 20,000 cps,
then the scalingfactor is 2,000, and one ft on the model represents2,000 ft in the
field.
The equipment used to study the plate model was nearly the same as used with
the air model. The dominant frequency of the wavelet was 20,000 cps instead of
500 cps as with the air model. Barium titanate transducerswere usedboth for de-
tectors and for the sonic source. The detector transducers were placed on the
edge correspondingto the surface. The source transducer was coupled to an edge
correspondingto depth. The shot depth could be changedby sliding the transducer
along the edge.The data presentedin Figure 10 was taken with the shotpoint at the
surface. The manner in which the detectors were coupled to the model was ex-
tremely critical in the demonstrationof phase-velocityfiltering. Only two detectors
were used so it was necessarythat the coupling be easily broken in order to move
the array to the various receiver sites. Good acoustical contact was obtained by
coupling with grease.In addition, when setting the array up at a receiver site, the
two detectorshad to be carefully adjusted in alignment and pressureto get equiv-
alent electrical signalsfrom each. The slightestmisalignment causedunbalancein
the system and thus a large residual signal at the filter velocity. The reasonfor the
diffi.culty with detector alignment is clear when the detector dimensionsare scaled
to field size.The array spacingon the model was three-fourth inch. This corresponds
to 125 ft in the field if the scalingfactor is 2,000. The contact area of a detector was
one-eighth inch in diameter. This is about 20 ft when scaled to the field. A slight
misalignment will radically change the contact area and possibly the spacing.The
geophonesusedin the field certainly would not present the same couplingproblem
even if usedin a cluster having a comparablecontact area.
The plate model was carefully planned to have the two refraction signalsarrive
FIG. 10. Filtering by signal-gradientmethod demonstratedon plate model.

(a). Normal record.
(b). Direct wave filtered out.
(c). Rayleigh wave filtered out.
simultaneouslyat a distanceof 4.7 ft from the sonicsourceand considerablyahead

of the direct wave. Unfortunately, the area representing the surface layer polymer-
ized to a higher velocity than was desired,so that goodseparationof the refraction
signalsand the direct wave (whichis muchstronger)did not occurwithin the length
of the model. Therefore, the effectof phase-velocityfiltering was demonstratedby
suppressingthe direct wave and the Rayleigh wave in turn. Figure 10a showsthe
signalrecordedfrom a singledetector.The nine tracesare from stationstwo through
ten from the source.Stations on the model were 4 inches apart. The two major
signalson this recordare the direct wave with velocity 6,250 ft/sec, and the Ray-
leigh wave with velocity 2,600 ft/sec. Figure 10b showsthe record with the direct
wave suppressedby the filter. The residualsignal that can be seenon someof these
tracesis due to imperfectalignmentof the two detectors.In Figure 10cthe Rayleigh
wave has beensuppressed.Again someresidualsignaloccasionallyremainsbecause
oimperfect balanceof the system.
PROPOSED FIELD PROCEDURE
The followingprocedureis proposedfor field application. First, the time-delay

method of combiningsignalsis recommendedsince it is easier to use and can be
accomplishedwith magnetic-recording and data-processing equipment.The receiver
spreadto be usedis subject to variation. If the receiverspacingin the conventional
spreadis small enough,then that spreadcan be usedwith the filteringtechniqueby
combiningthe signalsfrom adjacent receiversin the spread. If the spacingof re-
ceiversin the spreadis too large, as definedearlier in the report, then an additional
receivermust be placed at each detectorsite to form the array. The largest array
length that is consideredsmall dependsupon the dominant period of the seismic
wave. If large recordingdistancesare used,then the dominant period of the wavelet
is greater and a large spacingis permissible.As an example, supposethe geophone
spacingin a spreadis 250 ft and the wavelet to be filteredhas a phasevelocity.equal
_,
to 18,000ft/sec. Then the time delay requiredwill be 13.9 ms. Further, supposethe
wavelet has a dominant frequencyequal to 5 cpsor a dominant period equal to 200
ms. One-sixthof the dominant period, 33.3 ms in this case,is consideredsmall. When
these figures are substituted into the criterion for proper operation of the filter,
Ir- x/v)l <<dominant
period,
it isseen
thatthefilterwillnotoperate
properly
on waveletswith velocitiesbelow5,300ft/sec. It is to be noted that the array length
will dependuponfactorssuchas the area of explorationand the frequencyband-pass
of the equipment.The array length is important and shouldbe consideredcarefully.
The useof phase-velocityfiltering in a refractionprogramwould be especiallycon-
venient if the conventionalspreadcould be retained and filtering could be accom-
plished by combiningsignalsfrom adjacent sites.
After the receiverspreadhas beendetermined,whether it is a normal spreadwith
the station spacingequal to an array length or a receiverarray at each site, the
signalfrom each receiveris recordedon magnetictape. There are many advantages
in this technique.First, the normal recordcan be retained.In addition,by recording
the "complete" recordthe phase-velocityfilter setting can be varied during the data
processinguntil optimum recordsare obtained. If the signalswere combinedin the
field, severalshots may be required to get the same results.There could even be
adjustmentsmade in gain if signal amplitudesare unequal becauseof unmatched
receiversor nonuniformcoupling.Another advantageis that the reverseprofilecan
be taken without changingthe receiverhookup. If signalsare combinedin the field,

then the arrays would be incorrectlyorientedwith respectto the reverseprofile shot-
point. The signal combinationprocedurealways consistsof reversingthe polarity
of the signal from the receiver nearest the shotpoint and delaying it an appropriate
length of time before adding the result to the signal from the secondreceiver. The
best way to delay signalsfor times as long as 10 ms is with movable magneticheads
suchas are available on present-day seismicplayback systems.Passivenetwork time
delays, which were tried in the laboratory experiments,are not recommendedbe-
cause the time delay is not constant over the seismic frequency range. Another
advantageof delaying with magneticplayback is that the time delay and, hence,the
filter setting may be changedfrom one playback to the next. If a delay network is
used, then the time delay is fixed unlessthe network is a more elaborate, variable-
delay type and the detector spacingmust be changedto changethe filter setting.
The procedureoutlined above requiresonly a slight changein field operation and
no equipmentbeyond that which has already been developed.Hence, it shouldbe
easyto apply the phase-velocityfilter in areaswhereit would be an aid in obtaining
better interpretation. The difficultieswhich may arise such as nonuniformreceiver
couplingsor inhomogeneityof siteshave not been resolvedin the laboratory work.
Such field problemswill have to be worked out as they are encountered.
REFERENCES
Piety, R. G., 1953, Method of eliminating an undesiredcomponentof seismicwaves: U.S. Patent

2,634,398.
Seelis,Karl-Heinz, 1960, Directional scanningwhen playing-backseismicmagneticrecords:Geophys.
Prosp.v. 8, p. 563-575.
Wolf, Alexander,1947,Seismicexplorationwith controlof directionalsensitivity:U.S. Patent 2,431,600.
-- 1959, Seismicreflectionprospectingtechnique:U.S. Patent 2,872,995.
AMPLITUDE
OF
Section
3
REFRACTION
SIGNAL
Section 3
Amplitude of Refraction Signal
Time has been the most usedproduct of the refraction signal, and almost all in-
terpretive techniques,presently available and discussedin this volume, actually
are concernedwith the arrival time of the signal. However, recognitionshould be
given to the fact that amplitude of the refracted signalis alsoan important charac-
teristic. For this reason this section has been included.
In the first paper, O'Brien describesthe "Use of Amplitudes in SeismicRefraction
Survey." After correctionsare made for charge weight, geophoneplant, and geo-
metrical loss,meaningful amplitudes of the refraction signal can be measured.Stud-
ies are made of the attenuation and critical distance of refractors.
With the secondpaper, Werth givesa "Method for Calculatingthe Amplitude of
the Refraction Arrival." Calculationsshow that layering above the refractor can
changethe refractionwave characterand thus affect the appearanceof an anomaly
in the refractor.
The third paper, by Sherwood,is a theoreticalstudy on the amplitudeof "Refrac-
tion Along an Embedded High-SpeedLayer."
The fourth paper, O'Brien's "The Efficient Use of Large Charges," concernsthe
amplitude of signal obtained from various size charges,its dependenceupon the
elasticpropertiesof the material in which the chargeis shot, and the predominant
frequenciesof the observedrefractedpulse.
The fifth paper, Layat's "Modified 'Gardner' Delay Time and 'Constant Distance
Correlation' Interpretation," describesthe utilization of amplitude as part of a
mapping procedureused in North Africa.
84
THE USE OF AMPLITUDES IN SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY
P. N. S. O'BRIEN*
ABSTRACT
Refractionseismographsareusuallywide-band instrumentsandsoit is relativelyeasyto makemean-

ingfulamplitude measurements. It isshownhowto correctfornormalinstrumental variations,forvaria-
tionsin chargeweight,for geophone 'plant,' and for geometrical
lossdueto enlargement of the wave-
front. After thesecorrections
have beenmade the residualamplitudesare controlledmainly by the
propertiesof the refractor.
The residualattenuationfallsroughlyinto threegroups.Thesehavemeansof a few hundredths
of a
decibelperwavelength, a fewtenthsofa decibel
perwavelength, anda fewdecibelsperwavelength. The
firstgroupis indicativeof a thicknonporous
refractor;the second
groupis indicativeof a thickporous
refractor;andthe third groupindicatesa thin refractor.
Examples
aregivenwhichillustrate
theuseofamplitudes
to determine
criticaldistance,
to distinguish
betweena discretely
layeredanda continuous
velocitydistribution,
andto decidewhichof severalpos-
sibletime-distanceinterpretationsis correct.
INTRODUCTION
It is possiblewith mostrefractionequipments to makea directmeasureof the un-

distortedoutput voltageof the geophones. This will only duplicatethe particle
motion(velocity)of the groundif the naturalfrequencyof the geophone is lessthan
aboutonetenth of the predominantfrequencyin the signal.However,providingthe
signalis not changingin shapetoo rapidly, measurements of relative amplitude
may be madesafelyon signalswith predominantfrequencies aslow astwo or three
timesthe geophone frequency.This is especiallytrue if measurements are madeon
peak-to-peakexcursions in preferenceto thosemadefrom the meanzeroline. The
seismicsignalis profoundlyaffectedby the earth'spropertiesalongits path between
the shotand receiver,and therefore,measurements of the amplitudeand shapeof
the recordedvoltageshouldyield valuableinformationon the subsurface.
Experience hasshownthat it is amplitudemeasurements whichare the mostin-
formativeand that pulsewidth, or frequency,measurements normallycontribute
little to the final interpretation.This is a little surprisingbecausemany arrivalsin
regionsof low dip do exhibita quasi-sinusoidal appearance, andit may be supposed
that this will reflectsomesort of waveguidephenomenon.However,exceptin oneor
two specialcases(Officer,1953;O'Brien,1957)it hasnot beenpossibleto interpret
the observedfrequencyin termsof plausiblestructure.
A routinemethodof measuringamplitudesand correctingthemfor variationsdue
to nongeologiccausesmay be followed by a semiskilledcomputer.However, a
properanalysiscannotbe doneto routine;it requiresthe skillandcareof a compe-
tent seismologist.
Not becausethe basicconceptsare particularlycomplicatedbut
becausethe relative importanceof the various factors involved may often be
difficult to evaluate.
The measurement
and analysisof the amplitudedata should,of course,be doneat
* The British PetroleumCompany,Middlesex,England.
85
86 Amplitude of Refraction Signal
the same time and by the same personsas the time-distance interpretation. Their
major useis often as an aid to correlation,and it shouldalways be checkedthat the
time-distanceinterpretationis consistentwith the measuredamplitudes.
The following sectionsoutline the factors affecting the recorded amplitudes, the
correctionswhich normally have to be applied, sometheoretical considerations,and
a number of field examples.
FACTORS CONTROLLING THE RECORDED AMPLITUDES
The amplitude of ground motion deducedfrom the trace excursionson a seismic

recorddependson four main factors.Theseare:
(a) The amplitude of the incident wave,
(b) The angleof approachof the incident wave,
(c) The ground in the closevicinity of the geophoneand the geophone"plant,"
(d) The observingsystem.
These factors will be consideredone by one.
The amplitudeof the incidentwave

This is what we wish to measure.Oncewe have allowedfor the purely geometrical
attenuation due to enlargement of the wavefront and for any variation in charge
weight, the residualvalues will dependon suchthings as lithology, refractor thick-
ness, structure, etc.
The angleof approachof the incidentwave

Almost invariably the geophonesare at the earth's surface. In such a casethe
ground motion is a vector resultant of the amplitude of the incident wave and all
the additional events which are formed when the wave strikes the surface. The ratio
of the measuredamplitude to the amplitude of the incident wave dependson the
angle of approachof the incident wave, the curvature of its wavefront, and the
elastic properties of the rocks near the surface. This ratio may vary from 0 to 2.
For arrivals which have traveled a great distance, the effect due to wavefront
curvature is negligibleand may be neglected.
The other two effectsare never trivial, though it is often possibleto considerthem
nearly constant, in which casethey have little effect on measurementsof relative
amplitude. Figure 1 shows, for plane waves, the variation with the angle of ap-
proach, of the ratio of the vertical componentof the measuredgroundmotion to the
total displacementof the incident wave. The resultshave been computedfor values
of Poisson'sratio () of 0.25 and 0.40. The vertical component has been chosen
becausethat is what most geophonesmeasure.
Seismicexplorationis concernedmostly with rays which approachat small angles
to the vertical; this is fortunate, for here the ratio of measured-to-incidentamplitudes
changesmost slowly. Even so, we may expect changesin measuredamplitude of 5
percentto 10 percent,even when there is no changein the amplitude of the incident
wave, for both the angle of approach (controlled by the velocity of the very near
surface)and Poisson'sratio may changeappreciably over fairly short distances.
Use of Amplitudes in Refraction 87
I
GROUND SURFACE
2-0:
1'8
- SSON'S
o
I-6
1'4
1.2
'-,,;
'AI'O
.8
-6
.2
0
O IO 20 :30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE i
FIG. 1. Verticalmotion(V) as a ratio of incidentamplitude(A).
In many areas there is a pronouncedvelocity gradient immediately below the

groundsurface.This tendsto broadenthe transmittedpulseand slightlyto reduce
its amplitude. However, theseeffectsare nearly alwaysnegligible,especiallyin
refraction shooting.
When calculatingthe attenuationof a singleevent it is permissibleto ignorethe
effectof thefreesurfacefor it onlyintroducesa constantmultiplyingfactor,together
with a scatterof some5 percentor 10percent.However,it is sometimes necessary to
compare the measured amplitudes of two events of different apparent surface
velocities,andin this caseit may be necessaryto allowfor the differencein anglesof
approach.This may be doneby referenceto Figure 1 or, if greateraccuracyis re-
quired or if emergentrotational (S) waves are being used, by referenceto the
familiesof curvesgiven by Knopoff et al. (1957).
The groundaroundthegeephone
and thegeephone
"plant"
Civil engineershave for long maintained that blocksof the earth's near-surface
act like mechanicaloscillators,each block having different propertiesfrom other
blocksand beingcoupledto its neighbourswith differentdegreesof closeness. If this
is true, then a wave incidentfrom depth will excitethe differentblocksto a lesseror
greaterdegree,and the geephoneoutput will then beinfluencedby the propertiesof
the blockon whichit is placed,and only indirectly by the amplitudeof the incident
wave. Seismologists have generallynot beenvery receptiveto this idea and in any
eventit is probablyoftenovershadowed by variationsin geephone"plant."
The motion of the ground with a geephoneresting on it is not the same as the
motion it would have had without the geephone.Theoretical treatments for a
homogeneous earth have beengiven by Wolf (1944), Pasechnik(1952a) and, most
rigorously,by Bycroft (1956, 1957). They showthat the ground-geophone system

acts like a damped mechanicaloscillator, the stiffnessand damping of which are
functions of frequency. The resonant frequency and the damping increaseas the
total massof the geophoneis reducedand as its area of contact with the ground is
increased.Figure 2 is reproducedfrom Bycroft's 1957 paper and showshow the
amplitude, M, and phase,,of the geophonemotion is related to the undistorted
motion of the ground.For faithful recording,M shouldequal oneand 4 shouldequal
zerodegrees.The parametera equalskr and b equalsm/(t)r3)where
k is the transverse wavenumber in the ground,
r is the radius of the area of contact,
m is the total mass of the geophone,and
p is the density of the ground.
Fair experimentalagreementhasbeenobtainedby Washburnand Wiley (1941),
Pasechnik(1952b)and Fail et al. (1962). The experimentsshowthat it is the first few
inches around the geophonewhich is important, and that for geophoneswhich are
partially or completelyburied, both the resonantfrequencyand the dampingof the
couplingincreasemarkedly.
In most areas the few inchesof ground around one geophonemay be considerably
different from the few inches around another; we cannot therefore expect that
similarly planted geophoneswill give identical outputs for a given input. Partial
burial of the geophoneconsiderablyreducesthe amplitude variation from one plant
to another and often entirely eliminates waveform distortion. Whenever possible,
therefore,geophonesshouldbe buried. As this also reduceswind noise,it is quite a
commonpracticein long distancerefraction shooting.
Figure 3 shows the signal amplitude from seven partially buried geophones,
spacedat 10-ft intervals alonga spreadplacedat right anglesto a line pointing to a
distant shotpoint.Two arrivals were measured,the first peak which was refracted
from a limestonelayer about 3,000 ft deep and a later peak-to-trough which was
refracted from the top of the first high-velocitylayer at a depth of about 100 ft. The
standard deviation of the first peak heightsis 7 percent and of the late-arrival peak-
to-trough, 15 percent. This exampleshowsa somewhatlarger scatter than usualbut
is by no meansextreme.
It is safe to assumethat for a given surfacematerial the effect of geophoneplant
will be random, and, therefore,the use of geophonegroupsis a usefulassetin ampli-
tude studies.
Even if geophonegroupsare used,most reliancemust be placedon generaltrends,
for changeswhich take place over distancesof a few hundredfeet are quite likely to
be related to the near-surface.
The observingsystem
In order to keepto a minimum the scatterin the plotted amplitudes,it is desirable
that the overall relative gainsof the individual channelsshouldbe known to within
_+5 percent.This requiresthat the geophones shouldbe closelymatchedand that
line resistance,line leakage,and amplifier gain shouldbe regularly and accurately
2'8
2'0
I'0
0'$
0'0
0'0 0'1 0'4 O & 0'1 I'0 '1 '4 1.6
cI
120 ..............
I00
b=lS
bo ,
lie I I I i
0'0 0'2 0' 0'6 '0'8 I'0 1'2 1.4 1'6
Fro. 2. Amplitude (M) and phase() of geophonemotionfor Poisson'sratio of 0.25

(from Bycroft, 1957,usedby permission).
-,- STATI ON 70
25,000 feet S
IO ft [] AHPLITUDE OF EVENT FROM SHALLOW REFRACTOR
O AHPLITUDE OF EVENT FROM DEEP REFRACTOR
34O
320
I'l
300
280
260 E1
E'I
'0 240
0 220 I'1
LJ
%o0 r3
180
i-- IOO () ()
O
00 ()
()
8O
7O
()
5O
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
TRACE NUMBER
Fro. 3. Variation in output betweencloselyspacedgeophones.
measured. In order to reduce the corrections which have to be made to the scaled
amplitudesand, also,to keep the geophonedampingconstant,it is usually desirable
to make up the line resistanceof eachchannelto someconstantamount.
If appreciabledistortion is introduced,either by the geophoneor by the amplifier,
it may be necessaryto make someallowancefor it, especiallyif measurementsare
being made on widely different waveforms.However, distortion is not seriousin most
refraction equipmentand so this problem shouldrarely arise.
VARIATION AT THE SHOTPOINT
In the previous section we discussedthe factors which must be consideredwhen

converting trace deflectionsinto a measureof ground motion. We now considerthe
factors which are involved when we compareonerecordwith another.
For a seismicline the simplestmethod of ensuringan accuratecomparisonis to

ensurethat eachspreadhas an overlapof one or more stationswith its neighbour.If
the overlapping spreadsare observedone immediately after the other this method
shouldintroducevery little error, but geophone'plant' may vary quite considerably
from oneday to the next and, in any case,the tie geophonewill often have a different
'plant' from the first geophoneand this will introducesomevariation. In fact, varia-
tions of up to 50 percenthave been observedalthoughthey are usually closerto 10
percent. If there are many spreadsin the line we may expect that the reduction
factors will be in error by random amountssothat the generaltrend over the line as a
whole will be reliable.
Anothermethodof normalisingthe measuredamplitudesto a givenchargeweight
is to usethe theoreticalscalinglaws given later in this section.With proper care at
the shotpoint,the measuredamplitudeshouldbe directly proportional to the charge
weight and so this variation is easyto correct.In addition to the effect of charge
weight, the rock type at the shotpointand the amount of tamping alsoplay a part.
These can be allowed for in a qualitative manner as discussedlater in this section,
but if they vary very much then they may causean appreciablescatter in the final
amplitudes.
Becauseof the errors which may be introduced when reducing amplitude mea-
surementsfrom many recordsto a singledatum, it is sometimestechnically desirable
(though seldomeconomicallypossible)to reshootas large a portion of the line as
possiblewith one shot and an increasedgeophonespacing,so that the coveragein-
cludesin one record as many as possibleof the smaller spreadspreviouslyobserved.
The above discussionhas been in terms of a refraction line, but it is based on the
fact that appreciablevariations may occurboth in the geophone'plant' and in shot
efficiencyand sois applicableto all types of shooting.
NECESSARY THEORY
It is occasionallypossibleto make use of amplitude measurementswithout any

resort to theory. For instance, if on one line an arrival has an attenuation acrossthe
spread of 1.0 db per station interval, while on another line an arrival of the same
velocity has an attenuation of 0.05 db per station interval, it is certain that they do
not comefrom the samerefractor, in spite of their identical velocities.However, as
soonasmodelsstart to be constructed--and all time-distanceinterpretations result
in a model--then it is necessaryto be able to computetheir quantitative implications
so that they may be checkedagainstthe observedamplitudes.
Rays incident at angleslessthan critical

A model is always chosenso that the Fermat raypath gives the same time of
arrival as that actually observed.For those velocity interfaces at which the ray is
incident at anglesother than critical the amplitude correctionsmay be computedby
the applicationof the plane-wavetransmissioncoefficients,together with the change
in amplitude due to the divergence,or, convergence,of the ray packet as computed
from Snell'slaw. Tables and graphsof transmissioncoefficientsare given by Muskat
and Meres (1940), Richards(1961), and Koefoed(1962). If thesefail then the parti-
LOWER
VELOCITY
HIGHER
VELOCIYY
Fro. 4. Ray diagram for critical angle reflectionand head wave.
tion equations(e.g. Ewing et al., 1957; Jakosky, 1950) must be solvedfor the par-
ticular values involved. This is a rather tedious and error provoking processand if
many are neededit is best to get them calculatedon an electroniccomputer.Bortfeld
(1961) givessomeapproximate equationswhich appreciably simplify the computa-
tions without losing too much accuracy.
For anglesof incidencelessthan critical, no phase changesare involved and the
calculatedamplitudesare, therefore,independentof the incident waveform.
Head waves
Except for very steeply dipping interfacesthe incident rays impinge on the high
velocity refractor at the critical angle. In this casethe plane-wave partition coeffi-
cients must be replaced by the more exact ones which allow for curvature of the
wavefront. This is discussedlater in this section and here we merely give a few
results.
The geometryis shownin Figure 4. At large distancesfrom the shot the particle
displacement
of the first-arrivalheadwave(the 'refracted'wavePP2P) is givenby
= (1)
where, K is a constant depending on the elastic properties of the media, F(t) is
the displacement potentialof the incident pulse, d is the distancefrom the shot to
the receiver, and L is the distancethe wave has traveled in the refractor.
Equation (1) hasbeenobtainedby severalauthors(e.g. Heelan, 1953).It is obvi-
ousfrom the presenceof the factor L in the denominatorthat this equationdoesnot
x Becausethe adjective'refracted'appliesin the high-velocitymediumthe theoreticalliterature uses

termssuchas conical,head,and diffractedin describingthe 'refraction'arrival.
6'0
= POISSON'S RATIO
5'0
4-0
3'0
2'0
'4
IoO ,
1'2 I-4. 1.8 1'8 2-0
VELOCITY
I::kATIO
V2p/Vlp
Fro. 5. Variation of vertical amplitudewith velocitycontrastand ?oisson'sratio.
hold for points closeto the critical angle reflection. The range of applicability of the
equationhasbeendiscussed recently(DonatoandO'Brien, 1963)with the conclusion
that it may be applied with values of L greater than about 5-6 times the predomi-
nant wavelength of the pulse.
Figure 5 is basedon calculationsby Bather (1959) and showshow K cosi, wherei
is the critical angle,varies with the elasticparametersinvolved. Insertion of a value
I.O
9.O
8.0
7.0
.7
6.0
r- PPP o=o)
a. 7'0
u 4-0
.d 3-0 I.O PPP.
2'0
I-O $eS(=1810
o)
O $ss( .
o 0-6 o.a
VELOCITY
RATIO
VI/ V2 P P
zo. 6. odu]i ot the AmpHtudecoecients of eAd waveswen te incidentwve is of te same

type s tAeAedwve (fom essonov,et 1., 1960,clcultedby . V. Smimov).
from Figure 5 into equation(1) givesthe vertical displacement

producedby a
source of unit displacement potential. The calculations have been made for zero
density contrast as it can be shownthat the effect of density is small. Smirnova
(Malinovskaya,1957;Keilis-Borok,1960) has computedan extensiveset of head-
wave coefficients whichcoversall possibletypesof headwavesover a largerange
in velocity contrast.She has computedthem for densityratios of 0.7 and 1.0 but
only for a singlevalue of Poisson'sratio, 0.25.2 Her resultsare givenin Figures6,
7, and 8. The angle againsteachset of curvesrefersto the phasechangewhich
takes place on formation of the head wave. When is zero the head wave is the time
integral of the incidentpulse.For this reason90 degreeshasbeensubtractedfrom
the phaseangleson the graphsgiven by Keilis-Borok.Thesereducedanglesare
'Dr. Cervenyhasrecentlyinformedme that Smirnova's calculations
covereda widerangeof both
densitycontrastandPoisson's
ratio.Thefull resultsof hercomputations
areto be foundin a bookedited
byPetrashen
(1957),fromwhichthegraphs
ofMalinovskaya
andKeilis-Brook
werecompiled.
$.O
2.0
270)
I'O
0 0.2 0-4 0'6 0-8 I'0
VELOCITY
RATIO
VIp/v2P
FIG. 7. Moduli of the amplitudecoefficients
of head waveswhen the incidentwave is of a different
type from the head wave (from Bessonovaet al., 1960, calculatedby N. V. Stairnova).
identical with thoseoriginallygiven by Smirnova(Petrashen,1957). It may be seen

that the coefficientsgiven in Figure 5 are consistentwith thosein Figure 6.
It is worth noting that the amplitude of PxP.Pxincreasesas the velocity contrast
decreases;this is the opposite to what has sometimesbeen maintained by field
seismologists. However, sincea higher velocity in the refractor usually meansthat it
is more cemented and compacted, the effect of its lower head-wave coefficientis
somewhatmitigated by a decreasein the amount of absorptionand scattering.Also,
if there are high-velocity layers in the overburden, these will tend to reduce the
amplitudeof the head wave from a refractorof equal or lower velocity (Vassil'yev
et al., 1958a,b).
Therelation
ofthehead-wave
shape
tothatoftheincident
wavedepends
onthe
value of 4. When comparingthe amplitude of one head wave with another (either
hypotheticalor real) it is necessaryto allow for this fact. The methodof doingthis is
outlined by both Malinovskaya and Keilis-Borok but, when only vertical geophones
are used,the needarisessorarely that the procedurewill not be outlined here.In
any case,providing measurementsare not made on the first or last 'leg' of the pulse,
no great loss of accuracy is made if the phase distortion is ignored. This point is
illustrated in the following subsection.
Heelan (1953) and Zvolinsky (1958) have provided equationsfrom which head-
wave coefficientsfor PPx and PP may be obtained,but there are misprintsin
both papers.Cerveny (1956) has producedequationswhich are valid evenfor small

distances;for large distancesthey reduceto the form of equation(1).
Rays incident at anglesgreaterthan critical

In "second event" refraction shooting one aim is to reduce the shot-to-station
distanceso that the geophonespreadlies just beyond the critical angleray. At these
distancesthe wide-anglereflectionmay be of similar (usually greater) amplitude to
the head wave. Accordingly, as an aid in distinguishingbetween the two, this sec-
tion, whichis a summaryof an earlierpaper (O'Brien, 1963), givesa brief accountof
reflectionat anglesgreater than critical.
350
310
270
230
tu
o
z
190
"'
70
30
Fro. 8. Argumentsof the amplitude coefficientsof head waves (from Bessonova

et al., 1960, calculatedby N. V. Smirnova).
Brekovskikh (1960) has shown that, except for anglesof incidencevery close
either to critical or to grazing, for the reflection of a curved wavefront it is permis-
sible to use the plane-wavereflectioncoefficientstogetherwith a geometricaldiver-
gencefactor. Richards (1961) has calculatedreflectioncoefficientsfor a large number
of casesand has also discussedthe effect of geometricaldivergence.He also graphs
the values of the phase change which occur for reflection at anglesgreater than
critical, but, unfortunately, he interprets this changeas a lag when it is usually a
lead. He also discussedseismicamplitudessolely in terms of the modulus of the
reflectioncoefficient.Becauseseismicpulsescontain a fairly broad band of frequen-
ciesthe attendant phaselead impliesthat wide-anglereflectionsmust be distorted
to someextent. Sincethe phasechangevarieswith angleof incidence,this distortion
FIO. 9. Reflectionof a 'Ricker' wavelet,Dtexp(--,rt), at anglesgreaterthan critical. All pulseshave

been normalisedto the first trough by factorswhich take accountof both energypartition and phase
change.To obtainthe amplitudeof the reflectedpulsesmultiplyby the normalisation factorsin Table 1.
will vary with distance.In fact, for a sharppulsesuchas a stepfunction,the phase

changeis suchas to give the reflectionan infinite amplitude.Real pulses,of course,
do not have discontinuouswavefrontsand the amplitude distortion introducedby
the phasechangeis not usually very large.
Figure 9 and Table 1 together show the effect of wide-angiereflectionon the
familiar 'Ricker' wavelet. The phase distortionincreasesthe maximum peak-to-
troughamplitudeby amountsup to 15 percentoverthe value calculatedwhenphase
changesare ignored.On the other hand, if amplitudesare measuredfrom the zero
Table 1. Parameters and results for wide-angle reflections from a layer of velocity 20,000
ft/sec and density 2.65 gm/cm3---Refer to Figure 9
Overburden Parameters
Case in Normal- Percent of

Velocity Density Phase ization Incident
Richards incident
ft/sec gm/cma lead factor angle
(1961) energy
6,000 2.02 45 0.61 19.6 4O

90 0.08 35.8 1
135
1O,000 2.20 45 0.86 31.4 80

90 0.53 35.6 40
135 0.33 42.2 24.8
14,000 2.36 45 0.90 46.3 90

90 0.75 51.3 80
135 0.73 61.0 74.5
18,000 2.56 45 0.95 65.6 98.4

90 0.84 70.0 98
135 0.65 78.5 98.2
Effect of phasechangealone
Reflectedamplitude
Phase lead
Time lead on 1st trough
Incident amplitude as a fraction of period T
peak-to-peak
45 1.115 0.122
90 1.164 0.245
135 1.115 0.366
line, very marked changesare introduced. The figure alsoshowsthe time lead of any
peak in terms of the time scale of the incident pulse. The distortion illustrated in
Figure 9 is similar to the distortionproducedin head waveswhenqO0. It is obvious
from the figure that both for thesewaves (i.e. thoseother than ppp3) and for wide-
angle reflections,amplitude measurementsshouldonly be made on peak-to-trough
excursionsin the centreof the pulse.Sinceboth thesetypes of eventsare alwayslate
arrivals they often form part of an interferencepattern and this also means that
measurementsshouldonly be made on the maximum excursionsof the pulse.
Figure 10 showsthe vertical amplitudes of the head wave and the wide-angle
reflection for a velocity contrast of 2' 1. The reflection amplitudes have been taken
from Richards (1961) and do not allow for pulse distortion. The head-waveampli-
tudes have been calculated from a modified form of equation (1) which holds to
within about two wavelengthsof the critical angle reflection (Donate, private com-
munication).For a 15-cpswaveand a refractordepthof 1,700ft the amplitudescales
are identical for both events. For deeperrefractors or higher frequency events the
amplitude of the head wave decreaseswith respect to the reflected wave in direct
proportion to the frequency and depth.
Very closeto the critical anglereflectionPPP is alsodistorted.
----- HEAD WAVE

0.8 i .
0.7
I
I , E;L;CTON
0-6
/' V- IOOOO ft/sec
=:0'5
/i V,-2OOOO
f,/,,
o 0.4 / '/' \
h-DEPTH
INFEET
- o..
,
0'1
0 I 2 4
DISTANCE
/ DEPTH
Fro. 10. Comparison of reflectedamplitudes(Richards,1961)andhead-waveamplitudes
for a velocity
contrastof 2'1 and an incidentpulsewith a predominantfrequencyof 15 cps.Note that, near to the
criticalangle,the reflectionamplitudemay be appreciablylessthan that plotted.
For angleswithin a degreeor two of critical, the plane-wavereflectioncoefficient

must be reducedby a factor whichvariesas (R/X) TM,and hencegraphssuchasthat in
Figure 10, or thoseof Richards,do notapply. In an ultrasonicexperiment,this factor
amounted to one quarter, and there was thereforeno observableincreasein ampli-
tude at the critical angle. Because(R/X) TMvaries very slowly with R it is not neces-
sary, even for deepreflectors,that there will be a large increasein reflectedampli-
tude at the critical angle.
At distancesjust greater than critical the head wave is not a true integral of the
incident wave and equation (1) is not valid. Cerveny (1962a) and Bortfeld (1964)
have computedamplitudes for these distancesand have shownthat, when they can
be separated,the wide-anglereflectionis greater than the head wave. Also, Cerveny
(1962b) has shown that the maximum amplitude of the reflection occursat angles
greater than critical. Both theseconclusions have been supportedby seismicmodel
studies. An illustration is given in Figure 11 which showsthe two events, when they
are closeenough to interfere, for water overlying wax. Levin and Hibbard (1955)
show similar results for a solid-solid model. Field evidence is, inevitably, not so
clear. Epinat'eva (1957) and Richards (1960) have describedsurveyswhich give
convincingevidencethat the reflectionis several times larger than the head wave;
however,manysurveyshavebeenmadein whichthe refractedwaveis followedba.ck
DISTANCE
IN cm
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
PPP PP
Fro. ll. mergenceo the headwavePPP rom the wde-an]e reflectionPP or water overlying
wax. Timing marksare at onetsecintervals.Sourceand receiverare 10 cm abovethe wax.
to within about twice the critical distancefrom the shotpoint, without the appear-
ance of any large amplitude reflection.It seemslikely that this is due partly to the
correction for wavefront sphericity, and partly to the finite thicknessof the layer
togetherwith pronouncedvelocity variationswithin it.
Also, it shouldbe rememberedthat the reflectionamplitude closeto the critical
angleis practicallyindependentof the velocitycontrast,whereasthe head-waveco-
efficient increasesas the contrast decreases.For small contrasts, therefore, the head
wave may well be commensuratewith the reflection.
For distances which are not great compared with critical, there is always the
danger of confusingthe head wave and the reflection.At such distancesan effort
Shouldbe madeto identifybothevents.If thisis not possible
thena longlineshould
be shot so that both events are recorded and an estimate can be made of their rela-
tive amplitude, as was done by Richards. If this alsois not possible,then the ob-
servedamplitude decay shouldbe comparedwith the decay curves for head waves
and reflected waves as calculated from the assumed model. It should be remembered
that due to phasechangesand interferenceeffects,the reflectedwave will probably
vary morerapidly in characterthan the head wave.
At larger distancesthe head wave seemsto predominateover the reflection.This
is not expectedtheoreticallyand is no doubt due to variationswithin the overburden.
In particular, relatively high-speedlayers or an appreciablevelocity gradientmay
prevent rays at large anglesto the vertical from ever reachinga deep high-speed
layer. In addition,if the overburdenis muchlesshomogeneous
than the refractor,
the reflectionwill sufferfrom scatteringand absorptionto a greater degreethan the

head wave. In any case,confusioncan hardly arise at large distancesbecauseof the
differencein apparent surfacevelocities.
ROUTINE REDUCTION OF AMPLITUDE MEASUREMENTS
The manner of reduction to datum will depend on the type of survey and the
interpretation model which is adopted. The following describesa method used for
first peakson a refraction line. It is illustrative only, and the precisemethod adopted
will obviously depend upon the specific operational and interpretational methods
which are being used. After applying the correctionsthe resulting values are called
residual amplitudes. Any variation with distance of the residual amplitudes is called
residual attenuation, and is usually expressedas db/station interval.
PROCEDURE
There are three essentialsteps. The first consistsof correcting the amplitudes for
that part of the attenuation which is due purely to geometricspreadingof the wave-
front. From equation (1) it follows that this may be done by application of the
factor (dL3)/2. For conveniencethe amplitude is first multiplied by ds and then by
(1-Xc/d) /, where Xc is the critical distance.This is done so that a set of universal
overlaysmay be made from which the d correctionmay be read directly. This saves
considerablerepetitive calculation. One of a set of such overlays is shownin Figure
12.
In the secondstep, the amplitudes are reduced to those which would have been
obtained with some standard weight of charge. They are multiplied by a factor of
the form (W/W)'* where W is the standard weight, W is the weight fired, and n is
usually about 1.0.
The third step consistsof the correctionfor instrumental variations.
These adjustmentsbecomesimpleadditionsor subtractionsif relative amplitude
is measured in decibels. It is assumed that the station interval is constant and that
the stations are numbered consecutively.The unit of distanceis one station interval
and the distancebetween shotpoint and station is N units.
In order to illustrate the measurement and correction at each station we will con-
sider the amplitude at station 38 from a shotpoint at station ! 1.
The following stepsare necessary:
(1) Selectthe overlay which includesthe correct shotpoint-to-stationdistance.
That is, N = 38-- ! ! = 27. Place the overlay transparencyover the record with
its abscissaalongthe zero line of the galvanometertrace. Read the positionof
the top of the peak at the abscissavalue of N-27. This is illustrated in
Figure 13 in which the peak value is 83.3 db.
(2) Using the estimatedvalue for the critical distance,X,, useTable 2 to find the
correction30 log0(!- X/N). In our example,if X, equals10 stationintervals,
then 6.0 db must be subtracted from 83.3 db giving a correctedamplitude of
77.3 db.
(3) Add to this the attenuationsettingof the amplifier(it is assumedthat all the
35 30 25 20
A
35 30 25 20
STATION NUHBERS SP AT STATION O
FIG. 12. Typical overlayfor calculatinglog0AN 2.
35 25 OVERLAY No...5 20
9O
88

.TN GAIN
,,2 - 24
iBS - 24.
,S4 - 24
85 - 24 80
3G -24
17 -24 ?O
38 -34
39 -24
STATION
NUMBERS
SAON 0
2C
40 -34
13. Measuring
the amplitudeof the firstpeak.
Table 2. Corrections for 30 1og0(1 - Xc/N)
4 6 8
10 12
I
Scale One
3.3 7.6 14.3 27

2.9 6.6 11.9 30
2.6 5.9 10.3 33
2.4 5.3 9.0 36
2.2 4.8 8.1 12.4 39
2.0 4.4 7.2 11.0 42
1.9 4.0 6.6 9.9 14.3 45
1.7 3.7 6.1 9.0 12.8 18.1 48
1.6 3.5 5.7 8.3 11.6 15.9 51
1.5 3.3 5.3 7.7 10.6 14.3 54
1.4 3.1 4.9 7.2 9.8 13.0 57
1.4 2.9 4.6 6.7 9.0 11.9 60
1.3 2.7 4.3 6.3 8.4 11.0 63
1.3 2.6 4.1 5.9 7.9 10.3 66
!.3 2.5 3.9 5.6 7.4 9.6 69
1.3 2.4 3.7 5.3 7.0 9.0 72
!.2 2.3 3.5 5.0 6.6 8.5 75
1.1 2.2 3.3 4.8 6.3 8.0 78
1.1 2.1 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.6 81
1.0 2.0 3.1 4.4 5.7 7.2 84
1.0 1.9 3.0 4.2 5.5 6.9 87
1.0 1.9 2.9 4.0 5.3 6.6 90
0.9 1.8 2.8 3.8 5.1 6.3 93
0.9 1.7 2.7 3.7 4.9 6.1 96
0.9 1.7 2.6 3.6 4.7 5.9 99
0.8 1.6 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.7 102
0.8 1.6 2.4 3.4 4.3 5.5 105
0.8 1.5 2.4 3.3 4.1 5.3 108
0.8 1.5 2.3 3.2 4.0 5.1 111
0.7 1.4 2.2 3.1 3.9 4.9 114
li 0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.0
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
117
120
123
126
0.7 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.4 4.3 129
.
Xc 4 8 12 16 20
Scale Two
X,
6 Three12
Scale
18 24 30
This table givesvaluesof 301ogo(1-- Xc/N) for three rangesof X, and N.

Scale 1 N=9 - 43; X=2-12
Scale 2 N= 18- 86; X,=4-24
Scale3 N= 27-129; X= 6-36
amplifiershave equal maximum gain) say, --24 db. That is, add 24 db to
give 101.3 db.
(4) Apply a correctionfor the sizeof the charge.If n- 1, as it usuallyis, then to
correct the actual charge of 100 lb to the standard charge of 1,000 lb it is
necessaryto add 20 db. The final correctedamplitude for station 38 is there-
fore 121.3 db. Figure 14 is helpful when obtaining this correction.
(5) Plot this value on linear graph paper against station number. A scale of
10 db= 5 cm is often about right. If a delay or intercept time plot is kept,
then it is recommended that the amplitudes are plotted with the same
abscissa,as there may be frequent crossreferencesbetweenthe two plots.
Corrections for recordingsystem.--Ideally, the geophonesensitivities,the line re-
sistancesand leakages,the amplifiergains,and the galvanometersensitivitiesshould
all be sufficientlywell matchedsothat followingthe stepsgiven abovewill provide a
true measureof the relative ground motion (except for geophone'plant') at the
various stations.
In areas where the geophoneplant introduces a considerablescatter the instru-
mentsmay often be sufficientlywell matchedfor their effectto be ignored.However,
in someareas the standard deviation of the scatter due to plant may be lessthan
1.0 db and then it is usually essentialto allow for instrument variations.
By usingthe samegeophone,or geophonegroup,with the sametrace, by measur-
ing the line resistanceand leakage,and by calibrating the amplifiers--all of which
takes only a few minutes a day if the necessaryinstrumentsare available--the cor-
rectionsmay be quickly obtained.
However, if these measurementsare not possibleit is desirable to perform a
statistical analysis to determine any consistentinstrumental variation, so that it
may be allowed for. Assumingthat the effect of geophoneplant is random, then
taking the mean amplitude of each trace for a number of spreadsshot in the same
direction will reduceits effect considerably.A plot of this mean amplitude against
trace number will showthe scatter due to the instrumentssuperimposedon a slope
whosegradientis the mean of the residualattenuationfactorsfor the variousspreads.
In order to eliminate the effect of attenuation it is necessaryto assumethat the
attenuation factor is the same in both directions. Then, by taking the mean of the
two mean-amplitude curves for shots in oppositedirections,all that is left is the
scatter due to the instruments--it being assumedthat this is sensiblyconstant over
the period during which the data werecollected.
A typical plot is shownin Figure 15. In this casecorrectionswere addedto bring
all the tracesup to the arbitrary level of 75 db, and thesecorrectionswerethen ap-
plied to all the originalstation amplitudes.
SOME FIELD EXAMPLES
Determination of the critical distance

In line refraction shootingthere are four present methodsof estimating the over-
burden velocity. These are velocity survey in a deep well, inverse solutionof a com-
plete t-x graph (Slichter, 1932), t2-x2plots (or, derivative methods)from reflections,
I000
5000
I00
I0
50
+30
+20
+10
Use of Amplitudes
DECIBELS
in Refraction
-IO
Fro. 14. Correctionfor variationsin chargeweight.

--20
-$O
105
74 ="-'
7)
/ SHOOTING
N--S
76
1-72
SHOOTING
70
76
74
NEANOF BOTHDIRECTIONS
I 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II 12
TRACE NUHBER
Fro. 15. Mean instrumental corrections.
and the matchingof calculatedstructurefrom the reversedrefractionspreads.Often

there are no deep wells and reflectionsmay be absent or not observablewith the
availableequipment.A completet-x graphis difficultto obtain and experienceshows
that the method works well only for simple velocity distributionssuch as occurin
ice. The matching of calculated structure assumesthat there is some structure to
match.
A fifth methodis to analysethe amplitudedata. For a thick refractor the ampli-
tudes, after correctionfor variation in chargeweight, obey the equation,
A = Ao(dLa)-/2 exp (--L). (2)
The powerlaw givesthe geometricallossand the exponentialterm givesthe residual
attenuation.A properly designedexperimentshouldbe able to separateout the two
effectsand enableL to be determined. By combinationwith the time-distancedata
the overburdenvelocity and the refractor depth may then be calculated.
Equation (2) fails for thin refractors.One shouldbe cautiousof usingit if the
measuredwaveformis very changeableor if the value for/ is greaterthan about one
db per 'wavelength.'
Two methodsof analysisare recommended.
Method one' Use of routine records.--On the amplitude plot in which the corrected
amplitude in decibelsis plotted against distancein station intervals, variations in
the geometricterm give either a convexor concavecurvature superimposedon the
linear effectof the residualattenuation. By applying a number of geometriccorrec-
tions, eachfor a different assumedcritical distance,the best value for Xc will give
the straightestline. And the gradient of this line will give the attentuation factor.
For this methodto be effective,the value of Xc/d mustbe as large as possible,there-
fore the shootingdistancemust be as small as possible,though it shouldnot be so
small that equation(2) fails to apply (seesectionentitled "Head Waves").
One procedureis to fit the correctedamplitude data to a curve of the form
logan= a-- bN -- c/N,
whereA,= Ad/2(d-- Xc)a/.For eachvalueof X, therewill be corresponding valuesof
b and c. The best values of X and/ are thosefor which c=0. Figure 16 showsthe
results of such an analysis for an actual survey. It gives 1,300 m for the critical
distance and 0.055 +0.029 decibelsper station interval for the attenuation factor.
A quicker, though lesssensitive,method is to calculate the standard error of the
linear regressioncoefficient of logAc on distance. The minimum standard error
identifies the best straight line and hencethe best values of X, and
Method two: Special records.--An estimate of X, may be obtained by shootingone

spreadfrom two shotpointssomedistanceapart. One of the shotpointsshouldbe as
near as possiblesothat log0(1--Xc/d) is large, and the other shotpointshouldbe far
enoughaway for this correctionterm to be negligible,or, at least, approximately
linear with distance. The observedamplitude variations may then be compared
with curves calculated for different assumedvalues of Xo and
0"8
0-4
0-0
-0.4
-0.8
>0-08
Zo.o4
O
STATION
I 2 3 4 $ 6 '
I I I i i INTERVALS
m 0.00
300 6OO 9OO 12OO 15OO 18OO 21OO METRES
CRITICAL DISTANCE XC
THE BEST STRAIGHT LINE IS GIVEN BY C=O
'. Xc= IJOO m

ATTENUATION
FACTOR
= 0-0.55dB/WAVELENGTH
Fro. 16. Estimationof doubleoffsetdistanceby useof amplitudes--method
one.
Figure17showsa composite amplitudecurvebuilt up of segments fromdifferent

shotpoints anddifferentspreads;for convenience the ordinateis plottedaslogAd2.
In thisexamplea very goodestimateof Xc may be madebecause a 6,100m/secre-
fractoris overlainby a 5,100m/seclayer, thusgivinga largecriticaldistance.The
contributionof the geometrictermis solarge(a fall of 19db fromN-40 to N=80)
that we may selectby eye the bestcurvethroughthe pointsand estimatethat Xc
equals36 stationintervalsto within about _+10 percent.The predominantwave-
Use of Amplitudes in, Refraction 109
///1
//!.1
I.t
z
o /Z . -I
, o ILL'l/ I
.oo.,
,o / ,,./'/- '" / ,o
.
II
x / 2' x
1 '00
ii 0 __ ii o
0 0 ,n 0 ,n 0 ,
O- :X NIHtlV P NI ]C]ttllldHV C]t::)l10::)

length of the arrival was about one station interval, so that equation(2) may not
hold for total distances which are smaller than 41-42 station intervals.
The useof thecoe.

lcient of residualattenuation
Application of equation (2) enablesa value for to be obtained in terms of
decibelsper station interval. It cannotbe expectedthat the refractorpropertieswill
remain constantalongthe line and changesin are often observed.By matchingthe
valuesobtainedfrom spreadsshot in oppositedirectionsit is possibleto checkthe
validity of the assumedcritical distance.Also, suchchangessometimesaccompany
velocity changesand this fact also shouldbe rememberedwhen making the time-
distanceinterpretation. However, suchuseof the residualattenuation shouldnot be
taken to extremes.The overburden,and particularly the near-surface,can introduce
systematicvariations over distancesof the order of a thousandfeet or so,and little
reliance should be placed on values which are obtained for smaller distances,or
which are obtained from only a small number of observations.That larger trends
do refer to the refractorhas many times beencheckedby matchingattenuationsfor
refractorsof known offsetsand by observingthe samespreadfrom shotsat different
distances(O'Brien, 1960a).
Basementidentification.--A classicapplication of line refraction survey is to map

the "basement." One of the attendant problemsis to decidewhether an observed
high-speedarrival is, in fact, from the basementor whether it may not be from a
carbonateseriesor an igneoussequencewithin the sedimentarycolumn.If it is an
intrabasin arrival, the next problemis to decidewhether shootingat larger distances
will enablea refractionfrom the 'basement'to be observed.No help can be obtained
from the velocities,for only ultrabasicrocksgive consistentlyhigher velocitiesthan
carbonates. Sometimes the coefficient of residual attenuation can be of definite
diagnosticvalue.
It is first necessaryto convert the coefficientfrom attenuation per unit distance
into attenuation per predominant wavelength (O'Brien, 1961). The predominant
wavelengthmay be simply obtained by multiplying the refractor velocity by the
period of the cycle which containsthe amplitude measurement.For a first peak
measurement this period is twice the time from the first arrival to the first zero
crossingof pulse.When this is doneit is found that there is a pronouncedtendency
for the result to fall into one of three groups.These have meansof a few hundredths
of a decibelper wavelength,severaltenths of a decibelper wavelength,and several
decibelsper wavelength. The latter group usually follows more closelythe form
A ad-/'exp(-- d) 4whered is total distanceand is oftenabout 5-10 db per predomi-
nant wavelength(Donato and O'Brien, 1963).
The first group is indicative of a thick, nonporousrefractor; the secondgroup is
indicativeof a thick, porousrefractor;and the third groupindicatesa thin refractor.
By "thick" is meant somethinggreater than a few wavelengths,and by "thin" is
meant somethinglessthan about one half of a wavelength. These magnitudesare
4 Refer to section entitled "Recent Advances."
rather impreciseand they undoubtedly also depend upon the impedancecontrast

and the ratio of L/Z ,whereZ is the thicknessof the layer.
If the observedhigh-speedarrival has a residualattenuation of a few decibelsper
wavelength, this is strong evidencethat it comesfrom a thin layer and that, by in-
creasingthe shot-station distance, the arrival will die out and deeper high-speed
layers will be recorded.If it has a residualattenuation of a few tenths of a decibelper
wavelength, this makes it likely that the arrival is from a thick, porouslayer from
within the sedimentary basin. Shootingat larger distanceswill probably not enable
any deeper refractor to be observed (unless, of course,it has a higher apparent
velocity). If it has an attenuation of only a few hundredthsof a decibelper wave-
length this implies a thick, nonporouslayer. Shootingat larger distanceswill not
enable deeper refractors of lower velocity to be observed,but if the coefficientis
found to vary widely from one part of the area to another, this is an indication that
it is not a basement arrival.
Vassil'yevet al (1958a,b) have presenteda casehistory in which the arrivals from
overlying carbonate layers suffered a residual attenuation which never dropped
belowa few tenths of a decibelper wavelength,and sometimesroseto ten times that
figure. By shootingat great enoughdistancesthe basementarrival, with a similar
velocity to the carbonatesbut with an attenuation too low to measure,was success-
fully recordedand followed. Figure 18 is taken from their earlier paper and showsa
compilationplot of the measuredamplitudes.
With very large shootingdistancesover thick basementrefractorsit is often found
that application of equation (2) gives a negative value for/. In other words, the
attenuation is lessthan (dL3)-/2. This is probably due to the fact that the head-wave
arrival is reinforced by a simple refracted arrival caused by a positive velocity
gradient in the basement. Such an arrival attenuates at a rate closeto d- and will
therefore predominateat large distances.
Velocitydistribution.--In interpretinga refractiontime-distancegraph there is often

an uncertainty as to whether it should be treated as a continuouscurve or as a
seriesof straight lines. This is especiallytrue when using the first breaks on a re-
flection record to determine weathering corrections.
Figure 19 showssucha plot. Alsoshownin the figureare the measuredamplitudes.
15
4 IO 20 30 40 50 60
DISTANCE IN kms
Fro. 18. Differencebetweenattenuation in carbonateand basementrefractors(from Vassil'yevet al.).

2-8
APPROXIMATE EXPECTED VARIATION
FOR CONTINUOUS INCREASE
OF VELOCITY
2-6
2-4 OMEASURED
VALUE
2-0
I-8
'- 2-Odb PERWAVELENGTH
- o
20O
160
120
.
O 200 400 600 800 IOOO 12OO
DISTANCE IN FEET
19. Use of amplitudesto indicatenature of velocity distribution.

It may be seen that there is a distinct break in the amplitude-distance graph at

500 ft. The residual attenuation in the secondsegmentis quite consistentwith the
hypothesisthat the arrival was a conventionalhead wave, probably from a thin
layer. The dashedline gives the expectedattenuation for a continuousincreaseof
velocity with depth. On this evidencethe data were fitted to two straight lines.
An integratedcasehistory
This is a drasticallyshortenedaccountof a previouslypublishedpaper (O'Brien,
1960b). It is included here becauseit exemplifiesthe use of amplitude measurements
to distinguishbetween various geologicalmodels,each of which satisfiesthe time-
distance data.
The problemwas to explainand make useof a strong,late-arrival refractedevent
which had approximately the same velocity as an earlier, weaker arrival. A rather
poor interval velocity log was available which indicated that there was only one
formation with the correct velocity. It was therefore supposedthat the strong late
arrival originatedin the samerefractor as the earlier arrivalmwhich had been quite
certainly identified as comingfrom a thin Permian Limestone--but that it was de-
layed in the overburden either by multiple reflection or by P-S conversion.These
two possibilitiesare illustrated in Figure 20. With these two models,and with the
velocity information available from the well survey and the refraction records,
estimatesweremade of the expectedtime delay of the late event and of its amplitude
relative to the earlier arrival. These results are shown in Table 3, which also shows
the residual attenuations of the two events.
Becauseof uncertainties in the overburden velocities, the calculated amplitudes
could be in considerableerror. But by no stretch of the imagination could they be
changedsufficientlyto bring the calculatedand observedratios into anything like
parity. Further, both modelspredict that the residual attenuation should be the
samefor both events. This is most certainly not true; the first arrival attenuates at a
rate applicableto a thin layer and the later arrival attenuatesat a rate applicableto
a thick, porouslayer.
Therefore,in spite of the fact that the delay times agree,it is certain that neither
modelis correct.And, in spite of the fact that the well surveyshowedno other high-
velocity layer, it is certain that the late arrival must originate in a deeper, thicker
layer of about the samevelocity as the shallower,thinner layer which gave rise to
the first arrival.
The depth and structure of this deeperlayer was thereforeconstructedfrom the
time-distancedata. Its upper surfacewas found to correlateextremely well with the
top of a thick sand-shalesequence(Millstone Grit Series,Upper Carboniferous).
Subsequentcontinuousvelocity logsshowedthat the original well survey was most
misleadingand that the interval velocity of the Serieswas only 5 to 6 percent less
than the refraction velocity.
It remained to confirm that the third model is consistentwith the observedampli-
tudes.Unfortunately,it is not yet possiblequantitatively to estimatethe amplitude
of the arrival from a thin layer. However, qualitative argumentsindicate that the
arrival from the Grits shouldbe severaltimes greater than the earlier arrival from
P P
PERMIAN I LIMESTONE LIMESTONE

MODEL ON E MODE L TWO
LIMESTOND
MILLSTONE GRIT SERIES
MODEL THREE
Fro. 20. Seismicmodelsfor explaininga late arrival.
the thinner Permian Limestone. For, on the one hand, the Limestone overlies a
lowervelocity mediumand thereforethe reflectionfrom its bottom surfaceis always
out-of-phasewith the head wave, and will severelyreduceits measuredamplitude.
On the other hand, the Millstone Grit Seriesis underlain by the higher velocity
Carboniferous Limestone and the reflection from its bottom surface will not always
be out-of-phasewith its headwave; its amplitude,therefore,will not be soseverely
Table 3. Comparison of observed and predicted characteristics
Deeper refractor
ObservedMultipleP-Sconversion
(Millstone
reflection Grits)
Time interval .100 to . 110 .105 .100 (. 100 to . 110)
Amplitude ratio Always > 1

late/first usually 3-4 0.25 0.1 > 1.0
Attenuation in
db/1000 ft 0.73 3.7 3.7 <1.0
Use o{ Amplitudes in IRefractlon t15
decreased.In addition, the conversionfrom incident-wave energy to head-wave

energy is about three times as efficient at the Millstone Grits than at the Permian
Limestone.This is becausethe ratio of overburdento refractor velocitiesis greater
for the Limestone than for the Grits.
The observedamplitudes ratio is, therefore, consistentwith the third model, as
are the observed rates of attenuation.
CONCLUSIONS
By far the most important information on the seismicrecordis obtained from the
time-distance data. But an amplitude study is never a waste of time. At the least it
gives the seismologistanother dimensionfrom which to view the interpretational
problem.It broadenshis mind and giveshim a better graspof the physicalprocesses
which take place in seismicprospecting.
On occasion,an amplitude study providesthe critical evidencenecessaryto dis-
criminate betweenotherwiseequally valid models.And it may require the rejection
of previoushypothesesand suggestmore correct ones.It may even suggesta varia-
tion in conventionalfield procedure.For instance, as indicated in a later paper in
this section,it is well known that surfaceshotsgeneratemuch more equivoluminal
(S) wave energythan they do irrotational (P) wave energy. Sincesurfaceshotsare
often an economicnecessityit may well be worthwhile to try to detect the large
amplitude S wave by using horizontal geophones.As may be seenfrom Figure 6
there is a further amplitudeincreaseto be expectedfor either smallvelocity contrasts
(usingSSS) or large contrasts(usingSPS). The major drawbackwould appear to
be the attendant increasein noise,due to the fact that any S wave is a late arrival.
The interpretational model in refraction work always consistsof an overburden
~
made up of a small number of homogeneouslayers overlying a refractor of constant

velocity. The study of stratigraphy and lithology, especiallyas reflectedin well logs,
showshow poor a model this is. Current theoreticalwork in seismicwave propaga-
tion may eventually enable theoretical refraction seismogramsto be constructedfor
multilayered media. But, because of the large horizontal distances involved, it
cannot be expectedthat the rockswill be uniform over the necessaryrange. In spite
of the simplicity of the presentmodels,quantitative amplitude estimatesmay be
useful, and should always be made. Physical reasoningcan put reasonablelimits on
the calculationsand these are often closeenough to be useful.
The coefficientof residual attenuation is probably the most helpful amplitude
parameter. Its use has been demonstrated in helping to discriminate between re-
fractors which are thick and thin, porousand nonporous,in checkingthe validity of
the overburdenvelocity (critical distance),and in fitting a velocity distributionto
the time-distancedata. It may often provide a checkon presumedcorrelation and,
especiallyin near-surfacework, it may indicate areasof soundand shattered bedrock
and of grosslithologic changes.
A major part of the scatter in amplitude measurementsderivesfrom the variations
at the shotpointand in geophoneplant. Use of shotholeand geophonegroupsis,
therefore, to be welcomedas an additional meansof averagingout this scatter. But
the tendency towards the use of 'tighter' filtering and AVC is not so welcome. It
should always be proven that a real and necessaryimprovement in the signal-to-
noiseratio is producedbefore deliberately distorting the signal, for this distortion
may render uselessthe recordedamplitudes.
Frequencymeasurementshave not sofar providedmuch information. But in many
areas quasi-sinusoidsare recorded and their frequency must reflect well-defined
geometric properties of the subsurface.The normal mode analysis of the wave
equation shouldprovide the necessarytheory, and careful casehistoriescombined
with ultrasonic modelsshould enable an interpretational method to be worked out.
RECENT ADVANCES
Since this paper was first prepared there have been two significant advancesin
the study of the amplitudes of refracted waves.
The first concernsthe arrival from a thick refractor. Werth and Herbst (1963)
have calculated the amplitude of the head wave from the Mohorovii discontinuity
(Pn) for a number of undergroundnuclearexpansionsand O'Brien (1965) has cal-
culated the amplitude of the refracted wave for a distance of 20 km from an under-
water chemical explosion.Both these calculationsgave values very close to those
observed.This demonstratesthat it is now possibleto calculate absoluteamplitudes,
as well as relative ones,when checkingthe amplitude predictionsof a layered model.
The secondadvance concernsthe arrival refracted from a thin high-speedlayer.
Rosenbaum(1965) and Donato (1965) have treated the casefor layers thinner than
about one half of a "wavelength." The former indicates that the geometrical, power
law attenuation for such a layer should not be simply dTM,aS stated earlier in this
paper, but d/2L/a. Both authors give expressionsrelating attenuation to refractor
thicknesswhich are potentially useful in the interpretation of field surveys. Spencer
(1965) has presenteda theory for layers of a few "wavelengths"thickness.This ex-
plains the en echelonor "shingling" character of some time-distance graphs and
provides the analysis necessaryfor calculating the amplitude and attenuation of
arrivals refracted from such layers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several personshave helped me to make amplitude studies. In particular, I wish

to acknowledgethe help of Mr. E. Pickles who has done much of the computational
work, Mr. J. Hornabrook who greatly helpedto standardisea routine procedurefor
treating line refraction records, and Mr. R. Wilkinson who designedthe overlay
illustrated in Figure 12. I also wish to thank Dr. Cerveny of Charles University,
Prague, who most kindly indicated to me various misprints and errors in the pub-
lished values of headwave coefficients. I am also indebted to the Chairman and
Directors of The British Petroleum Company for permissionto publish this com-
munication.
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for planelongitudinalincidentwaves:Geophys.
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the refractedwave methodunderconditionsof partial masking,I: Bull. Ac. Sc. U.S.S.R., Geophysics
SeriesNo. 3. English Translation by AGU.
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II: Bull. Ac. Sc. U.S.S.R., GeophysicsSeriesNo. 5. English Translation by AGU.
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acteristics:Geophysics, v. 6, p. 116-131.
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nuclearexplosions in four differentmediums:Jour. Geophys.Res.,v. 68, p. 1463-1475.
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seriesNo. 1, p. 1-7, EnglishTranslationby AGU.
METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
REFRACTION ARRIVAL]'
GLENN C. WERTH*
ABSTRACT
A method based on Zvolinskii's "near-front" approximationis given for calculating amplitudesof

refractionarrivals.The theoryhasbeencheckedto a limited extentwith measuredamplitudesof seismic
waves from nuclear explosions,and agreementis good. To illustrate a possibleuse of the method in
refractionprospectingfor oil, calculationsare madefor a modelgeologicsectionbasedon well data from
the EdwardsPlateau in West Texas. The calculationsshowthat layeringabovea refractor can materially
changethe characterof the refraction arrival. It is shownhow this characterchangemay be useful as an
indicator of structure in the refractor.
NTRODUCTON
Theoreticalpaperson the amplitude of the refraction arrival have appearedin the

literature for almost thirty years (Muskat, 1955; lieelan, 19S$). Yet very little
progresshas been made in developingtheoretical methods helpful for interpreting
refraction-prospectingrecords.The amplitudesof the refraction arrivals from under-
ground nuclear explosionshave been successfullycalculated (Werth, lierbst, and
Springer, 1962; Werth and lierbst, 1965). In a book on refraction it seemsap-
propriate to outline the technique, cite theoretical-experimentalcomparisonsthat
validate the method, and showan exampleof how the techniquecan be usedas an
investigativetool to developa more completeunderstandingof the refractionarrival
in prospectingfor oil by the refraction method.
THEORY
Sincethe most important part of a refractionrecordis the first arrival, it is ap-

propriate, at first, to limit our attention to the calculationof its amplitude. In order
to further simplify the problem,we will considerthe caseof a "thick" refractor. In a
later sectionwe will discusshow the calculation may be modified to remove these
restrictions.
The near-front approximation

Clearly the calculationof the amplitude of the refraction arrival, with super-
posedlayers,for all distancesand all possiblerecordingfrequenciesis an enormously
complicatedtask. An approximationto the solutionof the elastic-waveequationsin
each layer with the appropriateboundary conditionsis soughtwhich will be con-
venient to calculate,yet sufficientlyaccuratefor practical application.The key to
the developmentof sucha methodis containedin papersby Zvolinskii (1957, 1958).
,,
We use his near-front approximation,and it is worthwhile to examinethe condi-
tionsunderwhichit is an adequateapproximationto the solutionof the wave equa-
Work performedunderthe auspices

of the UnitedStatesAtomicEnergyCommission.
* LawrenceRadiationLaboratory,Universityof California,Livermore,California.
119
tionsin eachof the media with the appropriateboundaryconditions.The natureof

the approximationis most easilyunderstoodby considering a reflectionof a spher-
ically expanding wave from an interface between two elastic media. Two semi-
infinite half-spacesare set up in a cylindricalcoordinatesystem(seeFigure 1). The
displacement potentialsare definedin eachhalf-spacein the conventionalway. They
are made to satisfythe elastic-waveequationsin eachhalf-spaceand the boundary
conditionsat the interface.A time-dependentsourcefunction at a point Z0 above
the interface is defined as follows'
rko(r,z, t) = axt-
RoRo)
for R0 < axt
for Ro >_ at
where
0-- displacementpotential,
r, z-- cylindrical coordinates,
R0=distance to the point of observation,
t = time,
a- compressionalvelocity.
ACTUAL
,4,
iRECEIVER
SOURCE r
VIRTUAL &
SOURCE
Zo
C T./I 'T'
(2) /IO . x L -
/
/ /I
//
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
IMAGE /
SOURCE
Fro. 1. Geometryfor amplitudecalculations.

Calculating the Amplitude of Arrival 121
Zvolinskii followsthe Smirnovand Sobolevmethod of making a transformationto

an auxiliary plane problem, solving for the boundary conditions, and then trans-
forming back into the cylindrical coordinate system. The transformation back for
the horizontal componentof displacement,qlp, for a reflectionat lessthan the critical
angle is
for t < R/a
qv =
[
,
R
0
A (a*) atr
R2
remainder for t > R/a,
where
R 2 = r 2q- (zq-z0) ,
M q-
8 M
remainder<
(-) R A(a*)
and
at(z-+-Zo)
R(R-+-An.)(z-+-Zo) R R '
/Xn = at-- R,
A (a*) = coefficientof reflectionin the auxiliary plane problem
(note that A(a*) is a function of time),
and M and M,. dependonly upon the propertiesof the coefficientof reflection.
Now
/Xn at -- R r pulse time

R R T traveltime
In prospectingrecordsthe pulsetime (the reciprocalof the dominantfrequencyon

the records) is always short comparedto traveltimes and the remainder term is
negligiblecomparedwith the first term. To this sameapproximation
z --[- Zo
o'* -- = COS1,
R
where/ is the angleof incidence.A (v*) then provesto be independentof time and
equal to the plane-wavereflectioncoefficient.Hence,
0 for t < R/a
ql = A (cos/)
sin/ for t > R/a.
R
Therefore, the displacementfor a reflection is a step function when the source

potentialis a ramp function.The step heightequalsthe plane wave reflectionco-
efficientdivided by the path length (the geometricalspreadingterm for spherical

waves).
The resultsare generalizedfor a sourcefunction of the type
f(alt- Ro) f(/Xn)
0
Ro Ro
wheref(/Xn)is the reducedpotential. The direct wavebecomes
q0P
= [ sin
R0
I 0 for
t<Ro/a
/'(/Xn) fort> Ro/a,
wheref'(/Xn) is the derivativeoff(/Xn) with respectto its argument.The expressions
for the reflectedwave (lessthan critical) become
0 for t < Rfal
qlP ---- sin 1
Zl(COS
1) f!(An) for t > R/a1.
R
The near-front approximation is equivalent to the approximation used in con-

structing synthetic or theoretical seismogramsfor reflection prospecting.If the
transmitted wave is to be calculated,the transmissioncoefficientappearsinsteadof
the reflectioncoefficientand the geometricalspreadingterm becomesmore involved
as derivedlater in the subsectionentitled Virtual sourceand geometrical spreading.
The Zvolinskii approach to synthetic seismogramshas the advantage that the
sourceis explicitly in the problemand the conditionof validity for the plane wave
transmission and reflectioncoefficientformulasfor any angleof incidenceis formally
derivedfrom the actual sphericallysymmetricsource.Agreementbetweensynthetic
seismograms and reflectionrecordsoccursonly after sufficienttime has elapsedfor
pulsetime to be shortcomparedto traveltime(normallyabout0.5 sec),in agreement
with the Zvolinskii condition.Of course,linearity is assumed,and any ray can be
calculated separately and superposedon other rays. Furthermore, the Zvolinskii
approachis for any angle of incidence,not just normal incidenceordinarily usedin
synthetic seismograms.
It is significant that the Zvolinskii approximation makes no restriction on how
closethe sourceis to an interface.This point has been adequatelyverifiedby com-
parison of synthetic and reflectionrecords.The Zvolinskii theoretical treatment has
the advantages that the range of validity has been derived and that it can be ex-
tended to other types of arrivals suchas head waves.
Critical refractionsin the near-front approximation

In a secondpaper, Zvolinskii (1958) derived the expressionfor head waves or
critical refractionsusing the same near-front approximation.For the geometry
shownin Figure 1, with compressional velocity on all three segmentsand displace-
ment along the ray, the Zvolinskii resultsare
q = Ao* f(a.),
(1 - ,'')/' r/'L/"
where
q= displacement
alongthe ray in the uppermedium,
2px'[X'(1+ 2m'y ') + X.'(p- 2m'y
2)]2
A10* = '
[,2(1
+ 2m,'-- p)2+ px'X.'+ x'X'(1+ 2m'2).].
f(/Xn)= reducedpotential,
r-horizontal distance source to receiver,
L- "glide" distance,
'y= al/a.,
P=Pl/P%
=
x'= (1- ,) /',
l=compressionM
velocity
upper
medium,
1
b=shear
velocity
upper
medium,
ISimilarly
for
lower
medium
p= densityupper medium, 2.
.410* = head coefficient.
(1 - ')/'
In the derivation,it ws ssumedthat r is sufficientlylre so that the reflection
beyondthe criticalanledoesnot rrive withinthepulselengthof interestfor the
hed wve. ote that the hed wve hs the time dependenceof the reducedpo-
tential itself,rather than of the derivativeasdo bodywves.
In an earlierpper, eeln (1953)derivedan equivalentexpressionfor the head
waveusingthemethodof steepest descent to evaluatetheinteml.The eometricl
spreading term and the time dependence on the sourcere the same.ead co-
efficients
for twoparticularexamplesaregivenas6.1 and17.0by eelan in hisTable
$. The headcoefficients for the sameexamplesclculatedby Zvolinskii'sformul re
6.05 and 17.$7.Zvolinskii'sformulais moreeasilyprogrammedfor machineclcul-
tion and the criteriafor validity of the appoximation
aremorestraightforward.
Downwardtransmissionoecients
In anypracticalproblemtherearelayersabovethecriticallyrefracting layer,and
the appropriate
calculations
mustbe madefor theireffects.Firstof all, in the near-
frontapproximationtheproductof thetransmission
coefficientsmustbecalculated.
The formulationof the transmissionand reflectioncoefficientsby Nafe (1957) is
convenient.
Virtual sourceand geometrical

spreading
The rays are bent by an intervening interface and the resultant changein geo-
metrical spreading,which is separatefrom the transmissioncoefficientchange,is
calculated.The easiestway of including this effect is by introducing the conceptof a
virtual sourceand a virtual distance.In Figure 1, if medium 1 is replacedby medium
2, the virtual sourceand distanceare the sourcestrengthand distancewhichgive the
same amplitude along T to S and which spread the energy geometrically at the
same rate as the actual two-medium problem.
Following,in part, page294 of Brekhovskikh(1960), we let
k =
(amplitude
at)I2-(CT)Q'T'I
amplitude at TM =
2-r(SQ)
=
[( a.
R2)(a2R
1+----
a R
1+
aR cos
where terms are as definedon the figure. But also
Q./(R3-}- R) R3
k __.
Q2/R R -}- R
where Q is the displacementpotential of the virtual source.However, at T, by

definition of virtual sourcestrength,
Q/R = Q/R3
therefore,
RaQ k RQ
2 -- m
R 1 - k R
= virtual source strength

and R3+R=virtual source distance.
The conceptof virtual sourceand distanceis useful only in a plane-wave,ray-
amplitudeapproximation.The virtual sourcestrengthand distanceare computed
for the first interface below the source,which in effect removesthe first layer from
the problem.The other layers are removedby successive use of the expression,
reducingthe problemon the sourceside to the two semi-infinitehalf-spacescon-
sideredby Zvolinskii.
The wavefront of the head wave as it leaves the critically refracting interface is
plane(in the r, z plane),and,hence,the raysdo not converge or divergeasthe waves
are bent by superposed layers.The k factor is not applicable.The wavesdo reach
the surfaceat differentdistancesthan they wouldif there wereno superposed layers.
The distance,however,is calculatedon the basisof Snell'slaw. The distancer in
the Zvolinskii formulas for head waves is the sum of the horizontal componentof
the virtual distance,the glide length L along the critical path, and the horizontal
distancecoveredin emergingfrom the critical refractorand traveling to the surface.
Upward transmissionand verticalsurfacemotion

The head coefficientformula is in terms of displacementqpalongthe ray in the
medium directly above the refracting interface. A simple calculation gives the
factor to convert the displacementqlPto the displacementq0 in the surfacelayer.
Let be the Fourier transformof ql. Then
1P
OR
= Aexp i--(R-- at) =i--

OR a
is the near-front approximation.In the surfacelayer (subscriptzero)
qo- [T.C.]qi---[T.C.]-----IP
where T.C.-product of the transmissioncoefficientsfor all intervening interfaces.
0 = i-- 60
a0
co al 1 a
i-- [T.C.] -- -- OlP= [T.C.]- OlP
ao co ao
and therefore,
al
qo'-- [T.C.] qlP.
The seismometermay be calibrated in terms of sensitivity to the vertical com-

ponentof displacementor velocity.The ascendingwave must satisfythe boundary
conditionsat the free surface.The following well-known formulas relate the vertical
displacementto the unit incidentwave. For compressional wavesincident at angle
from the normal
2 sin a
qZP
cos2 tan a q- 2 sin' tan 2'
and for shearwavesincident at angle (lessthan the critical angle)

2 sin a tan 2
qz =
cos 2 tan q- 2 sin ' tan 2a
Also, (sina)/a= (sin(r)/b wherea and b are compressional and shearvelocitiesof the
surfacelayer. A time derivative is taken for velocity-sensitiveseismometers.
Summaryof amplitudefactors
Hence, for a thick refractor, ignoringfor the moment the instrument responseand
attenuation, the vertical displacementof the surfaceis the reduced displacement

potentialmultipliedby the followingamplitudefactors:(1) headcoefficient,(2) net
virtual source,(3) product of downwardtransmissioncoefficients,(4) product of
upward transmission coefficients,
(5) velocityratio, (6) vertical componentof the
surface,and (7) geometricalspreadingcomputedto includethe conceptof virtual
distance. To include the effect of a refractor of finite thickness,the reflection off the
bottom of the refractor and all internal reflectionswould have to be calculated by
tracing rays and rememberingthat the displacementis proportional to the deriva-
tive of the reduceddisplacementpotential multiplied by the following amplitude
factors:(1) net virtual source(now taken all the way back to the seismometerlayer),
(2) product of downwardtransmisssion coefficients,(3) reflectioncoefficientor co-
efficientsof internal reflectionin the refractor, (4) product of the transmissionco-
efficientsback to the surface,(5) vertical componenton the surface,and (6) geo-
metrical spreadingwhich is inversely proportional to the virtual distance. If the
refractor is very thin, then this ray-tracing method would becomeclumsy, and a
"mode" approachwould be superior.In initial attempts of application of calcula-
tional techniquesto refraction prospectingproblems,it is appropriate to seek the
simplersituationssuchas that of the thick refractor. "Thick" meansof coursethat
the reflection off the base of the refractor does not come in within the time interval of
interest.
Sourcefunction
The sourcefunction or reduced displacementpotential is calculated from down-
hole measurementsin the vicinity of the source.Particle velocity gagesare used and
the displacementis obtained by integration. The reduced displacementpotential
f(r), wherer=t--r/a, is calculatedfrom a finite differenceapproximationof the
expression
Or;X,r /'
whereu(r, t) is the displacement
at the distancer, anda is the compressional
velocity.
The f(r) socalculatedis usedin the near-frontapproximationas the sourcefunction.
Of coursef(r) shouldbe calculatedfrom a measurementfar enoughfrom the source
for the motion to be propagating accordingto the elastic-waveequation. To insure
this conditionit is preferredto calculatean additionalf(r) from a measurementat a
different distance. If the reduced potentials calculated from such measurements
agree, then the propagation from one to the other was elastic. The use of the equa-
tion assumesa spherically symmetric source and the measurementsmust be dis-
counted after the arrival of reflections.
Attenuation
The effect of attenuation is includedin the analysisby calculatinga propagation

operatorto convolve(filter) with the sourcefunctionand the instrumentresponseto
obtain the effect of all three factors. The conventionalattenuation expressionfor
steady-stateplane wavesis
e-aR ,
where
a--w/2aQ,
R-- distancepropagated,
w-- circular frequency,
a = wave velocity,
Q= attenuation constant.
A number ofexperimentshavebeencarriedoutwhichsupport
attenuation
propor-
tionalto frequency(seereviewby KnopoffandMacDonald, 1958).Contraryto the
usualstatements,Futterman(1962)hasshownthat a lineardependenceof a on w
overanarbitrarilylargerangeoffrequencies
isconsistent
withalinearwave-propa-
gationtheory.A phenomenologically
chosenlow-frequency
cutoffmust be intro-
duced into the attenuation coefficient.For a calculational convenienceFutterman
haschosen for theamplitudedependence theexpression
shownbelow.By invoking
causality hehasderiveda phaserelationfromthisamplitude relation.By "causal-
ity" it is meantthat thetraveltime(distance
dividedby velocity)mustelapsebe-
forethe wavecanarrive.Thisrelationbetweenamplitudeandphaseis sometimes
known as the Kramers-Kroenigdispersioncondition.Futterman's attenuation ex-
pressionis
I 2aQ
exp w(1- e-:)R
q-iq51
where
=wR/ap,
-1
{1 rQ
ap=a 1[lnq
q-lax
q-(e-:Eii"X)q-e:Ei(--
a= velocity in the limit of zerofrequency,
ap= phase velocity,
ag= group velocity,
X-- /c,
w,=cutoff frequency(very low),
R= distance,
In q/:0.5772157, Euler's constant,
Ei(--x): exponentialintegralfunction,
Ei(x) = conjugateexponentialintegralfunction.
For x_>15, the normal rangeof use,
=a 1 1[ln
3'-4-
Inx]}
-1
=a 1 1[lnTq-lnxq-1]}
The dispersionrequired for a causal wave to develop is very small. The phase
velocityat onecpsis lessthan 1/1000 greaterthan the velocityat 20 cps.
In practical application, it is convenient to set aavaoa, the normal com-
pressionalvelocity. Note that R/a is the traveltime and qbmay be considereda
time average for the path involved. The cutoff frequency is chosenfar below the
passbandof interest. By Fourier inversiona propagationoperatoris obtainedwhich
can then be used to convolve with the source function to include attenuation effects.
This operator physically representshow a wave that starts as a delta function loses
high frequenciesby attenuation (absorption)duringpropagation.Of course,a value
of qbmust be chosenconsistentwith the measuredamplitudes and frequencieson
the records.
Instrument response
For a completeanalysisthe impulseresponseof the instrument includingseismom-
eter should be obtained. The seismometercan be placed on a shake table, and con-
nected to amplifiers and recording system. The amplitude and phase of the shake
table are comparedto the amplitude and phase of the final recording.By Fourier
inversion the impulse responseof the system is obtained. This impulse responseis
then convolved with the sourcefunction and attenuation operator.
APPLICATION OF THE THEORY
Amplitudesof refractionarrivalsfrom nuclearexplosions

The theory outlined in the sectionentitled "Theory" was developedand checked
to a limited extent experimentally with the seismicwaves from nuclear explosions.
The theoretical-experimentalagreement obtained is shown in Figure 2. The source
function (reduced displacementpotential) was obtained by scaling a close-in
measurementof the Rainier explosion.Attenuation (Q-400) and the instrument
responseof the Benioff are explicitly included. Similar confirmation of the theory
has also been obtained for nuclear explosionsin alluvium, granite, and salt. The
original papers (Werth, Herbst, and Springer, 1962; Werth and Herbst, 1963)
should be consulted for details. The reflection off the base of the refractor has not
been included in any of the calculations. Within available data it appears that the
near-front approximation is adequatefor calculationof the amplitude of the refrac-
tion arrival. This conclusionshouldbe no surprisesincethe same approximation has
been so successfulin synthetic seismogramsfor reflectionwork. It would be more to
the point to cite a theoreticalcalculationof refraction arrival in seismicprospecting
but none has been made.
IOOO
- \
lOO
IO
- EXPLOSIONS IN TUFF
- ( Logon 5kt
() Blanco(x0.427)
() Antler(x 1.745)
- -----Theory for Hardtack line
, I , I I I I , I ,, I I ,
I0 I00 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Distance (krn)
Fro. 2. Amplitude of the first half-cyclefor nuclearexplosions
in tuffBlanca
and Antler have been scaled to 5 kt.
Application of the theoryas an analysis tool

While the absolute amplitude calculationscited in the previous section are im-
parted to establishsome confidencein the method of calculation, the absolute am-
plitude is not a particularly interesting quantity for refraction prospecting.The
theory may alsobe usedfor relative amplitudeeffects,which are of greaterinterest.
O'Brien (1960) hasusedthe geometricalspreadingterm by itself to help interpret
whether a particular arrival was from a deep or shallowrefractor. In a similar vein
we will calculatethe degreeto which the layering abovea refractor contributesto the
characterof the arrival, and whether or not a changein dip in the refractor will
changethis character.
The geologic
model
In order to study the effect of layers above a refractor on the character of the
refraction arrival, we want to find a case which tends to minimize all other effects.
We choose a thick refractor so we don't need to be concerned about additional
arrivals causedby waveguideaction in the refractor or by deeper refractions.We
choosea refractor having a thick layer above so that we need not be concernedwith
wavesrefracting in or off as shear.Waves that travel such a thick layer as shearare
delayed sufficientlyin their time of arrival so that they do not interfere with waves
traveling as compressional.
The Pennsylvaniancarbonates("Penn lime") in the EdwardsPlateau countryof
West Texas reasonablysatisfy theseconditions.The "Penn lime" starts a carbonate
sequence2,000 to 3,000 ft thick extending through the Ellenburger. We will not
calculatethe effectsof the two low-velocityshalestringers(the 30-ft Mississippian
and the 60-ft stray formations).Above the "Penn lime" lie the homogeneous Per-
mian and Pennsylvanianshales,10,000ft thick. Arrivals at the surfacerefractingoff
the "Penn lime" as compressional wavesdo not sufferinterferenceby wavesrefract-
ing off as shear.
Above the Permian lies the sand and shalesof the Trinity, the limestoneof the
Comanche, and the Edwards limestone. The geologicmodel is given in Table 1.
The thicknessesand compressionalvelocities of the Permian and deeperformations
have been taken from the continuousvelocity log of the Magnolia Morrison well in
Val Verde County, Texas, near the border of Crockett County. The upper part of
the model is taken from the Delta-Gulf Lee well in Crockett County 20 miles north
of the Magnolia Morrison well. Compressionalvelocitiesare estimated and checked
against uphole plots. The shear velocities and densities are estimates based on
compressionalvelocitiesand lithologic descriptions.This sectionis south of the area
Table 1. Geologic model used in calculations, based on Edwards Plateau data

Compressionalvelocity Shear velocity Density Thickness
(ft/sec) (ft/sec) (gm/cm) (ft)
Valley model
Surface
16,000 9,920 2.5 25
12,000 7,510 2.4 85
16,000 9,950 2.5 100
9,000 5,580 2.3 25
12,000 7,750 2.4 10,000
18,000 --
Mesa model
Surface --
16,000 9,920 2.5 4O
11,000 6,820 2 35 6O
16,000 9,920 25 3O
12,000 7,400 24 100
16,000 9,920 25 125
12,000 7,500 24 85
16,000 9,920 25 100
9,000 5,580 23 25O
12,500 7,750 24 10,000
18,000 --
VALLEY MODEL
TYPICAL RAYS : iP,---S
SURFACE
6Off Edwards Lime
16,000 ft/sec
Comanche
85
" 12,000
250
9,000
'' \' Permian

o, ooo
Converted
///ect--pGhost
Waves
FIG. 3. Valley model assumedfor the sourcelocation. The rays shownillustrate

someof the waves computed.
of the Edwards Plateau country in which the Permian shelf (dolomitesand anhy-
drites) subcropsagainst the Trinity. The effectscalculatedhere would be enhanced
even more if the subcropwere includedin the model.
Our problem is to study the effect of layers in the Edwards limestone,Comanche,
and Trinity formations on the character of the refraction arrival from the Penn-
sylvanian limestone. These layers are shown plotted in Figure 3 for the valley
model, assumedfor the source,and in Figure 4 for the mesa model, assumedfor the
seismometer.
Relativeamplitudecalculation
The compressionalwave from the explosiontravels down through the Edwards
limestone,Comanche,and Trinity formations. At each interface part of the energy
is convertedinto shearwaveswhich travel down and at subsequentinterfacesare in
part converted back to compressionalwaves. The processis illustrated in Figure 3.
In the near-front approximationeach ray is traced separately,keeping track of the
time delay of converted waves behind the direct P wave (the wave that remained
compressionalall the way). The amplitude of each ray is computed and super-
imposedas outlined in the sectionentitled "Theory." The interest in this problem
is in the effect of the converted waves in forming the character of the Penn lime
refraction arrival. As such, only rays arriving within, say, a tenth of a secondof the
direct P wave need have their amplitudes calculated. The product of the downward
and upward transmissioncoefficientsand the resultant vertical amplitude control
the amplitude of the converted waves relative to the direct P wave and the char-
acter of the arrival.
MESA MODEL
TYPICAL RAYS'--P;---S
SURFACE SEISMOMETER
4Oft
--Edwards Lime
16,000 ft/sec
60
II, 000
30
16,000
I00
12,000
125 /
/ 16,000
.Comanche
85 12,000
I00 16,000
Trinity
250 / 9,000
/
/
Permian
I O, 000 12,500
Direct Converted
Waves
P Wave
Fro. 4. Mesamodelassumed
for the seismometer
location.A fewof the wavepathsthat
were computedhave been drawn on the figure.
Some6,000 rays were calculatedfor the given model, using a digital computer.
The result is mosteasilyshownby plotting the amplitudeof the convertedwavesat
their time of arrival relative to the amplitude of the direct P wave taken as unity.
We shallcall sucha plot the "impulseresponse."In the computerprogrameachray
is describedby an amplitude, time, path identification, and horizontal distance
traveled while goingdown and up. Each ray starts with unit amplitudeof displace-
ment potential. Since all waves involved travel essentiallythe same distance, no
attempt is made to computedifferencesin geometricalspreading.
The paths are determinedby requiringcompressional motion at the critical angle
in the Permian. A few paths for the sake of illustration have been drawn on the
valley model (Figure 3) and mesamodel (Figure 4). All possiblerays transmitting
down from the source or surface reflected above the source and then transmitted
downwerecomputed.All possibleup-transmittedwaveswerealsocomputed.
At the seismometer,the vertical and horizontal componentsof displacementare
computedfrom the potential and the angles.The resultant impulse responsesare
displayedin the bottom panelsof Figure 5. Rays arriving in the samemillisecond
have beensummed.Rays too small to showon the plot are omitted.
These impulse responsescontain no multiples defined as waves undergoingtwo
reflectionsand the critical refraction at the Pennsylvanianlimestone.One classof
multiples was computedand found to be too small to be plotted. This classwas
compressionalwavesreflectedfrom the surfaceas compressional, reflectedagain at
the Comanche-Trinityinterfaceas compressional, and then arriving at the receiver.
VERTICAL MOTION HORIZONTAL MOTION

IMPULSE RECORD
IMPULSE RECORD RESPONSE
RESPONSE COMPRESSIONAL
WAVE
ONLY
COMPRESSIONAL
WAVE
WITH
SURFACE
REFLECTION
COMPRESSIONAL
A ARRIVALS
T SEISMOMETER
SHEAR
,f,f, _ ARRIVALS
AT
SEISMOMETER ......../
COMPLETE
I)!./
SOLUTION
I-- O. IOO sec- I-O. IOO sec I O.I OOsec---t F--- O. IOO sec ----1
Fro. 5. The characterof the refractionarrivalis shownin the bottompanelsfor verticalandhori-

zontalmotion.
Theupperpanels analyze
thischaracter
byshowing thecontribution
by thewavethat
travels
ascompressional
allthewayfromthesource, theeffect
ofaddinga surface
reflection
abovethe
source,
thewavesthatarriveat theseismometer
ascompressional,
andthewaves thatarriveasshear.
We believetheshearmultiples
arelikewise
small,but wehavenotcalculated
their
amplitudes.
Multiples
areimportant
in reflection
prospecting
onthePlateau,but
thecalculation
withcompressional
multiples
leadsusto believethatwecanneglect
multiples
inrefractionprospecting.
Theremaining
amplitude factors
couldbecalcu-
lated,but,sincein thisproblem
weareinterested
in relativeeffects,
weshallnot
calculate them.
In principle
eachofthese
raysshould
beconvolved
withthesource
function
(re-
duceddisplacement
potential),the attenuation
operator,
andthe instrument
re-
sponse.
These
functions
arenotnormally
known
ingeophysical
prospecting.
Asis
donein synthetic
seismograms
forreflection
prospecting,
wewillsimplyassume
an
equivalent
excitation--equivalent
to thecombined
effects
of source,
attenuation,
and recordinginstrument.
As with theoretical
reflection
seismograms,
weshouldtry severalsuchfunctions
until a suitablefunction is found which convolveswith the impulseresponseto

produce a good match between theoretical and field records.Since recordsare not
available to us, we assumethe waveformshownin Figure 6 and considerthe re-
sultant theoreticalrecordstypical of field recordsobtainedon the Plateau.
Figure 5 shows the results of the convolution for both vertical and horizontal
motion. The first panel showsthe waveformthat would result if only the wave
travelingexclusivelyascompressional werepresent.Next, the compressional ghostis
added.The largeangleof incidenceon the surfacemakesit positive(seeIngram and
Hodgson,1956). The third and fourth panelsdisplay the wavesarriving at the
receiveras compressional and shear,respectively.The bottom panelgivesthe total
vertical and horizontal motion.
EXCITATION FUNCTION
-"---- O. 050 sec--,- 4 6 8 I0 20 30 60 I00

TIME FREQUENCY (cps)
Fro. 6. Excitationfunctionusedto convolvewith the impulseresponse

to
producea theoreticalseismogram.
We draw the following conclusionsfor the geologicmodel considered.From the

impulseresponses we seethat convertedwaves--wavesthat travel part of the dis-
tance as shear--make an important contribution to the character of the arrival.
Wavesarriving at the receiverasshearare moreimportant in formingthe character
than wavesarriving ascompressional.We concludethat the layeringabovea refrac-
tor can materially changethe character of the refraction arrival.
Resultsfor refractorwith structure

Having determinedthat the layeringabovea refractorcanmateriallychangethe
characterof the refractionarrival, we proceedto try to find a practical useof the
effect. We introducea structureinto the refractinghorizonas shownin Figure 7.
The anticline is asymmetricaland has been drawn to have 500 ft of closureover a
horizontaldistanceof 10,000ft. The structurecan extendup into the Permian,but
it is assumedabsentfrom the Trinity. These dimensionsgive the Pennsylvania
limestonea very gradualchangein slopeand, in a first approximation,the wavefront
in the Pennlime is assumedto followthisgradualchangewithout appreciablealtera-
tion. The wave will refract off at the critical angle, but the angle of the refracted
ray with respectto the horizontalvaries as the slopevaries acrossthe structure.
wn
O0
TW
WO
W
_jo
_..O_
Calculating the Amplitude
n.-Z

of Arrival

0.-
o
cD c
o.
135
The angleof incidenceat the baseof the Trinity now changeswith slopeof the
structure. Since the convertedwaves depend on this angle, the characterof the re-
fraction arrival is a function of the slope of the refractor. This characterchangeis
displayedin Figure7.
The rays that arrive at the seismometerhave refractedoff over an interval on the
refractor as shownin Figure 4. This interval changeswith the slopeof the structure
and has been marked with bracketsin Figure 7. The slopemust be essentiallycon-
stant over this interval for our waveformsto be valid. As can be seenin the drawing,
this conditionis easily satisfiedfor the uphill refractions.The interval becomesvery
large for the downhillrefractionsand althoughthe slopeis essentiallyconstantover
this large interval the waveformsbecomevery sensitiveto angle.If the angleis less
than 38.6 degreesthe wave in principleis totally reflectedby the Trinity formation
and no arrival is shown.Becauseof the large refraction interval and the sensitivity
to angle,the downhillwaveformscan only be consideredto representa trend.
The relationship between the refraction character and the structure is clearly
evident. On the uphill side, energyis shifted to earlier times, giving a very strong
secondleg. On the downhillsidethe energyis shifted to later times,increasingthird
and fourth legsuntil they are dominant. If the slopebecomessteepenough,the en-
tire refraction arrival disappears.Of course,the record would contain later arrivals
such as the reflectionfrom the Pennsylvanianlimestone.If they arrived too early
they might mask the effect describedhere. In principle, reflectionsbeyond the
critical angle,refractionsfrom deeperbeds,and internal reflected-refractions could
be includedin the analysisby developingmore elaborate calculationalprocedures
than thosegiven here. Model studiesby Laster (elsewherein this volume) have
shownthat structurescan focusand defocusthe wavesmaking significantchangesin
the amplitude of the arrival. No attempt hasbeenmade to calculatechangesof that
type.
CONCLUSION
The approximatetheoreticalsolution to the elastic-waveequationswith associ-

ated boundaryconditionsgivenin the sectionentitled "Theory" shouldbe a power-
ful analytical tool in geophysicalprospectingusing the refraction techniques.The
range of validity has beenworkedout and the calculationaltechniquesare straight-
forward enough to be applied in practical problems. The theoretical-experimental
comparisonsin the field of undergroundnuclear explosionsgive someconfidencein
the adequacy of the calculations.The example of the Edwards Plateau problem,
while not backed by experimentalwork, illustrates how the theory can be used as
an analysis tool. It remains to be seen whether or not synthetic seismogramsfor
refraction prospectingwill come into industry-wide use, as synthetic seismograms
for reflectionprospectinghave.
REFERENCES
Brekhovskikh,L. M., 1960, Waves in layeredmedia: New York, AcademicPress.

Futterman,W., 1962,Dispersive bodywaves:Jour.Geophys.Research,v. 67,p. 5279-5292.
Heelan, P. A., 1953,On the theory of head waves:Geophysics,
v. 18, p. 871-893.
Ingram, R. E., and Hodgson,J. H., 1956, Phasechangeof//' and p/ on reflectionat a free surface:
Bull. Seis.Soc.Am., v. 56, p. 203.
Knopoff, L., and MacDonald, G., 1958, Attenuationof small amplitudestresswavesin solids:Rev.
Modern.Physics, v. 30, p. 1178-1192.
Muskat, M., 1933, Theory of refractionshooting:Physics,v. 4, p. 14-28.
Nafe, J. E., 1957, Reflectionand transmissioncoefficientsat a solid-solidinterfaceof high velocity
contrast:Bull. Seis.Soc.Am., v. 47, p. 205-220.
O'Brien, P. N. S., 1960,The useof amplitudesin refractionshooting--acasehistory: Geophys.Prosp.,
v. 8, p. 417428.
Werth, G. C., Herbst, R. F., and Springer,D., 1962, Amplitudesof seismicarrivals from the M dis-
continuity:Jour. Geophys.Res.,v. 67, p. 1587-1610.
Werth, G. C., and Herbst, R. F., 1963, Comparisonof amplitudesof seismicwaves from nuclearexplo-
sionsin fourmediums:Jour. Geophys.Res.,v. 68, p. 1463-1475.
Zvolinskii,N. V., 1957, Reflectedand head wavesemergingat a plane interfaceof two elasticmedia:
1 Izv. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., Ser. Geofiz., v. 10, p. 1201-1218.
-- 1958, Reflectedwavesand head wavesarisingat a plane interfacebetweentwo elasticmedia:
2 Izv. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., Ser. Geofiz.,v. 1, p. 3-16.
REFRACTION ALONG AN EMBEDDED HIGH-SPEED LAYER
J. w. C. SHERWOOD*
ABSTRACT
Normalmodetheoryis appliedto investigatethe phenomenon of refractionalongan embedded high-

speedlayer.At anysinglefrequency aninfinitenumberofnormalmodesexist,eachofwhichis character-
ized by somepropagationconstant.The real and imaginaryparts of the propagationconstantrespec-
tively specifythe phasevelocityandattenuationconstantfor the disturbance.It is shownthat at low
frequenciesboth a symmetricand an antisymmetricunattenuatedmode exist. At higherfrequencies,
thesemodestransforminto attenuatedmodeswhich continuallyradiate energyfrom the layer into the
surrounding
medium.Somecomputedpropertiesof the symmetricattenuatedmodefor a specificset of
elasticparametersareconsistentwith modelseismic studies.The phasevelocitycurveexhibitsa distinct
plateauregionfor wavelengthsin the vicinityof threetimesthe layerthickness.In thisregionthe refrac-
tion velocitycorresponds
to that of extensional wavesin a thin plate whilethe attenuationis approxi-
mately 8 db per wavelength.
It seemsthat the simpleconceptof groupvelocityhaslittle physicalmeaningin this study.Group
velocitiesgreaterthan the P-wavevelocityare obtainedand cannotpossiblycorrespond
to the velocity
with which energyis propagated.
INTRODUCTION
The phenomenonof seismicwave refraction along a high-speedsolid layer em-

beddedin lower speedsolidmaterial is of considerableinterestin seismicexploration.
Unfortunately, however,seismologists have only a qualitative understandingof the
simplelaws governingsuchpropagation.It is evidently necessarythat this under-
standingmust becomefar more quantitative beforeit is possibleeven to approach
the extraction of the maximum amount of geologicinformation from seismicrefrac-
tion surveys.There appear to be two main methodsof approachto the problem.
The first, and the one which seemsto have met with most success thus far, involves
the pursual of model seismologyexperimentsin the laboratory. Some of the most
significantstudieswhich have been reportedin the literature have been performed
by Berckhemerand Oliver (1955), Davydova (1959), Lavergne(1961), Levin and
Ingram (1962), Osborneand Hart (1946), Parkhomenko(1958), Press,Oliver, and
Ewing (1954), and Riznichenko and Shamina (1959). The secondapproach to a
clear basic understandingof the problem under discussioninvolves studies of a
theoreticalnature. Relevantinvestigationshavebeenattemptedby Chopra(1957),
and more recently by Rosenbaum(1961). The work of the latter author is particu-
larly sophisticatedand producesrelatively simpleapproximatesolutionsin closed
form from whichinterestingfeaturesof the refractionsignalare predicted.It would
be valuable to conductthe equivalent model seismologyexperimentsand compare
the resultswith Rosenbaum'spredictions.
The theoreticalinvestigationto be describedhere differsfrom that completedby
Rosenbaum(1961), in that the high-speedlayer is embeddedin a uniform solid
* Chevron ResearchCompany,La Habra, California.

138
Embedded High-Speed Layer 139
mediumrather than a liquid. This complicates the theoreticalanalysissomewhat

and the final resultsare correspondingly lesssimpleto analyze.However,some
quantitativeresultsof interestwereobtainedrelativelyeasilyand they are appar-
ently compatiblewith resultsobtainedfrom model experiments.The theoretical
approachinvolvesthe investigationof the equationsfor the symmetricand anti-
symmetricnormal modesof propagation.Chopra (1957) alsoperformedsuchan
investigation.He, however,restrainedhis interestto thosemodespossessing real
propagationconstantsas a functionof frequency.Suchmodesdo not continuously
radiate energyaway from the layer and possess phasevelocitieslower than the
slowestsimpleshear-wave velocityin thesystem.Froman exploration pointof view,
however,we are dominantlyinterestedin waveswith propagationvelocitiesin the
regionof simpledilatationwavevelocityin the layer and with wavelengths of the
orderof thelayerthickness. Suchdisturbances mustradiateenergycontinuallyinto
the surrounding mediumandwill consequently exhibitattenuationasthe propaga-
tiondistancealongtherefractorincreases. A modewhichdescribes sucha phenome-
non must possess a complexpropagationconstant,the imaginary part of which
yieldsthe attenuationfactor. The followingsectionsare mainly concernedwith the
calculationof relevantcomplexmodesfor a high-speedrefractor.Althoughthe
detailedcomputationof suchcomplexmodesis not yet commonin theoreticalseis-
mology,somerelevant investigationshave been describedby Gilbert and Laster
(1962),Mindlin and Medick (1959), Oliver and Major (1960), Phinney(1961),
Rosenbaum(1960), and Sherwood(1958a, b).
MATHEMATICAL SPECIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
The modelunderconsideration
is illustratedin Figure 1. A localizedseismicsource
is locatedin medium1 at a heightH abovethe centerplaneof a high-speed
layerof
medium 2 with a thickness 2d. The dilatation and shear-wave velocities and the
densitiesfor the media1 and 2 are (a,/, m) and (a.,., p.),respectively.
The prob-
lem is to determinecharacteristics of the disturbancethat will be generatedat a
point situated a horizontal distancer from the sourcecenter and a vertical distance
z from the centerplane of the layer.
SOURCE DETECTOR
{O,-H) (r,z) ct,,,
d (o,o)
-- C2,
2, jO
2
d r
Fro. 1. The theoretical model.

The source
It is supposedthat the sourceis a rather idealized one from a seismicpoint of

view. An explosivechargeis detonatedat the center of a small cavity. Its radiusis
sufficientlylarge for the motion of the medium near the cavity to be predictedby the
linear laws of elasticity. It has been showntheoretically by othersthat for the low-
frequencycomponents,in which we are primarily interested,the radiated dilatation
potential,/x, has the form
/x = (A/L) exp (--ionLiar), A = -- S/ion, (1)
where S is an effective sourcemagnitude, L is distance measuredfrom the center of

the cavity, and ois an angular frequencycomponentof the Fourier spectrumassoci-
ated with the disturbance. The problem under considerationpossesses cylindrical
symmetry.Consequently,a solutionwill be facilitatedby expandingexpression (1)
into the cylindrical coordinatesystem(r,z) using Sommerfeld'sexpansion(Ewing,
Jardetzky, Press,1957, p. 13):
/x= A
{Jo(kr)exp[--(k2-- o2/a2)
TM[ z q- H I](k - w2/a)-/2kt
dk. (2)
In somerespectsit is convenient(see Sherwood,1960, p. 1674) to transformthe

integration variable to
k = (o/a) sin 0 = h sin 0,

(k - o/a) / -- ih cos0. (3)
Hereby expression(2) for the dilatation potential radiatedfrom the sourcereduces

to
/x= 2B{exp[--ihcos0I z q-/-/I 1/, (4)

where B representsan integral operator
B{}=(iA/2)
[Jo(hr
sin
O)h
sin
0{}]dO,
and C is a contourequivalentto the path from 0 to (,r/2) and from (,r/2) to [(,r/2)
Symmetric and antisymmetricvibrations

The investigation can be somewhatsimplifiedby splitting the problem into two
parts. Due to the symmetry of the geometryabout the plane (z--0) it is possibleto
decomposethe final disturbanceinto vibrations which are symmetric and antisym-
metric about this plane. This decompositionmay be accomplishedby the artifice of
first splitting the sourceat (O, --/-/) into two equal constituentsof strength(A/2)
and then suitably associatingthesewith two equal but oppositefictitioussourcesof
strength(A/2) and) --A/2) at the location(O,/-/).
Symmetricvibrations
The sourcesof strength(A/2) at the positions(O, --//) and (O,//) yield distur-
banceswhichare symmetricalabout the centerplane (z-0) of the high-speedlayer.
The total symmetric radiation in media 1 and 2 in the negative z region can be
expressedin terms of dilatation and rotation potentials (/x, W), (/x2,W2), respec-
tively. The displacementsw and q parallel and perpendicularto the z axis are given
by Ewing, Jardetzky,and Press(1957,p. 9) as
q = (oa/Or) + (oW/Oz)
and
w = (oa/oz) - (6)
whereit is to be understoodthat equations(6) are valid when either the subscript1
or 2 is given to eachof the variables.
In order to satisfy the boundary conditionsof continuity of displacementand
stressat the interface (z---d) it can be shownafter sometediousoperationsthat
the potentialsmust take the followingform:
/x= B{exp[--ihcos0I z q-//I ] q- C exp[ihcosOz]},
W = [OB/Or]
{ D exp[ikcoskz]},
A.= B{E cosh[ih.cosO.z]},
W.= [OB/Or]
{F sinh[ik.cosk.z]}. (7)
In these equations
cO= hlOtl = ha. = kl/l = k5,
and
(sin 01/o/1)= (sin 0./a.) = (sin lkl//l) = (sin (8)

The functions C, D, E, and F are rather complex in form and are solutions of the
following matrix equation'
C exp (--ih cosOd) --1
kD exp (--ik coskd) cos 0

(M)
E
exp[--ih cos0(H-- d)], (9)
-- cos 2k
k.F (2/a) cos0
where
1 COS -cosh X -cos b.cosh Y ]
cos0 --sin 0 sin k -- cos 02 sinh X --sin 0 sin b.sinh Y
(M) = , (o)
cos2b - 2 sin2bcos p2cos2b2
cosh
X 2-2 sin2
b2
cos
b.
cosh
Y
P P
2g
-- cos 0 cos 2 . cos0 sinh X cos2 sinh Y
and
X = ih. cosO.d, Y = ik. cosk2d.
By solvingequations(9) for C and substitutingthe resultsinto (7) it is readily seen

that the symmetric componentof the dilatation in medium 1 is
ZX-B{exp
[--ihcos0[zq-H[]q-([N]/[M])exp[-ih cosO(H--z--2d)]}.
(11)
In this equation, the determinant [N] is identical with the determinant [M] except
that minus signsare inserted prior to the first and third elementsin the first column
of the array. The first term in equation (11) is merely a direct arrival from the
sourceand is of no particular interest. Part of the secondterm, however, expresses
the influenceof the high-speedlayer. It containsthe symmetrical vibrations that are
refracted along the layer prior to being radiated away as dilatation. It is the main
purposeof this paper to investigate this particular refraction phenomenonand hence
the secondterm in equation(11) will be denotedby
ZX8
= B{([NIl[M])exp [-ih cos0(H- z- 2d)]}. (12)
It should be noted that the main contributions to As will occur when [M]=0 and
this constitutesthe so-callednormal modeequationfor symmetricvibrations.
A ntisymmetricvibrations
Theseare initiated by the sourcesof strength(A/2) and (-A/2) at the positions
(0, --H) and (0, H), respectively.By analogywith equation(12) the antisymmetric
disturbanceswhich are refracted along the layer and then radiated as dilatation are
contained in
ZX.4
= B{([Q]/[P])exp[-ih cos0(H- z - 2d)]}. (13)
The determinant[P] is identicalwith [M] [see(10)] exceptthat (cosh)is everywhere
replacedby (--sinh) and vice-versa.Also[Q]is formedfrom [P] by merelychanging
the sign of the first element in each of the first and third rows. Finally the equation
[P] =0 is the normal modeequationfor antisymmetric vibrations.
SO.UTONS OF TI NO}A. OI) (UAOmS
There is considerablepractical interest in the phenomenonof refraction in cases

where the layer thickness is of the order of a wavelength or less, and where the
refractionpath is a large numberof wavelengthsin extent. As Rosenbaum(1961,
p. 3900) remarked,"The responseat the detectoris bestdescribedas an interference
phenomenonand the use of a modal type of analysisis indicated." The obvious
placeto commencethis analysisis with the investigationof the rootsof the normal
mode equations([M]=0, [P]=0), particular emphasisbeing directed to the low-
frequencyregionwherethe normalizedfrequencyfZis givenby
= (cod/a.)_< 1. (14)
Such an investigation has to be well planned as at any singlefrequency there are an

infinite number of both symmetric and antisymmetric modes.Fortunately only a
small number of these would be expected to be significant at low frequenciesand

large ranges,thesebeing the onespossessing the lowestattenuation factors.
In view of the above remarks it was decided to first determine the asymptotic
behavior of the modes at the very low frequencies --0. The modes of obvious
significance,namely those with lowest attenuation, would then be selectedand their
behavior evaluated at higher values of the normalized frequency.
When the normalizedfrequency2in (14) tendsto zerothe solutionsof the normal
modeequations([M]-0, [P]=0) become
cosh(2ix)q- [(G - H)/2] sinh(2ix) (H/2)(2ix) O, (15)
where
G = (2fi/a)[ 1 q- (p,t2//p2t2
2)[(ot2//
2)-- 1]},
H-=- [1 -- (/22/0t22)][1
-- (p2/22//pl/12)]{2-
[1 -- (pl/12/p2/22)][1
--
and
x = exp (i02).
Where the choiceof sign occursin equation (15) the upper and lower signspertain
to the symmetricand antisymmetricmodes,respectively.Equation (15) has been
investigated for the specificcasewhere
(a,//,) = (a/)= 3'/, (pv.//pl)= 1.2, (ot2/Otl)-=-(/2//1) = 1.5,
which leads to G= .91358 and H-- 1.79094. At low values of g the only solutions
which infer unattenuated propagationin the horizontal direction are'
Symmetric: x .4870i/2 or 0.= (,r/2) -- iln (.4870/2)
(16)
Antisymmetric: x - 2.6277i/g or 0.= (,r/2) -- iln (2.6277/).
At thesevanishingly small values of , the remaining infinities of modeseach possess

a large complexor real value for x. The correspondingcomplexpropagation angles
have real parts which are not (,r/2) and imaginary parts which are large. Hence
energy will be continuouslyradiated away from the layer and there will be a strong
attenuationalongthe layer (seeSherwood,1958a,p. 208).
Unattenuated modes
Insertioninto equations(8) of the solutionsfor 02in equations(16) showsthat the

correspondingcomplexpropagationangles,0 and k,in medium 1 alsopossessvalues
of (,r/2) for the real parts and large negativevaluesfor the imaginary parts. This
means that the energy "radiated" from the high-speedlayer is, for these particular
modes,propagatingparallel to the layer and is increasingin amplitude exponentially
with distancefrom the layer (see Figure 2a and equation (12); also see Sherwood,
1958a, p. 208). The modesare analogousto the abnormal part of the Rayleigh-wave
solution for a homogeneousand isotropic half-space, in which the disturbance
increasesexponentially with depth and is unattenuated in the direction of propaga-
tion. Obviously, such modesare not pertinent to our study sincethey cannot pos-
DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION
zr
WAVE-/ '
FRONT
a) UNATTENUATED
MODE b) ATTENUATED
MODE
Fo. 2. Amplitude variation of modes.
sibly be excitedby a physicallyrealizablesource.However,it appearssignificant

that if the real partsof the propagationangles,0,, wereto departslightlyfrom the
valueof (r/2), thena modewouldexhibitbehaviormoretypicalof refraction.The
amplitudeof vibrationwouldbe slightlyattenuatedin the directionof propagation
and a resultingradiatedwave wouldhave an amplitudevariation alongits wave-
front similarto that depictedin Figure2b. It mustbe emphasized that sucha mode
wouldbe analogousto the infinity of complexmodesdiscussed after equation(16).
It appears,however,that a distinguishingfactor might be a relatively low attenua-
tion constant,which would permit a modeto persistwith a reasonableamplitude
over a relatively large propagation distance.It thereforeseemsdesirableto investi-
gate the frequencybehaviorof the unattenuatedmodesin moredetail, with the main
objectiveof determiningif they eventuallyconvertinto slightlyradiativemodes.
A morerefinedanalysisof the unattenuatedmodeswas first performedanalyti-
cally. Sincethe resultsappearedinteresting,this analysiswassubsequently extended
by meansof more detailednumericalcomputationson an IBM 704. The detailed
behaviorof the unattenuatedmodesis displayedby meansof the light solidlines
in Figures
3 and4. It istobenoted thateach
mode turnsaroundat some
upper
frequency
limit.At these points,
attenuatedmodesareexpectedtooriginate
(Sher-
wood,1958b),which will,ingeneral,
radiate
energy
fromthelayer.
Attenuated modes
The symmetricand antisymmetric

attenuatedmodeswhichbranchout from the
turnaround pointsof theunattenuated modeswereinvestigated by means of an
additionaI
IBM 704program. Theirbehaviorisdisplayed
in Figures 3 and4 where
significant
quantities
derivedfromthepropagationangle02areplottedasa function
ofthenormalizedfrequency2.Thequantities
[1/R(sin02)]and[-- I(sin02)]havethe
following
physicalsignificance.
A single
frequencycomponent coofamode propagat-
inginthex direction
willpossess
adependence
ont andx givenby
exp{ico
[t- (xsin02/c.)
]} = exp{ico
It - (x/c)]- coxa}, (17)
where the quantities
(c/a2) = 1/R(sin 02)
and
aa.= -/(sin 02) (18)
PHASE
VELOCITY
I _ C
FIRST
I
ATTENUATED
MODE
.8
........ FREE
mm
PLATE
mmm mm mmm mm
.4
'-UNATTENUATED
MODE
,0,:'(wd/a2):
.5 1.5 2 2.5 .0
0
-I (sinO
2 )=a0[2
.8
ATTENUATION
CONSTANT
Fro. 3. Symmetricalmodes.
PHASEVELOCITY
1.2

1.0 _ R!sin2)02
.8
.6 FIRST
ATTENUATED
ODE
.4 ___:.
....... .....
.2 - NUATED
IODE
0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

:(d/O 2) =(2d/)t)
.2,..
.4
.6i.
..
.8i,, i1
1.0 ).

...'";::TTENUATION
OF
SECOND
MODE
-I (sin2)=o 2 ..'
1.2
ATTENUATION
CONSTANT
Fro. 4. Antisymmetric modes.
are, respectively, the phase velocity and attenuation constant normalized to the
velocity
The symmetric mode in Figure 3 exhibits two interesting plateau levels at phase
velocitiesof approximately.94 and 1.01 times P-wave velocity, a2,in the high-speed
layer. Also shownis the first symmetric mode of the high-speedlayer situated in a
vacuum. It is to be especiallynoted that the first plateau level of the symmetric
attenuated mode possesses essentiallythe samephasevelocity as the thin isolated
plate. It alsoseemssignificantthat the attenuationfactor (aw) [seeequations(17)
and (18)] remainsfairly constantover this plateauregion.In other wordsone might
expect approximately nondispersivepropagation over the normalized frequency
range for which the first plateau persists.
The dominant attenuated antisymmetric mode of Figure 4 does not display
particularly distinctive characteristics.Perhapsthe most notable feature is its close
resemblancewith the phasevelocity of the first antisymmetricmodefor an isolated
layer.
The frequencyvariation of the attenuation constantis noteworthy. For each of
the dominant attenuated modesit risesrapidly from zero to a maximum, and then
returns gradually towards zero. Due to the rather high-maximum attenuation
Embedded High-Speed Layer' t47
valuesit seemsonly reasonableto checkthat the higher order attenuated modesdo

not actually possess
a lower or comparableattenuation.
The asymptoticlow-frequencybehavior of the secondsymmetricand antisym-
metric modesis given very approximately by
symmetric' sin 03 (2.8 - 3.60/
(19)
antisymmetric' sin 03 (0.0 - 1.60/
The attenuation constantof this secondantisymmetricmodeis roughlyplotted as
dotted line in Figure , and is considerablylarger than the attenuation constantfor
the first mode.Also,the attenuationof the secondsymmetricmodeis solarge that it
doesnot evenfall within the plotting rangeof Figure 3. It appears,therefore,that
the first symmetricand antisymmetricmodesdo indeedpossess a significantlylower
attenuation than the higher order modesand that they shoulddominate at large
ranges.
In order to obtain a more quantitative appreciationof the propagationcharac-

teristics of the first-order modes it appears reasonableto estimate their group
velocity. Using a definitionof U= (&o/Ok)for group velocity, where k is the wave-
number in the direction of propagation,we obtain
(a/U)
= 0(w sin 0)/0w
= sin 03-3-c0(0sin 0/0w).
(20)
The normalizedgroupvelocitiesfor the unattenuatedmodesare drawn in Figure
5. The variationsare somewhatalarming,particularlythe excursions into velocities
greaterthan the P-wave velocity,a, in the high-speed
layer. Evidently, groupveloc-
ity cannotbe equivalentto energyvelocityin this instanceand this is apparentlyin
conflictwith a theoremdue to Blot (1957). Possiblythis discrepancyis due to the
fact that the amplitudesof the modesincreaseexponentiallywith distancefrom the
layer, a situation which is not completely realizable.
The problem of a meaningful definition for group velocity in the case of an
attenuated mode also presentsa problem. Someauthors (Oliver and Major, 1960;
Gilbert and Laster, 1962) appear to have obtained not unreasonableresults by
essentiallyignoringthe presence of the attenuationfactor.On the otherhand,others
who have employed this same apparently plausible approach have come to con-
siderablegrief. Suchan operation,in fact, onceproducedan apparentconflictwith
Einstein'stheory of relativity and arousedconsiderablecontroversyearly in this
century.A very interestingaccountof this subjecthas recentlybeenproducedby
Brillouin (1960). It only remainsto say that neglectionof the modal attenuation
factorsin the problemunder investigationhere doeslead to groupvelocitiesgreater
than a. Application of methodsdevelopedby Phinney (1961) and Rosenbaum
(1960) wouldcorrectthis situation.The procedureconsistsof extendingthe numeri-
cal analysisto solvingthe normal mode equationsfor complexrather than merely
real values of frequency.The solutionseffectively definesurfaces,the saddlepoints
!
u NORMALIZED
CROUP
VELOCITY
ANTISYMMETRIC
MODE
NORIALIZED
FREQUENCY,
-4
MODE
-8 I
I
I
I
-12
Fro. 5. Groupvelocitiesof unattenuatedmodes.
of which provide the main contributions to the refraction phenomenon.The com-

plexity of the necessary
numericalcomputationscan,however,readily be imagined
and this author did not feel inclined to initiate them. In fact, he is convinced that
there must be a simplerand lessexpensivemethod of obtaining a satisfactorysolu-
tion to the problem.
In view of the physicallyimpossiblebehavior of the computed"approximate"
groupvelocities,it wasdecidedinadvisableto proceedany further with evaluations
of the integrals(5) (12) and (13) for the first symmetricand antisymmetricmodes.
Also, rather than immediately pursuea more accuratemethod of solution,it was
decidedto concentrateon correlatingdistinctive featuresof the calculatedmodes
with resultsgainedfrom experimentalstudies.
CORRELATIOH OF THEORY WITH EXPERIIEEHT
The model seisinologyexperimentsof Lavergne (1961) and Riznichenkoand

Shamina(1959), plusthe field data of O'Brien (1960), haveprovidedvaluablequan-
titative data on refractionalong a high-speedlayer. Three particularly significant
variableshave beenevaluatedas a function of the layer thickness,2d, normalizedto
the wavelength,X, of a/' wavein the layer. This ratio is relatedto the normalized
frequency,9, discussed earlierby
EmbeddedH igh-SpeedLayer 149
(2d/?,) = (2dw/2m)= (2/r). (21)

Two of the experimentallydeterminedvariablesare simplythe signalvelocityand
an attenuationfactor for the refraction.The third variable is the intercept time
obtainedby the extrapolationof a time versusoffsetplot to zerooffset.
Signal velocity
Lavergne's(1961)data is replottedin modifiedformin Figure6 togetherwith the
theoretically determined phase velocity for the first symmetric attenuated mode.
Strictly speakingwe shouldnot anticipate goodagreement.In the first place the
theoretical computationswere performed for a model with elastic parameters
differingconsiderablyfrom thoseemployedby Lavergne.Secondly,the theoretical
phasevelocity is plotted rather than a signal or energy velocity. However, this
shouldnot be a major drawbackover the frequencyregionswherethere is relatively
low velocity dispersion.Inspectionof Figure 6 shows,in fact, that not unreasonable
agreementoccursover the low-dispersionregionfrom (2d/X) =0.2 to 1.0. The main
differenceis a shift in frequencyof the transitionregionfrom thin-plate velocity to
infinite medium velocity.
Attenuationalonga thin refractor

Lavergne(1961) and Riznichenkoand Shamina(1959) have made measurements
which enablethe computationof attenuation coefficients for refractionsalong thin
high-velocity layers. The results of these authors indicate attenuation values of
approximately6 and 7 db per wavelength,respectively.The theoreticaldecaylaw
givenby equations(17) and (18) is
exp[-(wx/c)I(-sin 0.)]= exp[-2,r(x/X)I(-sin 0.)], (22)
VELOCITY
(12
Cp
i
!
i
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
is thinplatevelocity. (2d/X)
,
are Lavergnes data points.
Fro. 6. Comparison
of the theoreticaland observed
velocitydispersion
of the dominant
symmetricmode.
which yields an attenuation of

A (decibels
per_Pwavelength)
= {2012rI(--sin
0.)]log0
e}
= 54[--I(sin 0.)].
Since0.16 is the averagevalue of [-I(sin 0.)]over the first plateau regionfor the
symmetric mode in Figure 3, the theoretically predicted attenuation is approxi-
mately 8 db per wavelength.This is in satisfactoryagreementwith the resultsof the
model experiments,especiallywhen one considersthat the differencesin the elastic
parameters may significantly affect the relative radiation efficienciesof the layers.
It should also be noted that this theoretical value for the attenuation is quite
compatible with actual seismic refraction measurementsperformed by O'Brien
(1960). He obtained a compositeattenuation of about 9 db per wavelength,which,
upon removalof the cylindricalspreadingeffect,yieldsa residualfigureof about 7 db
per wavelength.
An additional experimentalobservationis that, for values of (2d/X)>.06, an
increasein the layer thicknessproducesa decreasein the attenuation per unit dis-
tance of a selected frequency component. Inspection of the attenuation factor
[--I(sin02)] in Figure 3 showsthat theory and experimentare completelycompatible
in this respect.
Intercept time
Lavergne (1961) extrapolatedhis refractionpicks to zero offsetfrom the source
and measuredthe intercept time. This measurementwas performed for a range of
valuesof the layer thicknessto wavelengthratio, (2d/X). Theseexperimentalvalues,
however,differednoticeably from intercept times, T, calculatedin the conventional
manner using the formula
T = (2///a) cos0,
where (23)
sin 0 = a/c.
Here is it assumedthat both the sourceand detector are a distance H from the upper
surface of the refractor. The propagation angle of the dilatation head wave, 0, is
supposedto be real, while c representsthe velocity of the refracted wave. It is
important to note, however,that equations(23) are actually only approximations.
The actual angle of propagation is, in our nomenclature, 0, and this is in general
complex.It is related by equations(8) to the modal parametersplotted in Figures
3 and 4. The real part of 0 specifiesthe direction of propagationof the dilatation in
the upper medium. The imaginary part of 0, however,implies that the wave velocity
is actually lessthan a (see Sherwood,1958a, p. 208). If the complexnature of this
angle0 is taken into accountit is a simplematter to showthat the intercept time is
actually given more accurately by
r = (24)
It wasinitially hopedthat the useof formula (24) in placeof formula (23) would
resolvethe discrepancybetweenLavergne'scomputedand experimentally observed

intercept times. Unfortunately this turned out not to be the caseand the discrepancy
is actually increasedby a slight amount.
CONCLUSION
It has been shown how attenuated normal mode theory accountsfor the main
featuresobservedin experimentalstudiesof refraction along a high-speedlayer. The
theory showssatisfactoryagreementwith experiment for the variation of the phase
velocity and the attenuation with the thickness-to-wavelengthratio. On the other
hand it appearsthat satisfactoryvaluesfor the energyor signalvelocitiesat very low
frequenciescannot be derived usingthe analysisemployedhere. From this point of
view it would seem advantageousto reanalyze the problem employing either the
techniquesof Phinney (1961) and Rosenbaum(1961), or someother comprehensive
method.
REFERENCES
Berckhemer,H., and Oliver, J., 1955,Zur Deutungseismischer Einsitzemit parallelenLaufzeitkurven:

Zeitschriftfiir Geophysik,v. 21, p. 152-164.
Biot, M. A., 1957, Generaltheoremson the equivalence of groupvelocityand energytransport:Phys.
Rev., v. 105,p. 1129-1137.
Brillouin,L., 1960,Wave propagationand groupvelocity:New York, AcademicPress.
Chopra,S. D., 1957,The rangeof existence of Stonelywavesin an internalstratum:Royal Astron.Soc.
Monthly Notices,Geophys.Supp.,v. 7, p. 257-270and p. 338-346.
Davydova,N. I., 1959,On the dependence of the amplitudeof longitudinalheadwaves,associated with
thin layers,from the velocitycontrastof the media:Bull. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., Geophys.Ser. (English
Translation),p. 462-468.
Ewing, W. M., Jardetzky,W. S., and Press,F., 1957,Elasticwavesin layeredmedia:New York, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Gilbert, F., and Laster, S. J., 1962, Experimentalinvestigationof PL modesin a singlelayer: Bull.
Seism.Soc.Am., v. 52, p. 59-66.
Lavergne,M., 1961,Model studyof the thin bed problemin seismicrefraction:Geophy.Prosp.,v. 9, p.
60-73.
Levin, F. K., and Ingram, J. D., 1962,Head wavesfrom a bed of finite thickness:Geophysics,
v. 27, p.
753-765.
Mindlin, R. D., and Medick, M. A., 1959, Extensionalvibrationsof elasticplates: ASME Trans. (J.
App. Mech.), v. 81 E, p. 561-569.
O'Brien,P. N. S., 1960,The useof amplitudesin refractionshooting--Acasehistory:Geophys.Prosp.,v.
8, p. 417-428.
Oliver, J., and Major, M., 1960,Leakingmodesand the PL phase:Bull. Seism.Soc.Am., v. 50, p. 165-
180.
Osborne,M. F. M., and Hart, S. D., 1946,Transmission, reflectionand guidingof an exponentialpulseby
a steelplatein water: J. Acoust.Soc.Am., v. 18, p. 170-184.
Parkhomenko, I. S., 1958,Model experiments for studyingthe traversalof a headwave througha high
velocitylayer:Bull. Acad.Sci.U.S.S.R.Geophys. Ser.(EnglishTranslation),p. 111-117.
Phinney, R. A., 1961, Leaking modesin the crustal wave guide. Part 1: The oceanicPL wave: Jour.
Geophys.Res.,v. 66, p. 1445-1469.
Press,F., Oliver, J., and Ewing, M., 1954,Seismicmodelstudy of refractionsfrom a layer of finite thick-
ness:Geophysics, v. 19, p. 388-401.
Riznichenko,Yu. V., and Shamina,O. G., 1959, Elastic wavesin layersof finite thickness:Bull. Acad.
Sci.U.S.S.R. Geophys.Ser. (EnglishTranslation),p. 231-243.
Rosenbaum,J. H., 1960, The long time responseof a layered elasticmedium to explosivesound:Jour.
Geophys.Res.,v. 65, p. 1577-1613.
1961,Refractionarrivalsalonga thin elasticplate surrounded by a fluid medium:Jour. Geophys.
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Sherwood,J. W. C., 1958a,Elasticwave propagationin a semi-infinitesolidmedium:Phys. Soc.Proc.
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1673-1684.
THE EFFICIENT USE OF LARGE CHARGES
P. N. S. O'BRIEN*
ABSTRACT
It is shownthat, up to a certainlimiting weight,the seismicamplitudefrom undergroundexplosions

increases in directproportionto the weightof chargefired. Abovethis limit the amplitudesoonbecomes
closelyproportionalto the cuberoot of the chargeweight.It followsthat if weightsgreaterthan this limit,
whichis commonly200-300 lb, are to be fired, it is moreefficientto divide the chargeinto severalpor-
tions,eachwell separatedfrom its neighbor.This appliesboth to surfaceand to buried charges.
The limiting weight dependson the elasticpropertiesat the shotpointand on the predominantfre-
quenciesin the observedrefractedpulse.It may be foundby experiment,or lessprecisely,by calculation.
The calculatedlimit for buried shotsis obtained from the equationW /a= Vo/(2rKf), where W is the
limiting weight in pounds,Vo is the velocityat the shotpointin ft/sec, f is the highestfrequencyof
interestin cps(say,twicethe predominantfrequency),and K is a constantwhichdependson rock type
and is usuallybetween3.5 and 4.5.
It is shownwhy underwaterexplosions are usually moreefficientthan undergroundexplosions, and
Table 2 givestheseefficiencies as a functionof chargeweight and frequencyband.
Becausesurfacechargesgeneratea large amount of shear-waveenergythey may causethe wave SPP
to be recordedwith large amplitudeand may, therefore,presentan interpretationhazard.
INTRODUCTION
In long-distancerefraction surveys the weight of charge for a single shot is com-

monly a few hundred poundsand may reach a few thousand. The cost of the ex-
plosive, therefore, forms a large part of the cost of the survey, and any technique
designedto reduce its consumptionis worth consideration.It is the purposeof this
article to summarize what is known about the generation of seismicwaves by explo-
sions and to indicate optimum proceduresfor obtaining the maximum seismic
amplitude from a given weight of charge.
Researchinto the generation of seismicwaves by explosionsis being vigorously
carried out by atomic weaponsauthorities throughout the world. Most of their re-
sultsseemto be publishedin the openliterature, and so,parts of this paper may soon
be outdated. However, the broad outlines of the theory are now understood,and it
seemsworthwhile to review briefly the present position.
In the following sectionswe discussundergroundshots, underwater shots, and
shots fired on or above the ground surface. Becausethey are the most common, the
major part of the paper is concernedwith undergroundshots.
Except whereotherwisestated, the experimentalresultsquotedhave beenobtained
at the British Petroleum Research Laboratories.
UNDERGROUND EXPLOSIONS
The basic conceptneededfor understandingthe relationshipsbetweena properly

tamped chargeand seismicamplitudewas introducedby Sharpe(1942a). He postu-
lated an imaginary surface surrounding the charge, inside of which the elastic
stressesare so great that the rock shattersif it is very brittle and suffersplastic flow
* British PetroleumCompanyLtd., Middlesex,England.
152
Efficient Use of Large Charges 153
if it is very soft. For most rocks,no doubt, both shattering and flow will take place.
Outside this surface, which is usually called the equivalent radiating surface, the
stressesare small enoughto apply infinitesimal elastic wave theory. Sharpe went on
to solvethe problemof the wave motion due to an arbitrary radial stressapplied to
the surfaceof suchan equivalent radiator, which he assumedto be spherical.Later
(Sharpe,1942b), he made somepioneermeasurementscloseto the shot which con-
firmed the major conclusionsof his theoretical analysis. Sharpe'sanalysiswas for a
rock with a Poisson'sratio of 0.25. Blake (1952) extendedthe theory to cover all
valuesof Poisson'sratio. This wasa very necessarystep as many near-surfacesedi-
mentary rocks have a Poisson'sratio of about 0.4, and even higher values are not
uncommon.
The above-quotedtheoriesare for a sphericalradiator and apply only to a spher-

ical chargedetonatedin its centre and completelysurroundedby a homogeneous,
isotropicrock. In the field there are grossdeparturesfrom this idealizedgeometry.
Theeffects
of these
departures
willbediscussed
later,butit maybenotedstraight
away that they are not very important in refraction shooting.
In order to use thesetheoriesto computethe seismicpulseproducedby an explo-
sion, it is necessaryto know the elastic propertiesof the rock and the form and
amplitudeof the radial stressexertedon the surfaceof the equivalentradiator. The
former may be obtainedfrom the seismicvelocities,or may be guessed.The latter,
whichis usuallyreferredto as the limiting stress,is muchmoredifficultto determine,
and no direct measurementsof it have yet been published.A knowledgeof the
absoluteamplitudeof the limiting stressis not particularly important, but a knowl-
edgeof its time variation, or shape,is vital, as this determinesthe manner in which
the seismicamplitude varies with the weight of chargefired.
There are two methodsfor estimating the shapeof the limiting stress.The first
is to argue a priori from the known shapeof the stressdistribution producedby an
explosionin an infinitely rigid medium. The secondis to argue a posterJorifrom
the observedstresspulseat small distancesoutsidethe equivalentradiator.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of pressurealong the length of a detonating
cylindrical charge, which is completelyconfinedby a rigid container. It is an
idealized figure drawn from theory, but its main features are not in doubt and
strongexperimentalconfirmationhas beenprovidedby Ito and Sassa(1962), who
measuredthe pressureat the chargesurfacedue to a water-tampedexplosion.One
of their recordsis shownin Figure 2.
The initial peak pressuredue to an explosionfar exceedsthe strengthof the rock,
whichprobablyfails morelike a liquid flowingthan a solidcracking.This peakpres-
sure rapidly losesamplitude, and the compressireforce soonbecomeslessthan the
compressirestrengthof the rock, which continuesto fail due to the large tangential
tensile stresses(hoop stresses)which accompanythe sphericalpropagationof a
compressirewave. A few feet from a one-lb charge the tensile stressesdecrease
to just below the tensilestrengthof the rock and this probablydefinesthe surface
of the equivalentradiator. From there on, elasticwave theory may be applied.The
gasesfrom the explosionexpandinto the cavity formed by the initial impulseand
causean amount of plasticflow, whichis naturally greaterfor the softerrocks,and
SURFACE OF UNDETONATED CHARGE
ATION PRESSURE,P
I.SxlO5
0.4XlO5
I
I
j ,
.577
FRACTION OF TOTAL DETONATED LENGTH
Fro. 1. Variation of pressurealonglength of a confineddetonatingcharge

(after Brown, 1956,usedby permission).
at the sametime tend to eject the tampingmaterial. On the surfaceof the equivalent
radiator, the initial pressureis probably greater than the later pressuredue to the
expandinggasesand will still be largely impulsivewith a duration very much less
than the width of the observedseismicpulse.The pressurein the gaseswill decay
due to movement of the tamping material, but, unlessthe chargeis so closeto the
surface that the tamping is rapidly ejected, it will not change much over times
comparable with the duration of the seismicpulse. The decay time constant will
dependprimarily upon the weight of explosiveand the nature of the rock and will,
perhaps,be of the orderof one-halfsecfor a chargeof 100-11; weight.
.oxoS(o t.)
TIHEHARK50
Fro. 2. Pressure
closeto a water-tampedcharge(fromIto and Sassa,1962,usedby permission).
Figure 3a shows a dilatational pulse detected 10 ft from a one-lb. chargeex-

ploded in a soft sandstone.Blake's analysisshowsthat the secondhalf-period, T, of
such a pulse does not depend much upon the shape of the limiting stressbut is
given approximately by the equation
T = Ora/V) (1 -- a) (1 -- 2a)-,
where
a = radius of equivalent radiator,

V = velocity of irrotational (P) waves,
a = Poisson's ratio.
The valuesof T, V, and a are known, and so a value for a may be computed. For the
example in Figure 3a, it is found to be 3.8 ft. This is the radius of the equivalent
radiator. From the observedshape of the dilatational pulse at 10 ft the shape of
the radial stressmay be calculated at the surfaceof the equivalent radiator. Figure
3b showsthis calculated radial stress'it is not a reliable picture, becausethe neces-
sary integrationsdepend rather critically on the preciseform of the observedpulse,
but it servesto show consistencybetween predicted and observedstresses.
In order to predict how the seismicsignal varies with the weight of chargefired,
we need to know how the limiting stressand the size of the equivalent radiator vary
with weight of charge. If we know these, then Blake's theory may be applied to
compute exactly the variation in the seismicpulse. The amplitude of the limiting
stresswill remain constant,for this is determinedby the tensilestrength of the rock.
The variation in the size of the equivalent radiator and in the pulse width may be
found by using scalinglaws. There seemsto be no discussionof the derivation of
theselaws in the open literature, but it can easily be shownby dimensionalanalysis
that, for a given type of explosivein a homogeneousrock, (1) the volume of the
radiator is proportional to the weight of chargefired and (2) the time scaleof the
15
o IO
z
DECAYING SLOWLY
FROM HERE ON
' o
TIME IN MILLISECONDS
Fro. 3. (a) Observedmeancompression 10 ft from a one-lbchargein softsandstone.

(b) Estimated radial stresson surfaceof the equivalentradiator.
16
14
0 0'1 0'2 0.3 0'4 0'5 0'6
CUBE ROOT OF WEIGHT OF CHARGE IN POUNDS
Fro. 4. Cavity sizein clayasa functionof chargeweight.
stress
pulseisproportional to thecuberootof theweightof charge,providedthat the
factor (distance/W/3) is kept constant.
It isnotpossible
to measure
directlythesizeof theequivalent
radiator,butmeas-
urements havebeenmadeof thesizeof thecavityproduced by an explosion,
and
Figure 4 showsone such set of results.
The cavity radius,R, is givenby the equation
R = BW TM
whereB depends bothonthetypeof rockandonthenatureof theexplosive. Values

of B for differentrocktypesaregivenin Table1 for high-detonation-rate
explosives
of thetypemostcommonly usedin seismic
prospecting.It maybeassumed that a,
the radiusof the equivalentradiator,is two or threetimesas largeas R and is
directly proportional to it.
Table 1. Cavitysizeasa functionof rock type.Radiusin feet

=B(Weight of chargein pounds)/a.
Rock Ranier Soft Firm Soft

type tuff Granite2 Chalk
a ChalkLimestone sandstone
clay clay
----- 0.3-0.8 0.46 0.43-0.870.70 0.3-1.0 1.3 1.2 1.0
Johnson
et al, 1958.=Atchison
andTournay,1959.aDuvallandAtchison,
1957.
12
SUFFIX GIVES NUMBER OF OBSEFVATIONS

u IO
z
o 0
m 8
-- 7
,/
uJ 4
0 0'5 I-0 1'5 2-0 2-5 3-0 3'5 4 0
CUBE ROOT OF WEIGHT OF CHARGE IN POUNDS
FIG. 5. Variationin pulsewidth in soft sandstone

with weightof charge
Figure 5 showsexperimentalresultsfor variation in dilatational pulse width with

charge weight. The cube-rootlaw is obeyedvery satisfactorily.
It is probable that for large chargescloseto the surfacethe effect of gravity will
slightly alter the scalinglaw for the radiator size. Also, the effect of absorption will
slightly alter the law for pulse width. However, in the field, theseslight departures
from the cube-root law will be swamped by effects due to the alteration in rock
properties between the various charge locations.
Blake's theory showsthat the amplitude, A, of the particle velocity is given by
A = (PK/oV').co.(aS/r){(w/V)'q- (l/r) 2}'/'

(1)
{1 q- (1 -- 2K)(wa/c)'q- K'(wa/c)4}-/',
where
P=amplitude of radial stressat coradians/second,

K= (1-)/2(1- 2),
a = Poisson'sratio,
0 = density,
V = irrotational wave velocity,
a--radius of equivalent radiator,
r--distance from center of radiator.
The stresspulse at the equivalent radiator is roughly of the form given in Figure
3b. This may be approximated to by an exponentialpulse with a relatively long
Amplitude of Refraction Signal
time constantplus an initial impulse which lasts only one or two ms. In the sub-
section on energy release,we give someevidencethat the initial impulseprovides
only a small amount of the low-frequencyenergy, and we, therefore, represent the
limiting stressby P(t) where,
P(t) = 0 fort < O,
P(t) = Poexp(-t/a), t70.
P0 is a constantfor all chargeweightsbecauseit is closelyrelated to the strength
of the rock. On the other hand, a scalesaccordingto the secondof the laws given
aboveI and is, therefore,given by a= (TW) 1/ and is possiblyof the order of one-
tenth secfor a one lb charge.
The frequencyspectrumof such an exponentialspike is given by
= +
We may thereforesubstitutefor P and a in Blake's equation and obtain the de-
pendenceof the particle velocity on the weight of chargefired. Putting aa=DW,
where D is a constant of proportionality, we have
.40,= w(PK/pV2)(DW/r) {ws-+-(TW)-2/a}-/s{
(w/V)s-+-1/rs /
(2)
{ 1 + (1 - 2K)(coaDW/Va)
s/a+ KS(coaDW/Va)4/a}-/s.
Deductionsand applications
It is instructiveto examinethe approximationsto this equationfor low and high
frequencies. In refractionshootingws>(TW)-s/a,sothat, if wehave (waDW/Va)<<I,
A0,is directly proportionalto W for all o.Referenceto Blake'spaper showsthat in
this rangeof frequenciesthere is no phasedistortion,and so,if the weightof charge
is doubled,the seismicpulseamplitude will also be doubled.For high frequencies,
on the other hand, phasedistortiondoestake place, and also A0,becomespropor-
tional to the cuberoot of the weight of charge.
Providing the first of the above conditionsis fulfilled, the variation of A0, with
chargeweightdependson the parameterx=(w/V)(DW) us,in the mannergivenby
the function
/(x) = xa(1 + (1 - 2K)x + KSx4)-/s.

This function is graphed in Figure 6.
The low- and high-frequencyapproximationshave been separately verified on
many occasions. For instance,O'Brien (1957, 1960) has shownthat for chargesup
to about 300 lb weightthe amplitudeA, of a numberof refractedpulseswaspropor-
tional to W , where n=0.98+0.037. And Duvall and others (e.g. Duvall and
Atchison, 1957) have obtained strain-wave measurementsclose to the shot which
supporta cube-rootlaw for the high-frequencycomponentsof the radiated pulse.
Figure 7 showsthe relationshipbetweenamplitudeand weight of chargein a
singlehole,for shotsfired in an actual refractionsurvey.If the chargeof 1,320lb
x No direct experimentalevidenceis availablefor this statement,but, becauseit is true for the time
scaleof the seismicpulse(Figure5), it may be assumed that it will alsobe true for t'(t).
lO
o-z 10-! 1 I0 102 103
Fro. 6. Seismicamplitudeas a functionof chargeweight

f(x) = x(1 + ( - 2K)x + Kx4)-/
IOO
80
60 -
4o
_1 CALCULATED
o OBSERVED
2o d POISSON'S
RATIO
IO
8
I STANDARD
ERRO,
6
I
27-5 55 137-5 275 550 IIOO 2750
CHARGE WEIGHT IN POUNDS
Fro.7. Seismic
amplitude
asa function
ofweightofcharge
firedin a single
hole.
weight had beendivided into five equal parts and loadedinto five holes,eachsepa-
rated from its neighborby at least the diameter of the equivalentradiator, then the
amplitude of the refracted arrival shouldhave increasedby a factor of about 2.5.
From which it follows,either that the amount of dynamite could have been reduced
in this proportion, or that readablerecordscould have beenobtained under noisier
backgroundconditions.It may be noted that the pulse width for the larger charge
was significantly greater than that from the smaller charges,an observationwhich
supportsthe frequencydependenceof the scalinglaw.
Figure 6 showsthat, when is lessthan about 0.4:,the linear law fails to hold for
valuesof x greater than about one. Utilizing this conditionthe radius of the equiv-
alent radiator for the shotsin Figure 7 wascalculatedto equal4:.5W 1/3ft, whereW is
in poundsweight. This is quite a typical value for rockswith velocitiesaround 5,000
to 6,000 ft/sec and is rather more than the value of 3.8 W 1/ ft quoted earlier for a
soft sandstone.
By plotting a graph similar to the oneshownin Figure 7 the maximumchargeto
be fired in a singlehole may be found by observation.2 However, a good enough
value may quickly be calculatedfrom the equation
X- (co/V)(DW) 1/ -- E,
whereE liesin the range0.5 (softrocks)to 1.0 (hardrocks).V is the P-wve velocity
at the shotpoint,D / is usuallyabout 3.5-4.5, and cois the highestangularfrequency
of interest in the observedarrival. Assumingthis to be twice the predominant fre-
quency,it may be taken as 2rT, whereT is the durationof the first half-period.
Equation (2) showsthat, for a givenweightof charge,the seismiclow-frequency
mplitudeisproportionalto thefactor(PKD/pV). For K= 1 (a= ) thismaybere-
written as 4 PD/V, where $zis the rigidity of the rock. Sinceit is well known that
softerrocksgive larger amplitudesit is apparent that the variation from rock to rock
is greater for the ratio D/IaV than it is for elastic strength. For a given rock the
distant amplitudeis directly proportionalto D, that is, directly proportionalto the
volumeothe equivalentradiator. It may be supposedthat the crackingand failure
of the rock is due mainly to the initial impulseimparted by the detonationwave in
the explosive.Sincethis is greater for explosiveswith greater detonation velocities,
such explosiveswill give greater seismicamplitudes than those with lower detona-
tion velocities.This has been amply verified by experiment (Atchisonand Roth,
1961). Other characteristicsof the explosiveare important, for exampleloading
density and available energy,but the most important singleparameter is probably
detonationpressure,and this is very closelyrelated to the easily measureddetona-
tion velocity.
The effectof shotdepth

Increasingthe depth of the shot has three main effects.It increasesthe amount
of tamping, it placesthe charge(usually) in a strongerand more rigid rock, and it
alters the relative positionand magnitudeof the ghostreflection.
2 Measurementsshouldonly be made on arrivals refractedfrom a layer well belowthe shot as arrivals
at nearbygeophones are profoundlyaffectedby smallvariationsin the depth and locationof the charge.
If the measurementsare made on arrivalsdifferingin frequencyfrom thoseof interestthen this must be
allowed for.
Providing there is sufficienttamping to ensurethat the gasesdo not blow out in a

time comparable with the longest period of interest in the refracted arrival, an
increasein tamping will not increasethe seismicamplitude much.
The variation with depth of the strengthand rigidity of an outcropvaries consid-
erably from one place to another,but usually, the increasein strength of the rock is
insufficient to counter the deleterious effects of reduction in radiator size and
increaseof rigidity.
In low-frequencyrefraction work it is usually impossibleto shoot deep enough to
separateout the primary arrival and the ghostreflection.It is best, therefore,to try
and reducethe ghostreflection(which is of oppositepolarity to the primary and,
therefore,servesto reducethe amplitude of the refracted arrival) by shootingas
closeas possibleto the reflectingsurface.By this means,a gooddeal of the energy
incidenton the reflectorgetsconvertedinto interfacewaves,and, consequently,the
ghostreflectionis reducedin amplitude.
If the ghost reflectoris the free surface,all factorsserveto causethe seismicam-
plitude to increaseas the shotdepth decreases. Other thingsbeingequal(whichthey
seldomare), therefore,it is advisableto keepthe shotasshallowaspossibleconsistent
with the gasesbeingcontainedfor a long enoughtime and with the full development
of the equivalent radiator. Surface cracking is not itself a sign that the shot was
insufficientlydeep becausethis is usually due to a scabbingprocess,causedby the
primary pulse of compressionbeing reflectedas a pulse of tension.In fact, surface
crackingis yet anotherfactor in reducingthe amplitude of the surfaceghost.
If the water table is shallowit is usually better to fire below it. The primary pulse
remains of approximately similar amplitude to the pulse from a shallower shot--
becausethe strength and rigidity of the rock are largely unaffected by the water
--but it suffersno lossdue to transmissionthrough the water table.
Seismic energyrelease
Measurementscloseto properly tamped shotsshowthat the energyin the radiated
P wave is essentiallysphericallysymmetric.For a soft sandstone,measurementson
pulses,suchas that indicatedin Figure 3a, indicate that the total radiated energy
(potential plus kinetic) is about 4 percent of the available chemicalenergy in the
explosive.Due to absorption, the seismicpulse at 10 ft containsonly 2.5 percent oi
the available energy and, at 100 ft, only 0.50 percent. The energy in the low-fre-
quencyband relevant to refractedarrivals is probablyno more than 1/50th of this
last amount.
Similar measurementsfor shotsin clay showthat the total radiated energy close
to the sourceis nearer to 9 percent.
Thesefiguresare much the sameas thosewhich may be deducedfrom the observa-
tionsof McDonal et al. (1958) and Ricker (Van Melle, 1954) for explosionsin shale.
An extensiveset of measurementsby Fogelsonet al. (1959) on strain wavesdue to
explosionsin a granite-gneissindicate a seismicefficiencyin the range 10-18 percent.
This increasein efficiencyis probably due to the increasedstrength of the rock.
Most of the energycloseto the shot is of high frequency;from equation (2), there-
fore, and the fact that energy is proportional to pVA ', it follows that the total en-
ergy is roughlyproportionalto (P'DvaW/a)/pV.Comparisonof their pulseshapes
withthatin Figure3aandinsertion of themeasuredvaluesofp andV givetheratio

of D2/3/pVfor granite-gneiss
to softsandstone
asabout1'8. Foranincrease in total
efficiency
of 3'1 thestrengthof thehardrockwouldhaveto beaboutfivetimes-the
strengthof the softrock.Anotherestimate of the relativerockstrengthsmaybe
obtainedby assuming that the pulseshapesdifferonlyin time-scale andnot in
shape.Thisassumption yieldsa ratioof strengths of about20'1. The truth,no
doubt,liessomewhere betweenthesetwo estimates.
Of moreinterestto seismologists
is the energyin the low-frequency
range.It fol-
lowsfromequation (2) thatthelow-frequency
spectral
amplitudeshouldbedirectly
proportional
to thefrequency.Figure8 shows
a Fourieranalysis
ofa pulseobserved
100 ft from a one-lbchargein soft sandstone.
The low-frequencyspectrumis
approximately
proportional
tofi'. Theincrease
in theindexabovetheassumed
valueof 1.0maybe dueto theneglected effectof theinitialimpulse.Thespectral
amplitude ofanimpulse isindependent
offrequency forperiods longcompared with
its duration,andsoit followsfromBlake'sequationthat thelowfrequencies of the
waveradiatedby an impulsive source
shouldbe proportional tof2. It is probable,
r 25-0
z
n ; ,
020-0 O - O
O O
15'0
O O
I0'0 O O
O O O
D O
-,.,- 5-0
/ o
0
u 2'5
.,e.. 2. o
u
I-5
z
>' ?
/
U
0
0'5
"- 0
IO IOO IOOO
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
Fza.8. Spectral
amplitude
fora pulseobserved
100ft froma one-lbcharge
in softsandstone.
Nocorrection
has been made for absorption.
therefore,that the observedpulsereceivesa small contributionfrom the initial ex-

plosiveimpulse. It may be noted that the low-frequencyamplitude of the pulses
recordedby McDonal et al. (1958) arealsocloselyproportionalto the first powerof
the frequency.
The low-frequencyenergy, E, in the band 0--F cps is given by the equation
E- 8'r2pVW'
i0
Al'df,
where Af is the spectralamplitude of the particle velocity at a distancer from a

one-lb charge. For the particular pulse whose spectrum is shown in Figure 8,
At=6.5 X 10-6 fi' cm/sec per cps at a distanceof 100 ft. The energyin the band
0-F cpsis, therefore,equal to 10.7X 10-5 W'Fa''calories.This is roughly equal to
13.0X10 -9 WF a.'percentof the chemicalenergyin the explosive.
The percent energyreleaseas a function of W and F is shownin Table 2, where
Table 2. Percent energy release from explosions in water and in soft sandstone.
Upper frequencylimit in cps
Charge
weight 10 50 100
in pounds
Water Rock Water Rock Water Rock
1 .15 ooo23 .75 0036 1.5 O33

10 .32 oo23 1.6 .036 3.2 .33
100 .70 o23 3.3 .36 7.0
5OO 1.2 114 5.5 12.0
figures are also given for underwater explosions,these being discussedin a later
section.The low-frequencyspectraon which these estimatesare basedare not very
reliable, and so the figuresin the table are not very reliable. However, the general
trend is not in doubt, and more accurate results would not be of much extra use
becauseof the large variation between one rock and another. For instance, by
assumingthe fl.0 law it may be estimated (very roughly) that shots in granite
releaseonly about one tenth the low-frequencyenergy of shotsin sandstone,and
shotsin sandstoneare only aboutone-quarterasefficientasthosein clay.
Departurefrom sphericalsymmetry
The above theory has been developed for a spherically symmetrical source. A
chargeof 200 lb weight loadedinto a singlehole will commonlybe about 20 ft long
and 4 or 5 inchesin diameter.The equivalentradiator for sucha chargewill resemble
an ellipsoidof revolution with a major axis some three or four times its minor axis.
Usami and Hirono (1956) have shown that such a radiator will still behave essen-
tially as a sphericalsourceproviding the observedfrequenciescorrespondto wave-
lengthsgreater than two or three times the major axis. In long-distancerefraction
surveysthe predominant frequenciesare usually between 10 and 20 cps and the
maximum frequencyof importanceseldomexceeds30 to 40 cps. For a shothole
velocity of 5,000 ft/sec, therefore,a 20 ft--or even a 30 or 40 ft--charge may still

be treated as sphericallysymmetric.
The theory of Usami and Hirono assumesthe applied pressureto be in phaseon all
parts of the radiator. This impliesan infinite detonationvelocity for the explosiveor,
at least, one very much greater than the velocity in the rock. As shownby Musgrave
et al. (1958), long lengthsof explosivewith low-detonationrates will preferentially
beam seismicenergy downward,a and to a greater degree, the longer the charge.
Increasingthe weight of chargein a hole will increaseits length and will, therefore,
increaseits efficiencsrover and above the amount predicted by the precedingtheory.
This increasedoesnot amount to much unlessboth the length of chargeapproaches
a wavelength and also the detonation velocity is closeto the velocity of the rock.
The long, thin shapeof large chargeswill thereforehave little effect except,per-
haps, for those few explosivessuch as oil-ammonium nitrate mixtures which have
very low detonation rates.
UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONS
Cole (1948) givesa generaland authoritative accountof underwater explosions,

and Weston (1960) has discussedin detail the particular aspectsassociatedwith
their use as acoustic (seismic)sources.In seismicprospectingthere are certain re-
stricting conditionswhich somewhatsimplify the analysis,and the followingdiscus-
sion is a shortened version of an earlier treatment which takes these conditions into
account (O'Brien, 1960).
When a chargeof explosiveis detonatedunderwaterthe immediateresultis a very
large amplitude pressurepulse roughly in the form of an exponential spike. The
duration of the spike increasesas the cube root of the weight of chargeand is a few
tenths of a millisecondfor a one lb charge. At regular intervals thereafter, a series
of pulsesof much smalleramplitude is radiated. Thesepulsesare associatedwith the
pulsating bubble of hot gasesand originate each time the bubble contracts to a
minimum volume. They are thereforereferred to as bubble pulses.They are a po-
tential nuisancein prospecting,for their low frequencycontent is suchthat they may
produceseismicarrivals of comparableamplitude to that due to the primary shock
wave. For instance,for a one lb charge fired at 20 fathoms, the first bubble pulse
containsmore energyper cpsthan the primary shockwave for all frequenciesbelow
230 cps (Weston, 1960). In prospecting,it is usualto eliminate the bubblepulseby
ensuringthat the bubble of expandinggasesbreaks the surfaceand so cannot con-
tract to emit a secondarypressurepulse. The maximum bubble radius, R, is given
approximatelyby the equation
R = 12.5 (W/(d q- 33)) TM,
where W is the weight in poundsand d is the depth in feet. In order to prevent emis-
sion of secondarypulses,experienceshowsthat the chargemust be detonated at a
depth no greater than one half of that calculatedby putting R-d in the above
equation(Knudsen,1958; Griffith et al., 1962).
Providingthe chargeis detonatedat the top, as safetydemandsthat it shouldbe....
If the chargeis deep enoughfor the gasesto expandand contract again then the
first bubble pulse will be radiated at a time T after the shockwave where
T -- 4.4 W/a(d q- 33)-5/0 sec.
T is, thus, nearly always greater than the period of the first refracted arrival, so
that it is only whenlater arrivalsare beingused(as they alwaysshouldbe) that it is
necessaryto explodethe chargeat a shallowdepth. The above values for R and T
are for TNT, they will not be much different for other explosives.
It is the initial shockwave which generatesthe observedrefracted wave. Even for
a 1,000-lb charge, which is much greater than is normally necessary,the time con-
stant of the shockwave is only about two ms, soits seismiceffectis purely impulsive.
It followsfrom the scalinglaws for the shockwave that the seismicamplitude, A, is
proportional to W (O'Brien, 1960) where n varies slightly from one explosiveto
another, but is usually about two thirds. A recent paper by Muller et al. (1962)
presentssomevery goodexperimentalresultsfrom explosionsin lakes whichprovide
a value for n of 0.65___ .013. Ideally, therefore, the maximum seismicamplitude will
only be obtained by splitting the chargeinto a number of smallerunits, in the same
manner as for undergroundexplosions.However, this is not often worth doing, for
the financial saving is small and the operational difficulty is usually great.
Seismicenergyrelease
O'Brien (1960) has shown that the percentageof the shock-waveenergy in the
seismicfrequency range is given approximatelyby the factor 400 k2 F/a, where F
is the highestobservedfrequency,1/a is about 5.0X10 -5 W TMof a second,and k is
about 1.75 (not 1.2 as statedin the paper). This factor will not hold for very low fre-
quencies,becausethe analysisassumesno rarefaction to be generatedby the explo-
sion, and it is fairly certain that this is not true.
Arons and Yennie (1948) state that only about 25 percent of the shock wave
energy is actually radiated, the rest being lost in turbulence and other dissipative
phenomena,and so the useful seismicenergy from an underwater shock is about
1.5X10 -2 W/F. Table 2 shows the energy release as a function of W and F and
comparesthe values with those for underground explosions.
The figuresin the table show that underwater explosionsare far more efficient at
producing low-frequency energy than are underground explosions.But this is not
the whole story. The ghost reflectionis much greater for underwater explosionsand
this will considerablyreducethe refraction arrival. Also, the water bottom often has
a very high reflectioncoefficient,with the consequencethat only a small proportion
of the incident energy reachesthe underlying refractor. The secondfactor is espe-
cially critical and can easily reducethe efficiencyof an underwater explosionto less
than that of one underground.
Field experience on this point is limited and contradictory. Certainly, much
smaller chargesare needed when doing large-distancerefraction shooting at sea
than for similar distanceson land, but this may be due to the relative simplicity of
submarine
geology.Steinhartand Meyer(1961)reportthat muchlargeramplitudes
areobtained
fromunderwater
shotsthanfromquarrybasts,but pointout that
quarry blastsare specificallydesignedto reducethe seismicwave. They alsorepro-

ducea figurefrom Gamburtsevet al. (1952) whichshowsthat shotsin reservoirsgive
greater amplitudes than those in boreholes.However, reference to Gamburtsev's
book will show that this is an exceptional result, and that, for most of their work,
undergroundshotsgave amplitudesbetween 1-2 times as large as shotsin reser-
voirs.
This is, no doubt, another geophysicalphenomenonin which local conditionsoften
invalidate the application of generalconclusions.In any event, in prospecting,the
locationof the shotpointis normally decidedby more important considerations than
those of shot effii:iency.
Shots on the water bottom
If the water is shallow enoughto avoid producing a bubble pulse it is often con-
venient to fire on the water bottom. Sometimesthe rigidity of the bottom is very
small, and the acousticimpedanceis not much different from that of water. In this
caseit obviouslymakeslittle differencewhether the chargeis on or off bottom. How-
ever, for hard bottoms, the essentialasymmetry at the charge location causesthe
production of a large amount of shear wave energy. In such a case the primary
S-wave amplitude may be greater than that of the primary/' wave. Even if vertical
geophonesare beingused,the wavesconvertedfrom the initial S will certainly com-
plicate the seismogram.Becausefiring on the bottom doesnot increasethe amplitude
of the primary P wave it is goodpractice to fire only suspendedcharges--unless,of
course,the interpretation is made more sure by the presenceof identifiable shear-
wave events.
In the next sectionit is shownthat shotsfired on the groundsurfaceproduceshear

wave energy which is radiated in a highly directional manner. It may be assumed
that, for hard bottoms, the radiated S will also be somewhatdirectional. Further, if
the radiation is partly controlled by the size of the cavity producedin the rock, it
may be supposedthat the emitted wavelength of the P and S waves will be ap-
proximately equal and, hence, that the S wave will be of appreciably lower fre-
quency.This seemsto be borneout in practice (Steinhart and Meyer, 1961).
AIR AND SURFACE SHOTS
Drilling can be very expensive.This is particularly true in areasof unconsolidated

sands and gravels and on outcropsof hard rock. When these conditionsare en-
counteredit may be more economicalto explodethe chargesabove ground.
The pressurewave very closeto an air shot is quite complex,but it consistsessen-
tially of an exponential compressionalpulse with a peak pressureof about 100
atm and a time constant,for a one-lb charge,of a few tenths of a millisecond.This is
followed by a rarefaction which lasts several times as long as the compressionand
has a maximum value of nearly one atm. The compressivepulserapidly attenuates
and, if the chargeis far enoughaway from the groundsurface,decreases to about 10
arm at a distanceof 20 times the chargeradius. At this distancethe rarefactionis
about one-thirdatm (i.e. an absolutepressureof two-thirdsatm). These are very
roughfigureswhich apply particularly to TNT (Brode 1959), but they serveto give
an idea of the order of magnitude of the forcesinvolved.
Becauseof the high acousticcontrast between air and rock, it is obviousthat most
of the blast wave producedby an air shot will be reflected at the ground surface.
This will be especiallytrue on outcropsof hard rock.
Becauseof the rapid attenuation of the peak pressureof the blast wave and be-
cause rocks and soils are relatively strong in compression,chargesexploded a few
feet above ground produce practically no damage. Even for chargeslaid on the
ground, only a very small amount of cratering is produced. For instance, a 400-lb
charge fired on a baked clay surface produced only minor cracking and a surface
depressionof a few inches.
There is little information on the relative efficiencyof underground and surface
shots. In reflection shootingTsvetaev (Hermont, 1948) found that underground
shots were 15 to 20 times as efficient as air shots. However, Poulter (1950) claims
that if proper attention is paid to the spacing,a pattern of air shotswill require at
most twice as much explosiveas a singleundergroundshot.
Buffet and Layat (1960) have reported on an extensiveset of experimentson
surface chargesin the sand dunes of the Sahara. They found, in common with
Tsvetaev and Poulter, that more seismicenergy was generated by a given weight
of charge if it was suspendeda few feet above the ground surface. This may be
becausea slight raising of the charge from the ground surfacerapidly reducesthe
peak pressurein the blast wave to below the elasticlimit of the rock and also spreads
the incident wave over a larger area. One would expect that the necessaryeleva-
tion of the chargewould be quite small and that raising it to greater heightswould
produceno increasein efficiencyand would eventually reduceit. Further, one would
expect that the height for maximum efficiencywould be roughly proportional to the
cube root of the weight of charge. This leveling-off effect was observedby Buffet
and Layat, who alsofound that it occurredat a greater height for a greater charge.
For a 25-kg charge, heights greater than about three m gave no improvement.
The exact value for the limiting height will obviouslydependupon rock type.
Miller and Pursey (1954) have shownthat for a surfacesourcesmall compared
with a wavelength the seismicamplitude is proportional to the applied pressure
and to the area of the source. For explosions,the sourcearea will be proportional
to W TMand the low-frequency pressurewill be proportional to W /. This latter
proportionality follows from the fact that the initial blast wave is essentiallyim-
pulsive, with a duration which is much shorter than those observedon a seismic
record and which dependsupon W /. We should,therefore,expect the seismicam-
plitude from a singlechargeto dependdirectly upon the weight fired. In the field, we
would expect the dependenceto be somewhatlower than a first power becausethe
shape of larger chargeswill usually be different from those of smaller chargesand
the area scalinglaw will not be followed exactly. Buffet and Layat found the ampli-
tude to be proportional to W /4. However, they compared the different charge
weights for a constant height. Since charge efficiency increased with height, the
exponentfor a more properly scaledexperiment would be even closer to unity. For
very large chargesthe duration of the appliedpressurebecomescommensuratewith

the seismicfrequenciesof interest and the dimensionsof the source become com-
parablewith a wavelength.Both thesefeatureswill tend to reducethe dependence
of seismicamplitude upon chargeweight.
As in underground shots,therefore,it followsthat it will be moreefficientto split
large chargesinto a numberof smallerones,eachof whichshouldbe far enough
away from its neighbour to form an independent radiator. For surface shots on
dunesand,BuffetandLayat foundthat 6.25-kgcharges
shouldbe 25 to 30 m apart
to ensurelinear addition of the separateradiators. This distanceshouldbe scaled
by WTMfor other chargesizesand will probablybe smallerfor explosions on hard
rock. For air shotsthey did not obtain the expectedlinear addition of the individual
signals; this may have been due to loss of energy when the blast waves from the
separatechargesmet and interacted.If the air shotshad beenfired with a greater
spacing,then they shouldhaveobservedthe 30-percentincreaseoversurfaceshots,
which they had measuredfor a singlecharge.
Because,evenfor smallcharges,the amplitudemay vary at a rate lessthan W .,
there is no lower limit at which further divisionof the chargewill ceaseto increase
the seismicsignal.In practice,a limit is imposedby the economics of shotpoint
procedure.Naturally, if the chargeis split into a numberof smallpiecesit has to be
arrangedsothat the signalfrom eachradiatorwill arrivein phaseat the geophone. If
the individual chargesare not equidistantfrom the geophonethen somemethod of
sequentialshootingmust be introducedto ensurethe proper phasing.
Usingproperlyspacedsurfacecharges,Buffetand Layat foundthat they needed
1,500kg pershot,whereaswith underground chargestheyhadneededonly1,000kg.
Presumably,their underground shotswerenot distributedin properlyspacedholes
and were,therefore,seismically very inefficient.Assumingthat their underground
shotsfollowedthe samecurveasin Figure7 the seismicamplitudeproducedby a
properlydesignedshotholepattern wouldbe about six timesthat of a properly
designedsurfaceshot. This is about the observedratio for concentratedcharges
(BroughtonEdge and Laby, 1931; Passechnik,1961).
The partition of energy

A surfacesourcedistributes
its radiatedenergyin thefollowingmanner.Compres-
sionalwave 8 percent,shearwave 28 percent,surfacewave 64 percent(Pursey,
1956).Further,the shearwaveis markedlydirectionaland is beamedat angles
roughly45 degrees to the horizontal(Miller andPursey,1954).Thesefiguresarefor
hard rocks.For soft rocksand sandsit is probablethat a greaterpercentageof
P-waveenergywill be generatedandthat the S wavewill not be quitesodirectional.
However,there is no doubt that a lot of shearwave energywill be transmittedand
that this will inevitablycontribute,in a significantmanner,to the late arrivalson the
record.In particular,the refractedeventsSP/' and SSIPmay be quite large. If
horizontalgeophones wereusedSSS couldeasilybecomethe largestevent on the
record.
CONCLUSIONS
Underwater shots are usually more efficient than underground shots, and the
latter are more efficientthan surfaceshots.The ratios dependmarkedly on the pro-
cedure adopted at the shotpoint and on the near-shot conditions. For instance, if
there is a high acousticcontrast at the water bottom, only a small proportion of
the initial energy will reach the refractor, and an underground shot may then
become more efficient than an underwater shot.
For underwater shots seismic amplitude is roughly proportional to W 2/a, and
little advantage is to be obtained by splitting large chargesinto a number of smaller
ones.For large undergroundexplosionsa greater seismicamplitude is obtained if a
number of widely spacedholesare drilled and a maximum of 200 to 300 lb of explo-
sive is placed in each. Whether it is better to put a greater amount of explosiveinto
a singlehole, or to put a smaller amount into a number of holesdepends,of course,
on their relative effectson the cost per line-mile.
Surfaceshotsshouldalso be divided into a number of small individual pieceseach
placed at a sufficientdistancefrom its neighbour.
The most efficient shotpoint procedure depends so much upon local conditions
that it is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rules which will be generally
applicable. It is hoped, however, that the discussiongiven in this paper will help
exploration seismologistswhen they seek to discover the most efficient procedure
for their particular area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishesto thank Mr. L. H. Tarrant, for his critical reading of the first
draft of this paper, and the Chairman and Directors of The British Petroleum
Company Limited for permissionto publish it.
REFERENCES
Arons, A. B., and Yennie, D. R., 1948, Energy partition in underwaterexplosionphenomena:Rev.

Modern Physics,v. 20, p. 519-536.
Atchison,T. C., and Roth, J., 1961, Comparativestudiesof explosivesin marble: U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Report of Investigations5797.
Blake, F. G., 1952, Sphericalwave propagationin solidmedia:Jour. Acoust.Soc.Am., v. 24, p. 2ll-215.
Brode,H. L., 1959,Blast wave from a sphericalcharge:Physicsof Fluids,v. 2, p. 217-229.
BroughtonEdge, A. B., and Laby, T. H., 1931,The principlesand practiceof geophysical prospecting:
Cambridge University Press.
Brown, F. W., 1956,Determinationof basicperformancepropertiesof blastingexplosives: Quarterlyof
the ColoradoSchoolof Mines, v. 51, p. 171-188.
Buffet, A., and Layat, Ch., 1960, Nouvel aspectde la sismiquerfraction au Sahara:tirs non enterrs:
Geophys.?rosp., v. 8, p. 45-67.
Cole, R. H., 1948, Underwaterexplosions:PrincetonUniversity Press.
Duvall, W. I., and Atchison,T. H., 1957,Rock breakageby explosives:U.S. Bureauof Mines Report
of Investigations5356.
Fogelson,D. E., Duvall, W. I., and Atchison,T. H., 1959, Strain energyin explosion-generated strain
pulses:U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations5514.
Gamburtsev, G. A., et al, 1952, Correlationmethod of refracted waves: Distributed in English transla-
tion by the Officeof TechnicalServices,U.S. Department of Commerce,Washington.
Griffith, G. L., and Wells, F. B., 1962,U.S. Patent 3,059,575of October23, Concerningeliminationof
secondarypressurepulsesin seismicexploration.
Hermont, A. J., 1948,Reviewof testingthe applicationof air explosionsin seismicreflectionexploration,
by A. A. Tsvetaev: Geophysics,v. 13, p. 485-486.
Ito, I., and Sassa,K., 1962, On the detonationpressureproducedat the inner surfaceof a chargehole:
International symposiumon mining research,v. 1, G. B. Clark (ed.), New York, PergamonPress.
Knudsen,W. C., 1958,Elimination of secondarypressurepulsesin offshoreexploration(a modelstudy):
Geophysics, v. 23, p. 440-458.
McDonal, F. J., Angona, F. A., Mills, R. L., Sengbush,R. L., Van Nostrand, R. G., and White, J. E.,
1958, Attenuation of shear and compressional wavesin Pierre shale: Geophysics,v. 23, p. 421-439.
Miller, G. F., and Pursey, H., 1954, The field and radiation impedanceof mechanicalradiators in the
free surfaceof a semi-infiniteisotropicsolid:Proc. Roy. Soc.,A, v. 223, p. 521-541.
Muller, St., Stein, A., and Vees, R., 1962, Seismicscalinglaws for explosionson a lake bottom: Zeit. f.
Geophysik,v. 28, p. 258-280.
Musgrave, A. W., Ehlert, G. W., and Nash, D. M., 1958, Directivity effect of elongatedcharges:Geo-
physics,v. 23, p. 81-96.
O'Brien, P. N. S., 1957,The relationshipbetweenseismicamplitudeand weight of charge:Letter to the
Editor, Geophys.Prosp.,v. 5, p. 349-352.
1960, Seismicenergyfrom explosions:Geoph.Jour., v. 3, p. 29-44.
Passechnik,I. P., 1961, Seismicmethod of detectingand identifying nuclear explosions:Bull. Ac. Sc.
USSR, Geophysics Series(Issuedin Englishtranslationby A.G.U. September,1961).
Poulter, T. C., 1950,The Poulter seismicmethodof geophysicalexploration:Geophysics, v. 15, p. 181-
207.
Pursey,H., 1956,The powerradiatedby an electromechanical wave source:Phys. Soc.[London]Proc.
B, v. 69, p. 139-144.
Sharpe,J. A., 1942a,The productionof elasticwavesby explosionpressures.I. Theory and empirical
field observations:Geophysics,v. 7, p. 144-154.
1942b,The productionof elasticwaves by explosionpressures. II. Resultsof observations
near
an explodingcharge:Geophysics, v. 7, p. 311-321.
Steinhart,J. S., and Meyer, R. ?., 1961,Explosionstudiesof continentalstructure: Washington,Car-
negie Institute of Washington.
Usami, T., and Hirono, T., 1956, Elastic wavesgeneratedfrom a spheroidalcavity whosewall is sub-
jectedto normalstressof harmonictype: PapersMet. Geophys.Tokyo, v. 7, p. 288-321.
Van Melle, F. A., 1954,Note on "The Primary SeismicDisturbancein Shale" by N. Ricker and W. A.
Sorgein the July, 1951, Issue of the Bulletin of the Seismological
Societyof America: Bull. S.S. A.,
v. 44, p. 123-125.
Weston,D. E., 1960,Underwaterexplosions as acousticsources:Proc.Phys. Soc.,v. 76, p. 233-249.
MODIFIED "GARDNER" DELAY TIME
AND
"CONSTANT DISTANCE CORRELATION"
INTERPRETATION
C. LAYAT*
ABSTRACT
Two methodsfor seismicrefractionexplorationare described.The mathematictheoryfor the interpre-

tation usedby CompagnieGnrale de Gophysiqueis developedin sufficientdetail to demonstratethe
data neededfor interpretationand the field techniquesto be employedto obtain this data.
For detailedstudy of a continuousrefractionmarker, a refinementof the delay time method,proposed
by L. W. Gardner, 1939, has been developed.The interpretationaltechniquesare presentedboth for
unidirectionaland reversedshooting.
A secondtechniqueenablingrapid and economicmapping of refractionmarkerswith the "Constant
DistanceCorrelation"is demonstratedusingthe phenomenaoccurringat the criticaldistance.
Techniquesare explainedwhereby the two methodsusedsimultaneouslyresult in a reasonablycom-
plete surveyof a givenarea and of a numberof refractionmarkersat a minimum cost.
INTRODUCTION
The methods describedherein have been developedand refined by Compagnie

Gnrale de Gophysiquesince1950 to meet the particular problemsin the Sahara
Desert of Algeria. These refraction techniqueshave had to provide a maximum
amount of subsurfacecoverageat as low a cost per mile as possiblein regionswhere
the structural conditionswere largely unknown.
The first method to be examined is a refinement of the so-called "Gardner
Method," and involves delay times. It was first proposedby Mr. L. W. Gardner
in 1939 for continuousrefraction profile markers. The secondmethod is a recon-
naissancemethod which permits structural mapping of survey markers but in less
detail. It is, in a sense,a discontinuousmethod basedupon phenomenathat occur
in the vicinity of the "critical distance." This techniquehas been called "Constant
Distance Correlation" (Clement and Layat, 1961).
These two techniquesare generallyemployedsimultaneously;in effect, the proper
method of surveying by constant distance correlation nearly always imposesthat
a refractionmarker be surveyedin detail by continuousrefraction profiling. Depend-
ing upon the relative depth of the continuousprofilingmarker, there are two distinct
manners of utilizing simultaneouslythe two methods'
1. A detailed survey of a deep continuousrefractor, possiblyof prime interest as
a reservoir or producing horizon, may be shot with a long distance offset;
and a number of secondarymarkers in the overlying sectionmay be surveyed
by correlation by shootinga moderatenumber of additional shots at shorter
distances.
* CompagnieGnrale de Gdophysique.
2. If a detailed survey by continuousprofiling of the principal refractor is too

expensivebecauseof the long offsetsand consequentlyincreasedsizeof charge,
then the selection of a shallower marker for continuous profiling by the
Gardner method can be used together with the correlation mapping of other
markers. Refractors may be both at shallower and greater depths (including
the primary objective); maps may be obtained by a moderate number of
additional shots, both at shorter and at greater distances.
DETAILED SURVEY OF A CONTINUOUS PROFILE MARKER: "GARDNER" METHOD
Definitions and assumptions

Basic hypothesis.--It is assumedthat the dip of the refractor a is so small that
it is only necessaryto considerthe first degree terms in the seriesexpansion.In
particular
sina__-a__-tana, cosal
It is likewise assumedthat the refracted path, relative to some point M, exists

accordingto the principlesof geometricoptics without making any assumptionon
the distribution of velocities in the section overlying that high velocity zone in
which M is located; i.e., in this overlying sectionthere is no layer that can produce
refraction arrivals in any shootingdirection with an apparent velocity higher than
the velocity related to the point M.
Definition of delay time.--Referring to Figure 1, a trajectory A B exists,passing
through zones of any velocity distribution, however, a maximum velocity V is
obtained at someparticular point M. The delay time Td for the trajectory AB is
the differencebetween the real traveltime TARand the time required to travel the
AI B'
I II
I i
I i
I I
I
Fro. 1. Definition of delay time

A B'
VM
schematically
represented
and exaggerated.
Delay Time and Correlation Interpretation 173
$ X
M
Fro. 2. Illustration of the basicormulrelative o rcmctcpath:
horizontal projection // of this path at the axiu velocity F reache

the wave along this travel path'
AB ,
Ta = T4-
It is evident from this definition and from the basic hypothesisconcerningthe

dips, that the traveltime T relative to a refracted path SABR (Figure 2) may be
written
X
T= + T + T, (2)
Vu
where X is the horizontal distanceSR, and Tas and Ta are the delay times relative
to path SA and BR; the points A and B are associatedwith the layer having
velocity V. Ta and Ta are designatedas the delay times at the shotpointS and
any geophoneR.
Intercept.The interceptT0 relative to a given path SABR with a traveltime
T and an assumedvelocity V of path A B is
X
T0 = T- (3)
V
The curve obtained by the points correspondingto the individual geophonesof a

spreadand called the "intercept curve" givesthe samedata as the corresponding
time-distancecurve for apparent velocity; as a matter of fact,
(r02
= - , (4)
a(x) a(x)
where Vs is the apparent velocity and V is an assumedvelocity.
Furthermore, this intercept curve is more convenient, especially if
marker horizon is considered,and if V is assumednear to the true velocity V, of
the marker; therefore,routine plotting of the time distancecurvesis not necessary.

If Va= V the intercept To so determined is then
X
To= T = T%+ T%. (5)
For any other geophoneposition R and the same shotpoint S, the variations of
interceptToarethevariations
in delaytimeTdRasthedelaytime Tdis common
to all geophones.The intercept curve is consequentlyparallel to the delay time
curve which itself is directly a function of the depth of the marker. It is logical
then to plot the delay time and intercept curveswith increasingtime downward,so
as to have a direct representation of the marker.
It must be noted that the intercept plotted at the position of R (in "geophone
position") includes the delay time at point B of the marker; an additional curve
is obtained by plotting the intercept values at the correspondingpoints B. This
curve is called "intercept curve in offsetposition." Horizontal projection B'R of the
path BR (Figure 2) is referred to as the "offset" relative to geophoneR.
Determinationof Delaysin ContinuousProfiling

Nonreversedshots.--Assumingthat the shots are recorded in one direction only,
if the real velocity V of the marker is known, an intercept curve which, when
consideredin "offset position," is parallel to the delay time curve, can be deter-
mined for each shot. When curve segmentsobtained for the different shotpoints
are plotted continuouslyand the origin arbitrarily chosen,a curve called the "rela-
tive curve" is obtained from which the delay time curve can be calculated by deter-
mining an origin.
In order to make this determination, it is assumedthat the delay time at point
of the marker is independent of the shot direction. Then (Figure 3) S being a
shotpoint and R a geophone,the real intercept calculated in the shootingfrom S
towards R is
SR
To = T- (6)
V,
The origin chosen for the relative curve determines a relative intercept Tot.
Writing:
T0 = To + C; To = T0 -- C (7)
C is a constant for all the spreadsshot from S; it is called the "difference constant
relative to S."
The delay time at the point of the marker is either the delay time Tdsat the
shotpoint for the shotsfrom S, or the delay time Td at the geophonefor the shots
correspondingto the spread including
Now:
T%q-T = T0= T0--C (8)

175
Delay Time and Correlation Interpretation
Fro.3. Illustration
of shotpoint
S delaytimecalculation
fornonreversed
shot.
and
(9)
E Tot
- TaR= Tor R.
By algebraicaddition,since
T%= Tas
(lO)
T%d-T%= 2T%= Tore
-- C.
Moresimply substituting
T%=Tos; (theinterceptreadontherelative
curve
at
a particular
pointdetermined
fromS in "fieldposition"
bydisplacing
bytwooffset
distancesin the direction of the shooting).Finally,
=
s 2
If onlyanapproximatevalueVaof themarkervelocity
isusedforthecalcula-
tionsofintercepts,
it iseasily
demonstrated
thattheformula givingthedelaytime
is transformed into
Ts= Tos-C
2SI;(
. 1 1) 2 V V
(12)
Therelativeanddelaytimecurves
arenolonger
parallel;theyhavea certaincon-
vergence
whichcanbealgebraically
measured
in thedirection
of theshothaving
a gradient,definedby the expression
AT0- ATa
and related to the velocities by

AT0 -- ATd 1
, (13)
AX VM Va
where zXT0ris the differencebetween the relative intercepts read on the relative
curve (offsetposition)betweentwo points of a zXXdistance,and/XTdis the difference
between delay times at the correspondingpoints.
If in a particular area the offset "a" can be assumedas independentof the direc-
tion of the shot
a--2)
SE;
and nearly constant; if, in addition, the velocity V of the marker doesnot vary,
the corrective term
in the calculationof delay times is reasonablyconstant.

The differenceof the delay times calculatedfor two shotpointsis then the same
as when determined with the formula
rd
In other words, if the values of delay times for several shotpointscan be deter-
mined with this formula, the gradient of convergencebetween each pair of such
points can be established,and hence, a determination of true velocity V is pos-
sible and the correctiveterm to be applied to the delay times is obtained. The value
of delay times can be calculatedfor all shotpointsS providing a point corresponding
to which is displacedby two offsetsin the direction of shootingis within the pro-
file itself (that is the seismographspreadin the field).
In general the offset "a" is not accurately known, and an approximate offset
"a'" must be used.It is possibleto showthat this error in the estimate of the offset
has the following consequences' the delay time curve drawn with offset a' is de-
termined from the actual curve (Figure 4) by substituting for point ' of the
marker, point ' with the same abscissaas ' and an ordinate which is the mean of
and '.
If the dip variations are small, when the error of offset is not very large, the two
curvesare practically similar.
The final delay time curve will be drawn by interpolating the relative curve
between the various delay time points calculated and by extrapolating it at the
extremitiesof the profile,taking into considerationthe mean convergence measured.
ShootingiN bothdirections(doublecontrol).mlf the shotshave been recordedsys-
tematically in two directions(direct and reverseshooting),each directionmay of
coursebe interpreted separately and the results compared. However, it is much
more interestingto exerciseinspectionat the time the shotsare taken and to control
the resultsin the two directionsby meansof a suitableinspectionprocess.
Mean relativecurve.--Consideringthe two relative curvesin offsetpositionob-
tainedfor eachdirectionof shootingthe algebraicconvergences
in relationto the
/
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
//
/
Fro. 4. Effect of an erroneous offset value.
delay time curve at a given position (eachone considered ,n the corresponding

shootingposition)are obviouslyidenticalsincethey only dependuponthe velocity
assumedfor calculationVd and the real velocity V at the corresponding point of
the marker. This is only rigorouslytrue providedthe offsetdistanceis indepen-
dent of the direction.
If the data are plotted on the same diagram and a singledirection of shot, the
convergenceswill be equal but of opposite sense.The mean relative curve ob-
tainedbytakingtheaverage
oftheordinates
T%andT%ofthedirectandin-
verserelative curvesat eachpoint will have a zero convergence;
it will be parallel
to thedelay curve.
The measurementof the entire convergencebetween the two relative curves
alsopermits immediatedeterminationof the real velocity without requiring any
calculation of delay times'
AT0, -- AT % 1 1
.... (14)
2AX V V
Convergence
curve.--It is interestingto plot the curve obtainedfor eachpoint
by calculating
thedifference
T%--T%.Theslope
of thiscurvecalledthe"con-
vergencecurve" (which is a straight line when V is constant) determinesthe
real velocity of the marker for each point, as well as the computation of the
correctionterm applied to the delay time values'
aL 2/xx /' (i5)

it alsoimmediately determinesthe zonesof variation in the marker velocity,
and showsirregularitiesat the intersectionwith faults, changesin marker hori-
zons, etc.
Sd S R Si
/!
1
1
1
/
/
1
1
/
/
1
Fro. 5. Illustration of "difference constant" control.
Controls.--The controls are all based on the principle of reciprocity' equality

in traveltimes when shotpoint is substituted for geophone.
But, while some controls must be exactly applied within the limits of the
accuracygiven by the equipment and the calculation of the corrections(direct
control of reversereturns), others take into considerationpaths which have not
been actually traveled by the seismicwave, and give reasonableresults only if
the assumptionon thesephantom travel paths are valid--the general assumption
being that this travel path is along the surveyed marker interface.
The principle of this latter control is described below.
Consideringfor example a direct shot fired from a shotpoint S (Figure 5), by
definition of the distance constant Ca relative to S, the intercept To for any de-
tector is
To = T0r- Ca, [fromequation(7)]

T0rbeingthe intercept read on the direct relative curve. Considerin particular a
geophoneplaced at shotpoint Si (real or assumed)usedfor the determination of
the origin of the inverse relative curve. Its intercept is
To= T% -- Ca. i
[from
equation
(7)]
Assumingnow that a shot is fired from Si, the intercept correspondingto a geo-
phoneplacedat S is by definitionequalto the inverserelativeinterceptT%.
From the principle of reciprocity'
To= T0 T08
'
Hence,
T0rh-Ca= T0,8.
Likewise for the inverse shots with similar definitions'
T0,ah-Ci= T0,
8d .
And,according
to thissamereciprocity
principle
T%i-- (suppose
S at
Finally the differenceconstantsmust verify the relations
Delay Time and Correlation Interpretation t79
Caq- T0ri= Cgq- T0ra

= K, (16)
K beingconstantfor the entire profile.
The detailsof thesecontrolswill not be considered
here;they are often useful,
particularly in zoneswhere the recordsare of a poor quality. In particular, a
"blank" may occur so that the continuity of one of relative curves cannot be
made up betweentwo shotpoints;then the formula given allowsthe calculation
of the difference constant suitable to the extension of this relative curve.
Operating
Improvementsin field techniqueto which this is applicablehave been discussed
in a previouspaper (Layat, Clement, Pommier, Buffet, 1961).
Asmarkerhorizonsmay be difficultto distinguishbecauseof their similarvelocity
characteristics,it is essentialthat doublesubsurfacecoveragein each direction of
shooting should be recorded (i.e. at least two shots at different distancesin both
directionsfor every geophonelayout). This is obtainedpracticallyin the field by
usingdoubleinput geophonecableswith 12 traceson eachside of the recording
truck and by advancingthe spread12 tracesinstead of 24. In someinstances,if
severalmarkersare to be investigated,or if the usefullength recordedfor a marker
is quite short, an increasednumberof shotsshouldbe considered.To represent
them, it is convenientto plot a diagramsuchas Figure 6; the central line indicates
the profilein the field with geophonebases;from eachshotpointa slantingline is
drawn on which are designatedthe segmentscorresponding to the basesactually
shot from this shotpoint.
Such a diagram may have varioususes;programmingof the work in the field,
control of reverse returns, interpretation with intersectiondistance curves as on
the selectedexample,statisticalinformation(chargesize,amplifiergain, quality),
and others.
The final resultsof the interpretationof a profileby this method are given as a
delay time curvefor eachmarker investigated.Figure 7 showsan exampleof such
curves;it refersto the sameprofileas Figure 6.
CONSTANT DISTANCE CORRELATION
Generalities
One of the disadvantages of the conventional refraction seismicmethod in the

Sahara is the high consumptionof explosivesfor the survey of a singlemarker.
This resultsfrom the longdistancesbetweenthe shotpointsand the recordingunits
(sometimesover 50 km).
In order to reducethe shotpointoffset,it was necessaryto study carefullythe
distanceat whichthe refractedwaveshave the shortestpossibletravel path along
the marker; this distanceis called"critical zone." A new practicalmethodhas been
determinedwhich fulfills the initial aim of reducingexplosivecharges,and allows
the simultaneoussurveyof severalmarkerswhich until now could not be shot, or
necessitatedexpensiveadditional shots.
i Basedon CldmentA. andLayat C., (1961).Reprintedwith permission
of the EuropeanAssociation
of Exploration Geophysicists.
Mi
5 & 3 2 I
M3
Fro. 6. Exampleof shotdiagram.The differentmarkersare separatedby approximateintersection

distancecurves.Each spread,numbered1, 2, 3 , is 4.2 km in length.
Beforedescribingthis method,the primary phenomenonrelative to the amplitude

variations of the waves recordednear the critical point will be briefly examined.
Figures8 and 9 qualitatively illustrate the amplitudevariations of the longi-
tudinal reflected and refracted energy as a function of the distance between geo-
phone R and sourceS.
At the critical point Re,amplitudesof both energies,reflectedand refracted,have
a sharpmaximum. Both paths are geometricallysuperimposed; moreover,the two
time-distancecurvesare tangential;the phasingwhichoccursmay thereforeextend
500 -
Morker I
60O
,oo
800
i
,,I !& i 13 i 12 i II I I0 I 9 I 8 I 7 I, 6 I 5 I 4 4 3 I 2
.
,I I
Fro. 7. Example of delay time curves,referrinlto the sameline as Figure 6.

Amplitudes
S R Rc
.
Fro. 8. Amplitude variation of reflectedwavesas a function of distance.
over quite a long distancebeyond the critical point. Then the two arrivals separate,
the refracted one arriving first, while both quickly loseenergy.
The tests made in the Sahara have been essentially based on the study of re-
fracted arrivals in the neighborhoodof the critical point. The identification of the
wide angie reflection in this zone is often difficult, becauseeither its lossof energy
is too rapid, or the curvature of the time-distancescurve is too small. A confusion
arisesbetween this reflected arrival and a refracted one coming from a slower me-
dium. It should be noted that the apparent asymptotic velocity of the reflected
Amplitudes
I
I
I
I
I
I
s IR
c R
c N
Fro. 9. Amplitude variation of refracted wavesas a function of distance.

arrival is not the averagevelocityof the overburden,but the horizontalvelocity

of the fastestbed in this overburden,as can almostintuitively be realizedfrom
Figure 10.
In fact, this figureshowsthat for the reflectedpath SABCDER, whenthe geo-
phoneis moved further towardsinfinity, the angle of incidenceon the fast inter-
mediatezoneK tendstowardsthe criticalangieof incidenceiK corresponding
to
this medium; the primary variation in the reflectedpath SABCDER then results
from the lengthvariationof this path in the medium(K), a path followingan al-
most horizontaltrajectory. In particular, if the horizontalvelocity of medium K
is only slightlylowerthan the marker M velocity,the angieof incidenceon K cor-
responding to the criticalangieic relatedto M is nearto the criticalangieiK.
The resultis a very slantingpath in mediumK, consequently lengtheningthe
$ R
Fro. 10. Effectof a high velocitylayer (K) on the trajectoryof a reflectedray.
distanceto the criticalpoint Re, and the reflectedarrival on mediumM beyond

the critical anglewill be difficult to distinguishfrom a refractedone which would
be comingat the sametime to Rc with a velocityequalto the horizontalvelocity
of the layer K.
Such conditionsare often encounteredwhile surveyingthe basementin the
Sahara,wherefast intermediatebedsare found, either in the Paleozoic(mainly
Ordovician--quartz),or in the Jurassicand particularlyin the Liassicwhichhas
not only a high velocity but alsoa significantanisotropy.
Thesecharacteristics of velocityand anisotropyhave only beenrecentlyappre-
ciated; this partly explainswhy the study of the critical zone was not carriedout
earlier; abnormalevents,especiallyan abrupt riseof energy,had beennoted,but
the reasonfor this phenomenon wasunknown,becauseno onesuspected the critical
point to be so distant from the shotpoint.Taking an examplefrom the Northern
part of the Sahara,computationsbasedon an assumedaveragevelocity (found
later to be nearly exact) located the critical point relative to the basementat a
distanceof 4 km from the shotpoint.The presentacceptedvaluesfor this distance,
basedon recentvelocityand anisotropy measurements, are 8 to 15 km, according
to the depth. Much higher valuesin the deeperzones,where the overburdencon-
tains thick, high velocity beds.may be likely.
Sample records
On Figures11 and 12 are samplerecordstaken in the Saharashowingeventsin
the neighborhoodof the critical zonewhich correspondto the basement.The traces
closeto the critical distancehave been shownin this figure at a distance of around
12 km. The arrival of energyis abrupt; it is sometimesprecededby a damped trace
showingnoticeablyhigher frequencies,the origin of which is not clear (bottom
recordof Figure 11). The large elongationspersiston sometraces,then the ampli-
tudes decreaserapidly.
The seismograms of Figure 13 havebeenrecordedin areasvery distant from those
of Figure 11 and 12, but have a similar aspectcharacterizedby suddenarrival of
high amplitudesdue to the basement.The lossof energyhereis not very noticeable;
moredistantshotpointsshouldbe usedin orderto seeit conspicuously. The critical
27' 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 4.0 41 .2 43 6.5 46
28 2,9 30 31 32 33 36. 35 36 37 38 39 /.d) &i 42 /, 5 .6
FIG. 11. Samplerecords.

33 34 35 36 37 38 33 40 41 42 t.3 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
S.R 197
$.P. 196
&P. 196
197
36 37 36 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 4.7 48 49 50 51 52 53
Fro. 12. Samplerecords.
distanceis about 13 km. It is to be noted that the generalaspectof theseseismo-

gramsis undoubtedly not soclearasin the precedingexample.Thisis theresultof
greatchanges in thenatureof theoverburden whichproducehighamplitudes, mak-
ing the readingof individualtracesdifficult.Besidesthe marker,notedas first ar-
rivals, and the basement,theserecordsshowseveralother markers.In order to
study someof them it is importantto separatethe traces.In theseconditions,
magneticrecording allowingthe playbackof the individualtracesis of greatvalue.
Techniqueand method
Considering the total traveltimeTR betweenthe shotpointS and the geophone
R locatedat a distanceXR (Figure 14), the real intercept
To,, =
is equalto the sumof delaytimesat C andN [equation(5)]. Particularlyat the

critical point'
27 33 ,t5 ,T7 39 .] 4. 5 &7
25 25 27' 29 43 45
Fro. 13. Samplerecords.
S RctX
Tc
c i
Rn-tT"
XR
n
n
c H
M vM
= Tc.-M Xc=2Tdc
TOc
Fro. 14. Determinationof delay time at the criticalpoint.
Xc
T0c = Tc = 2Tdc. (17)
V
The delay time at C is thus determined at once from Tc and Xc provided that
the precisevelocity of the marker VM is known.
But the accuratedeterminationof Xc is not alwayseasy. On the other hand, the
offset in spite of the assumptionof small dips varies with the marker depth. If
velocity VM is not accurately known, the error made in the term X,/V:u in the
delay time estimation is not constant and the curve drawn on the basis of these
values is distorted.
This difficulty may be resolvedby no longerconsideringthe critical point R, but
a geophoneRK near Rc and locatedat a fixeddistanceXK from the shotpoint(Fig-
ure 15). Applying to this geophonethe same computationsas that applied to the
critical point, i.e. determiningthe delay Tds definedby
2Tas = T
V
and plotting this value at the abscissa

point of X:/2 from the precedingdefinitions'
2Ts = T + T. (18)
The curve determinedfrom the delay time values Tds is thus related to the
curve of true delay times as the midpoint of the chord Ta, TaK.
If the variations in dip are gradual and the distanceR, R remains small, the
erroris negligible.The errormadein the constantterm X:/Va by taking an approxi-
ITc
RCXc RK
tX
TK
K'
I TdK
/ Td$,K
=TK- XK-_Td
2TdsK VM c + TdK
FzG. 15. Principleof constantdistancecorrelation.
D= 14.6 14.6 14.25 14.$ 14,6 14,25 14.95 14,6 14,6 14,6 14,6
FIG. 16. Record section.
mate value Va instead of V is also constant and the curve obtained from the
valuesTaskhasexactlythe shapeof the delaytime curve.It is the useof sucha
fixed distance XK which has led to the name of "Constant Distance Correlation"
for this method.
Figure16 representsa sectionconstructedby takingfor eachshotpointthe trace
at the nearestdistanceof RK; times are corrected(subtracted)by Xz/Va taking
into account small but unavoidable variations of X distance due either to topog-
raphyor to the existenceof traceswhichare disturbedby noiseor not usabledue
to equipment.In the presentcasethe distancechosenX is 14.6km. plusor minus
one trace (with the exceptionof two).
The correlationbetweenshotpointsgivesno difficulty. There is no doubt that a
sectionsuchasthe presentonedoesnot giveall informationrequiredfor a thorough
studyof the marker.The interpolation
betweenadjustmentpointsandin particular
the locationof faults resultsfrom a careful investigationof the recordsincluding a
number of additional shots fired further off where the marker is identifiable as first
arrivals.
It is to be noted alsothat the time scaleof interceptsrepresentsdoubletime for
the delay times and is exaggerated.
The adjustmentof the delay time curveinvolvesthe determinationof the true
velocityV of the markerbed.It canbe doneby usingdifferentvaluesfor Xr. As
a matter of fact, the two curves(C1) and (C2) obtainedfrom two valuesof
(c1)_ ' ...................

......... r;ct delay/mes
(C2)"... ".-,..........
)
FG. 17. Determinationof the markervelocity.
differingby zXX(Figure 17) are nearlyparallelto the delay time curve,therefore,

nearly parallel to each other. The measurement of the time difference ATa between
the two curvesdeterminesthe true velocity V of the marker'
ATa = (19)
2 Va
Of course,valuesof X may not be arbitrarily assumed'geophoneR is assumed

to be "comparativelynear" to the criticalpoint.To havean ideaof this "proximity"
it would be advisableto review the previousvalues' the double offsetusedin the
first surveyswas4 km while its true value variesfrom 8 to more than 15 km; this
had no important effect on the drawing of the delay time curvesand has neither
delayednor disturbedthe displayof the main structuresdiscoveredby refraction
in the Sahara.
The use of traces R located at 5 or 6 km beyond the critical point is then
permissiblein a region with a smooth tectonic structure.
Figure 18 is an exampleof the applicationof this methodcorresponding to the
sameportionof profileas the sectionin Figure 16. The pointsobtainedwith various
values of X are representedby different symbols.It can be seenthat the assumed
delotimecurve
v--6000% .+ v=625o + v=6ooo-/.
800
,a..--.,-.,-!--.--,------.,,-,J
--- 1 ' ' --900
, I .' I; -*-l-r:__::_--=-----:::-----::--:
deloy
times
corrected
forconvergence
_1,oo
o
delay
times forVa = 6000m/s.
calculated end0'XK= 4600m {A
12200
m
!I 18800m
FIG. 18. Exampleof delay time curveobtainedby constantdistancecorrelation.

velocity Va=6,000 m/sec is convenient for the extreme segments,while in the

central zonethe three valueschosenfor XK have led to drawing three nearly parallel
curves,and from their differencesis determinedthe true velocity VM--6,250 m/sec
in this zone; hence the accurate adjustment of the delay time curve is obtained.
When the second arrivals are clear and long enough, a relative curve can be
constructedin the same way as the one drawn from first arrivals by the Gardner
method.
The value VM of the velocity can be determined by measuring the convergence
between the delay time curve and the correspondingrelative curve'
1 1 AY
= (20)
V Va AX
where AX and A Y have the value given in Figure 19.

In the exampleshownin this figure,the velocity Va is 5,800 m/sec; the computed
true velocity is around 6,000 m/sec; after this computation, the delay time curve
has been adjusted.
_J____l+ AY J
vM- va - AX
Convergence
curve
AX
Delay
time
curve
Assumed
velocity
forcalculations
:1
=5100we/&
k ,.
I I I
2 I I
:5 i I
4 I I
5 I I
FIG. 19. Determination of the marker velocity with a relative curve.

It must be noted that magnetic recordingequipment is of great value in the con-

struction of such relative curvesfrom playbacks already usedfor the relative curve
correspondingto the first arrivals.
Use of an auxiliary marker surveyedby Gardner method.--It is known that the
conventional direct and reversed shooting helps to reveal the surface anomalies
and the important anomaliesdue to the overburden; the first show up with a zero
shift in both directions of shot, the second with a shift less than the double offset
of the particular marker.
The method of constant distance correlation does not show these anomalies and
the delay time values determined have correspondingerrors which may be serious.
To eliminate these errors, it would be advisable to study conventionally a marker
M possibly above the more interesting marker M, but located, at least, at the
depth of the subsurface layer likely to produce the most important anomalies.
This auxiliary marker will be chosenin such a way that its study is as cheap and
easy as possible.
It may happen that no additional shootingwill be required, the samerecordused
for the conventional study of M in first arrivals may sometimesbe used for the
study of M by correlation in secondaryarrivals.
In this last case,if the arrivals from both markers can be recorded up on a com-
mon spread,having accurately determined the velocity of medium M through its
completedouble control study, then a new meansto compute the velocity of medium
M by the study of the convergenceof both arrivals is obtained. Convergenceis not
influenced by surface or overburden anomalies.
Use of this prospectingmethodin thefield

The shootingprogram must be planned taking into consideration:
1) the critical zone correspondingto marker M with sufficientsafety margin for
a possibleoffset change,and 2) the arrivals relative to marker M under conditions
making possibleits examination by the classicdouble control method.
The number of shotswill dependboth on the desiredaccuracy,i.e. the density of
measurementpoints desired for M, and on the usable length of M on each record.
Moreover, it would be desirable to make some complementary shots:
-- someat a greater distance to check occasionallythe arrivals relative to M by
a study of first arrivals from that marker; these shots may also aid in dis-
covering markers deeper than M.
others, at a shorter distance, in order to study at least in a schematicway,
the markers in the overburden, even those whoselength may be too short on
the records for conventional examination, but for which correlation is pos-
sible. In this case, the adjustment of these horizons is not perfectly ascer-
tained since their velocity is not exactly determined, but a sufficiently ac-
curate idea of their shapeis obtained providing their velocity doesnot vary;
the delay time curves so obtained may be compared to the "phantom hori-
zons" often drawn in seismic reflection.
The full shooting program will often be unbalanced; the control shots at great
Delay Time and Correlation Interpretation 19t
CrossingM2 ' M 3
X2
X3
CrossingM2-M3
Fro. 20. Exampleof shotdiagram.M,, Ms, and M4 are surveyedby correlationat constantdistance
X, Xs, andX4; M3 is studiedwith both Gardnerand constantdistance(X3)correlationmethods.The
dotted line indicatesthe vanishingof marker M3 by lossof energy.Length of eachspread'4.2 km.
distanceand the complementaryshotsat short distancemay need to be made in

one direction only.
The reversedshootingis only necessaryfor the study of the auxiliary marker by
the double control method. For the horizons studied by correlation, each measure-
ment is in fact independent,and the reversedirectionof the shot,i.e. the reciprocal
shotpointgeophone, only allowsverificationof the principleof reversedpath.
Productionwise,for two crews,oneoperatingin a conventionalway and the other
one usinga pattern properto the correlation,two main factorshave oppositere-
sults and nearly balanceeach other: (1) The shootingof a large number of shots
for the study by correlationmethodslowsup the work, but (2) the useof lighter
chargesreducesthe dependence upon atmosphericconditions,particularlywind,
and givesa largernumberof workingdaysin the field.
5oo....c
. o _- * .._ _ _ M!
" o .... M2
_
600o " :" " o

700
800
15 16 i3 12 II I0 9 8 7 6 5 / 3 2 I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Fro. 21. Delay time curvesreferringto Figure 20.

Crossin
9 M2' M3
X3
X2
3 2 !
Xi
X2
X3
CrossingM2-M3
FIG. 22. Example of shot diagram.M, and M2 are surveyedby correlationat constantdistancesX
and X2; the deepmarkerMa is studiedwith both Gardnerand constantdistance(Xa) correlationmeth-
ods.Length of each spread'4.2 km.
Theuseofmagnetic
recording
isveryadvisablel
if notto saynecessary.
In addi-
tion to playingback the individualtraceswith appropriategain, the useof a mag-
netic unit makes possiblethe systematicrealization, at the Central Playback
Office,of sectionssimilar to that shownin Figure 16.
CONCLUSIONS
The main advantagesof this method are'

First, a reductionin explosives
on accountof the shortshotpointdistanceswhich
will be about15 km in the Saharainsteadof 30 to 40. The savingsin explosive
may
be partly countered by an increasednumber of shots but not in all instances.
500
600---c
700
n
800 M3
12 I! I0 9 8 7 6 5 / 3 2 1
I- I I I I I I I I I I I I
Fro. 23. Delay time curvesreferringto Figure 22.

Second,data from recordsare more fully interpreted, especiallyin the study of

the overburden. Also, the arrivals recordedin the neighborhoodof the critical point
have a shorter travel path along the marker. This leads to interesting consequences:
1. The determined delay times correspondto a nearby surface of the marker,
which is not the casein conventionalprospectingfor media where the velocity
is increasingslowly with depth and for which the true path dependson increas-
ing the shot offset distance.
2. The difficultieswith classicalprospectingin disturbedzones,when one or more
faults are located along the path between shotpoint and geophone, are re-
duced to a minimum. Thus a more accurate localization of faults and a better
evaluation of throw can be obtained.
3. One of the main sourcesof difficulties is eliminated in the interpretation of
arc shooting. This difficulty consistsin the fact that time variations of delay
times occur simultaneouslyat the geophoneand at the shotpoint, the latter
being no longer negligiblein caseof important error in the offset evaluation.
At the distances utilized in the correlation method, the two marker points
involved are almost alike and the delay time variation is directly determined
by taking half the correspondingvariations of time.
In fact, the most difficult point is the study of the recordingswhich demands
attention and experience.Correlating and picking must be reasonablyconservative.
Furthermore, there are some limitations to the use of this method due to the
presencein the overburdenof thick beds with good acousticproperties or the im-
possibilityof finding a goodauxiliary marker. In thesecasesit might be necessaryto
comeback to the use of the classicalprospectionfor the deep marker M. However,
short distance complementary shots may permit the study of markers in the over-
burden in an economical manner.
As a conclusion,two examplesare given of the useof this method with their shot
diagramsand delay time curves:
In the first case(Figures20 and 21), an auxiliarymarker Ma in the overburden
was surveyed by the Gardner method; the main marker M4 and other markers
M and Ms in the overburden were studied by correlation.
In the secondexample (Figures 22 and 23), the main deep marker Ma was
studied by double-control Gardner method, as two others M and Ms were
investigatedby correlationmethod.
Of course,when the two methods may be usedfor the same marker, it is interest-
ing to perform a completedouble study as was done, respectively,for Ms and M4
in the two precedingexamples.
REFERENCES
Gardner,L. W., 1939,An areal plan of mappingsubsurfacestructureby refractionshooting:Geophysics,

v. 4, p. 247-259.
Clement, A., and Layat, C., 1961, Correlation distanceconstanteen sismiquerdfraction' Geophys.
Prosp., v. 9, p. 296-314.
Layat, C., Cldment, A., Pommier, G., and Buffet, A., 1961, Sometechnicalaspectsof refraction seismic
prospectingin the Sahara:Geophysics, v. 26, p. 437-446.

DETERMINATION
BY REFRACTION
Section
4
OF WEATHERING
OR
METHODS
LVL THICKNESS
Section 4
Determination of Weathering or LVL Thickness

by Refraction Methods
The use of refraction methodsfor determiningweatheringor LVL (low-velocity

layer) thicknessis probably the most commonuse of the refraction method. Actu-
ally, thesesametechniquesare usedby the civil engineersfor dam and building sites,
and for road construction. Very similar techniquesare also used in mining applica-
tions, since the problemsencounteredin mineral exploration are usually relatively
shallow in depth. Therefore, the methods describedin this section may be of more
interest to these people than other sections,although virtually all methods that are
applied to any refraction problem can also be applied to weathering determination,
since,in general,he common
usageof "weathering"
is just a shallowrefraction
problem.
The first paper, "Multilayer Near-Surface Refraction Computations," by Knox,
demonstratesthe more conventionalusesof refraction for weathering or low velocity
layer calculations.Formulas and techniquesincludingcorrectionsfor hole depth are
supplied.
The secondpaper, Hollister's "A Curved Path Refraction Method" describesthe
use of refraction to determine the time to a particular depth by use of a variable
velocity assumption.The relationship implies starting with a particular velocity at
the surfaceand increasingproportionally with depth raisedto a fractional power.
The third paper, "Practical Application of Blondeau Weathering Solution," by
Musgrave and Bratton, representsa specialsimplificationof the secondpaper using
a similar increaseof velocity with depth but starting with velocity equal to zero at
the surface.
The fourth paper in this section, Mendenhall's "Refraction Refinement Tech-
nique," representsthe use of the refraction method for a little deeperlow velocity
layer in a particular area. It describesa method of inline profiling usedto solvethe
salt thicknessproblem in the Western Anadarko Basin of the Texas and Oklahoma
Panhandle area.
196
MULTILAYER NEAR-SURFACE REFRACTION COMPUTATIONS
W. A. KNOX*
ABSTRACT
Refractionformulassuitablefor deeprefractionwork are applicableto shallowrefractionprofilingpro-

videdsuitableallowanceis madefor the depth of shotwhich is ofttimescomparableto, or greaterthan,
the thicknessof the near-surfacelayersunderinvestigation.
Thoroughunderstanding of near-surface
geologycontributesmateriallyto successful
interpretationof
refraction velocities.
Adoptionof an orderlycomputingroutineand a selectionof computingaidsare requiredto achieve
bothspeedand accuracyof computation.
INTRODUCTION
Thicknessesand velocities of near-surfacelayers can be measured quickly and

accurately by shallow refraction surveys. These quantities are of use in deep
seismicexploration,whetherby reflectionor refractionmethods,to obtain the time
correctionsfor travel in near-surface material. Such surveys are also commonly
madefor engineeringand mining applications.
Basicrefractionformulassuitable for deep refractionwork apply equally well to
shallowexploration,providedthe formulasare correctlymodifiedto fit the geometry
of shot and geophonespread. Where the shot depth is comparableto or much
greater than the thicknessesof layers of interest, required modificationsbecome
significant.Knowledgeof the surficialgeologyin the area of surveywill aid in solu-
tion of the geophysical
data and preventintroductionof grosserrorsin the computed
results.
The purposesof this paper are (1) to presenta qualitative discussionof near-
surfaceconditionsin various regions,and (2) to list and illustrate applicationof a
systematicarray of multilayerrefractionequations,takingshotdepthinto account.
TYPE AREAS INVOLVING MULTIPLE
LOW-VELOCITY LAYERS NEAR THE SURFACE
Geologicalconditions
Understandingof the surficialgeologyis a material aid in interpretingseismic
refractiondata. A brief review of typical complexnear-surfaceconditionsand their
associatedvelocity distributions follows.
In the simplestlayering, the weatheredzone constitutesa singlelow-velocity
layer near the surface.More complicatedare the glacialdrift depositsof northern
and easternUnited Statesand Canada, where the velocity of the unweathereddrift
may be intermediatebetweenthe very low velocityof the weatheredlayer and the
relatively high-velocitybedrockbeneath.
Fossildrainagechannelsor depressions filled by detrital materialmay presenta
* WesternGeophysical
Companyof America,LosAngeles,
California.
197
198 Determination of Weathering Thickness
problem when the enclosingrocks are near the surface.The infilling material may
have a velocity appreciablylower than that of the surroundingrock, yet its velocity
may be much higher than that of the usual surfaceweathered material. Pakiser and
Black (1957) report a situation in southern Utah in which low-velocity Triassic
Shinarump Conglomerate fills erosional channels in the Moenkopi Formation.
Thralls and Mossman(1952) describea similar examplein southernKansasin which
Quaternary fill occupiesthe many irregularities of an older erosional surface on
flat-lying sandstoneand limestone.Hawkins (1961) discusses a three-layermantle-
rock problem in the vicinity of Canberra, Australia.
Buried low-velocity zonesare not uncommonand, when encountered,can prove
troublesome
in refractionsurveys.Pakiserand Black (1957) illustratean exampleof
high-velocity mudstone lensesfound imbedded in the lower velocity Shinarump
Conglomerate which, in turn, is contained in high-velocity Moenkopi channels.
Burg (1952) citesa velocity reversalin Pleistocenedepositsof the Williston Basin,
North Dakota. Velocity-reversalproblemsassociatedwith buried fossilweathered
layers have been encounteredin southern Saskatchewan,Manitoba, and northern
Alberta. In the Far North are found permafrost lenses,having a velocity of 13,000
to 15,000ft/sec, lying on unfrozen rocks with a velocity but one half to two thirds
as great.
Differing from a velocity reversal only in dimensionsis the so-calledstringer
problem in which refracted arrivals from an upper, thin, high-velocity bed mask
slower arrivals from underlying strata. One such example is given by Thralls and
Mossman (1952).
Climatic cycles,both long and short term, influencethe velocity of near-surface
layers. In mid-northern areas, surficial material freezesto several feet in winter.
Particularly in swampy areas,frozen material constitutesa stringer with velocity in
excessof 10,000ft/sec overlyinglow-velocityunfrozenearth. The ice stringer may
disappear in summer.
Bedrock near the surface may comprise a sequenceof alternating shales and
poroussand members,the latter being water-saturated. When a deep river channel
is cut into the strata, ground waters are drained from porous members of the
sequence,lowering the interval velocity within those members. A buried low-
velocity zone is thus produced extendingfor some distance away from one or both
banks of the channel. An uncorrectedseismicmap then showsa false synclinal halo
along the river course.Such an effect, attributed in part to post-glacialerosion,has
been observedalong the Peace River in northern Alberta and the AssiniboineRiver
in Manitoba.
Lateral distributionof velocitywith respectto composition

and ageof overburden
In specialcases,it is possibleto relate a particular rangeof velocitiesto a particu-
lar type of overburden.Glacial till of Wisconsinage comprisingmoraines,drumlins,
kames,and eskers,has a velocity of 6,000_ 500 ft/sec at suchwidely spacedpoints
as British Columbia, northern Montana, Nova Scotia, and northeastern Illinois.
Drift of Illinoisianage is reportedto havea velocityof 7,200 ft/sec in onearea, and
Kansandrift to havea velocityof 8,500ft/sec (Johnson,
R. B., 1954).
Multilayer Near-Surface Computation 199
Thick glacio-lacustrinesilt and clay sequencesare found in basins formerly

occupiedby ancient lakes, including Lake Red Deer in central Alberta, Lake Souris
in Manitoba, and a western reach of Lake Agassizin southern Saskatchewan.The
silt layer hasa velocity of 3,500_+500 ft/sec and is quite distinctfrom the weathered
layer (1,000ft/sec) and bedrock(6,000to 8,000ft/sec).
In general,the velocity within near-surfacelayers remainsessentiallyconstantfor
a given stratum, provided compositionand texture of the layers are fairly uniform.
A significantlateral velocity variation can usually be related to a facieschangeor to
unrecognizedlensingor wedging-inof new material.
Vertical distributionof velocitywithin the overburden

Vertical traveltime within surficial layers or overburden is variously related to
depth. Most commonly the velocity is constant within a single layer. If the over-
burden is composedof several layers, a seriesof straight-line segments,each corre-
spondingto a particular memberof the stratigraphic sequence,usually can be fitted
to the time-depth values. A segmentedlinear time-depth relationship implies a
constantinterval velocity within the memberor membersincludedby eachsegment.
In less frequent casesthe time-depth relationship is curved. Some curvature is
almost always associatedwith the weathered layer, although for most practical
work the weathering velocity can be approximated by a straight line. Man-made
fills, old infilled erosionalchannels,talus slopes,alluvial deposits,and landslidescan
be expectedto exhibit a nonlineartime-depth relationship.
Usually, there is a definite break in velocity between various overburden layers
and bedrock, although, in certain areas this is not true. For example,in the southern
San Joaquin Valley, California, the velocity increasescontinuouslywith depth with
no definite break between overburden and bedrock.
If a nonlinear time-depth function is encountered,it may neverthelessbe possible
to approximatethe function by meansof two or three straight-line segmentswithout
committing a significant error. A considerablesimplification in the computations is
possibleif the interval velocity can be assumedto be constant for a particular
lithologic unit.
Significanceof bedrockand overburdenvelocitydierential with respectto reflectionor

deeprefractionsurveying
The overburdenmay consistof severallayers of appreciablethickness,eachwith a
differentvelocity. Usually, the velocity of eachlayer increaseswith increasingdepth.
If the velocity of one or more of the layers closely approachesbedrock velocity
(xV <_+_500 ft/sec), the effectof that layer on reflectionor refractiontimeswill be of
little consequence.If bedrock velocity exhibits a gradient, while the overburden
velocity sequenceremains constant, time-delay effectsof an irregular overburden
assumeincreasingimportance as the contrast (ratio) between overburden and
bedrock velocity increases. For example, in the north-central Rocky Mountain
region and in southwesternCanada, bedrockvelocity near the surfaceis relatively
low to the east, about 5,500 to 6,500 ft/sec. The glacial drift mantle with a velocity
of about 6,000 ft/sec posesno problem as far as weathering correctionsare con-
cerned. Bedrock velocity increaseswestward reaching nearly 12,000 ft/sec along

someparts of the Rocky Mountain front. The sameglacial drift cover,of no impor-
tance to the east, presentsa seriousproblem in the west. The seismicinterpreter
must be familiar with the regional bedrock velocity gradient as well as what con-
stitutes an "anomalous"overburdenvelocity.
COMPUTATION FORMULAS
Introduction
Formulas that apply to conventionalrefraction surveys of deep-seatedhorizons

apply equally well to near-surfacerefraction studies,the main differencebeing one
of scale.Becauseelementary refraction theory has been developedby many authori-
ties in readily available texts, there is no need to review it here. Straight raypaths
are assumed,the interval velocity within a particular layer is consideredconstant,
and the layers are assumedto be isotropic, assumptionswhich generally will not
lead to significant error.
Either the intercept time or the critical distance form of the refraction formulas
can be used interchangeably becausethey are identically derived and will yield
identical results if properly applied. In this paper, the well-known time-intercept
form
Vi
Z-- Tj
2 cos io
where
iii= sin- V/Vi,
will be usedasa startingpoint (Nettleton, 1940,pp. 250-253).

Dip equations can be introduced if desired. The most convenient suite of dip
equationsfor practical use are those of Officer et al. (1959, p. 26). If the shallow
refraction survey happensto be a by-product of reflection surveying, spreadsand
geophonearrays are optimizedfor reflectionwork by useof nestsof many geophones
spread over a wide area. Becauseit is not possibleto know which, if any, single
geophoneis the receptor of the first arrivals, refraction time-distance plots are
erratic and dip computationsare often unsuccessful.
Shot depthcorrection
Shot depths may be large comparedto thicknessesof the layers of interest. The
time-intercept equation above must be modified to take into accountthe depth of
shot. In Figure 1, AE is the surface,AB the depthof shot(D), and BCDE the path
of a refracted ray. It is evident that the unsymmetricalpath BCDE can be replaced
by the isoscelestrapezoidrepresentedby the dashedlines.If the intercept time, due
to a shot at B, were introducedin the equation above, the computedthickness,Y,
would be in error by just half the shot depth. Correct thicknessis Z- Y-}-D/2.
Multilayer Near-SurfaceComputation 201
Voo
A E oo
' Di/2
-I
Y
/
o Vo
c D
Vl
Fro. 1. Geometryof shot-depthcorrection.
Equations
A listing
oftypeequations follows,
adaptedtofit variousconditionswherein
the
shotmaylie above, within,or beneaththerefractor of interest.
Eachgroupof
equationsrefers
toa figure
illustrating
assumedtravelpaths andthecorresponding
refraction
graph.Becausetheso-called"weathered
layer"issimply thefirstmember
ofasequence ofrefractors,
nospecialconsideration
willbegiven toit thatwould
not
alsobe givento any otherrefractor.
Shotin layerZo (Figure2)

Zo = rVo/(2 cosi0) q- D8/2, ()
z = (r - r0)z/(2 cosi), (2)
Z = (r -- r0 -- r)/(2 cosi), (3)
where
Toi = ( Yo/Vo)2 cosi0i,

Ti = (Zi/Vi)2 cosii, jO,
Yo = Zo- Ds/2,
and
ijk = sin- Vj/Vk.
In equation(1),if theshotisat theair-earth

interface,
00,D/2-0. Failureto
include
factor(2 cosi0)in thedepthcomputationforthefirstlayer,Z0,mayleadto
serious error.
It is notuncommon to seethedirectarrivalthroughlayerZ0asa primarybreak
andthe refractedarrivalfromZ as a secondary event.Thickness
of Z0 is always
computed
fromintercept
T derived
fromrefracted
arrivals.
202 Determinationof WeatheringThickness
Voo
GEOPHONE
SHOT
Vo
Vl
V$
tr
TO
Fro.2. Raypathsandrefraction
graphfor shotin layerVo.
Shotin Z near top (Figure 3)
Zo - T Vo/cosio, (4)
x = (r- ro)/(2 cosi,) + (D- go)/2, (s)
Z = (r- ro- r)/(2 cosi2), (6)
z = (r- ro- r.- r)/(2 cosi): (7)
where
To= (Zo/Vo)cosios,j 1, Tk= (Y/V)/2 cosik,

Tjk= (Z/Vi)2 cosiik,j 1, and Y=Z-- (D,--Zo)/2.
Notethedifference
between
formulas
(1) and(4) forZobecause
of thechanged
geometryand, similarly,the difference
between(2) and (5) forZ. If V_<3Voand
T_< .030 sec,T canbe substitutedfor To2.
Multilayer Near-Surface Computation 2O3
Voo
GEOPHONE
Vo
Vl
V2
I/V4
I/V
T4
I/V2
T2
tr I/Vl
T
Fro. 3. Raypathsand refractiongraphfor shot in layer V, near top of layer.
Shotin layerZx, near base(Figure4)

Thickness Zo cannot be determinedeven approximatelyfrom refraction data, but
must be computedfrom someother sourcesuchas a graph of uphole time versusshot
depth. If Z0 hasbeendeterminedindependently,then Zx canbe computedfrom
Zt = (r2- ro2)Vt/(2 cosit) q- (D,- Z0)/2, (8)
where
To = (Zo/Vo) cosi0.
Deeperlayersarepeeledoffusingequations(6) and (7).
It is apparent from Figure 4 that direct rays from shot to geophonespreadfollow
diagonalpaths in layer Zt, therefore, the first part of the refraction graph is non-
linear with intercept equal to the uphole time tr; the true intercept is the intercept of
the asymptoteto the curve.Equation(8) appliesprovidedthe true interceptis used.
Figure 5 illustratestypical refractiongraphsresultingfrom variationsin shot depth.
2O4 Determination of Weathering Thickness
GEOPHONE
Vo
SHOT,
V$
I/V3
I/V2
T3
T2
tr
Fro.4. Diagonalandrefracted
pathsfor shotnearbaseof layerV.
Shotin layer Z2 (Figure 6)

Let V0< V < V2< V3< V4,andlet the quantitiesZ0, V0,Z, V be obtainedfrom a
graphof upholetime versusshotdepth;then
z = (r- r0- r)/(2 cosi.)+ (Ds- Zo- Z)/2, (9)
z = (r- r0- r.- r)z/(2 cosi), (o)
where
T = (Zi/Vi) cosii, j 2, T2k= ( Y2/V2)2 cos

and
2- Z2- (Ds- Zo- Z)/2.

Relationship
between
upholeandintercepttimes
In somecomputations,
it isconvenient
to combine
theverticaltimemeasured
up
the holewith the refractedintercept(slant)time. It is evidentthat sucha combina-
.,oo
:o
.o,o
i ..-
.oo-/
Ti T
r = ,0250
tr
=.0575
T.040
T = .0564
.oo D
t r = .0404 T
.060
tr = .0454 T .040
TI=.0564
.020

T,..o5o7
.o6o ,. .......
x
Fro.5. Change
inappearance
ofrefraction
graphs
forshots
at various
depths.
tioncanbemade onlyif thevertical

timeisconverted toanequivalentslanttime,
forif tristheuphole
timeandif theshotisexactly
at theV0- Vinterface,
wehave
t = Zo/Vo
whilefrom (4) the intercepttime is
r = (Zo/Vo)(coion)
= t cos i0x.
GEOPHONE
Vi
V2
V$
V4
Fro. 6. Raypathsand refractiongraphfor shotin layer V.
Thus, tr> T provided the shot is at or below the V0--V boundary; if tr__< T1, the
shot is above the interface. This is a relationship of considerableimportance in
interpretation of refraction data since it enables one to detect a hidden layer.
Sometimesan interpreter will attempt to substitute tr for To, mainly as a short cut
in the computations. The table below showsthe error in secondscommitted using
this approximation. Relative errorsrange from 13.4 percentfor V0- V down to less
than two percent for the highest velocity contrasts.
Table 1
tr= .010 .030 .050
Vo/V T-tr cosi0
1,000/6,000 .0001 .0004 .0007

2,000/8,000 .0003 .0010 .0016
2,000/6,000 .0006 .0017 .0028
1,500/3,000 .0013 .0040 .0067
Multilayer Near-Surface Computation 2O7
VELOCITY REVERSALS
Introduction
Under ordinary circumstances, velocity of rock layers increaseswith increasing

depth. In specialcases,the normal velocity increaseis interrupted by an abrupt
decreasein velocity as shownin Figure 7. If layer V1 is very thin, it is termed a
"stringer" and its presencecan sometimesbe ignored provided refracted arrivals
are receivedfrom layer V3 and V0 V.. On the other hand, if layers V1 and V. are
thick, the problem may be incapable of an accurate solution from refraction data
alone.
Figure 8 is an illustration of a typical first-arrival pattern to be expectedfrom a
section containing a buried low-velocity layer; the refracted traveltime graph
resemblesthat of Figure 9. Figure 7 is a time-depthgraphfrom a nearby velocity-
test hole. Arrivals on tracesl-6, Figure 8, wererefractedfrom layer V3 while arrivals
on traces7-12 arrived via layer V1. Note particularly the high-frequencyenergy
content of the events on traces 6 to 9 and their rapid attenuation with increasing
distance.
Approximate solution methods

The obvious solution to the problem of a velocity reversal is to drill a grid of
closelyspacedexploratoryholes.If, however,the combinedthicknessesof Z0, Z1, Z.
is large, this becomeseconomicallyunfeasible,forcingrelianceupon the combined
useof a limited number of velocity holesplus refractionprofiling.
If the refractionshotholepenetratesto the top of layer V.(Figure 9), thicknessof
the buried low-velocitylayer can be determinedfrom a formula analogousto equa-
tion (7). Let V0< V.< Vi< Va< V and let quantitiesV0, Z0, V1, Z1 be determined
from a graph of upholetime versusshot depths.SinceV.will not appear on a refrac-
tion traveltime graph, a value for V. must be assumedfrom previously drilled
velocity holes. Then
= r0- cos + Zo-

Z-- (r4- ro- rl- T.)V/(2 cosi);
Tjk '- (Zj/V) cosik, j 2, r. = (Y./V)2 cosi.;
and
Y.-- Z.- (Ds- Z0- Z1)/2.
If the shotis in layer Z1 (Figure 10) exactsolutionis not possible,but an estimateof

the depth to the top of layer Z3 can be madeif the averagevelocity through
layers Z1 and Z. can be estimatedfrom independentsources.Computationsproceed
thus'
Zo = T1Vo/cosi01. (13)
Z1 cannotbe determined,but let Za be a fictitious layer approximatingZ1---Z..Then

TIME IN SECONDS
.020 .040 .060 .080 .100 .120 .140 .160
I I I I I I I
5O
I00
150
200
250
_z 300
50
400
450
500
550
600
Fro.7. Time-depth
graphillustrating
velocity
reversal.
F]o. 8. Typicalpatternof firstrefractedarrivalsassociated

with a buriedlow-velocity
layer.
Z, = (Ta- T0a)V/(2 cosi,a) + (D,- Z0)/2, (14)

To = (Zo/Vo) cosi0,
siniaa= F/Va.
If Z is a very thin high-velocitystringerin what is otherwisea thick low-velocity

layer,F will closelyapproximateV2,andZawill beverynearlythe correctthickness
for Z2.
HOMOGRAMS FOR REFRACTION COMPUTATIONS
In the actual computations,to easethe workloadof the alreadyoverworkedfield

interpreter,full useshouldbe madeof computationalaidssuchas the sliderulesof
Dix (1952) or Knox (1958); the nomograms of Lyons (1952), Mossman(1952),
Savit (1965); the instrumentof Vajk (1954); a set of precomputedtables;or the
nomogramsillustrated below.
Of the two nomograms,Figure 11 is to computethe velocityratio N and Figure 12
is to computeZ if the intercepttime, velocities,and velocityratio are known.
To computethicknessof layer Z,
(1) Given' velocitiesV, V+,
GEOPHONE
Vo
Vi
0T
V2
V3
.V0 < Vz < VI V$ < V4
I/V4
tr I/Vl
Fro. 9. Raypathsand refractiongraphfor shotin layer V.where V.< V (velocityreversal).
intercept time: T,
required: Z.
(2) ConnectV with V+ Figure 11. Read/V, + on the appropriatescale.
(3) Connect V with T Figure 12. From/V, +, draw a secondline through the
intersection of the first line with the a axis. The extension of the second line to the
Z scale gives Z.
To computeauxiliary time T,,

(1) ConnectZ with X, +2 (Figure 12).
(2) Draw a secondline from V through the intersectionof the first line (Step 1)
with the a axis, extendingthe secondline to the T axis. The reading is T,, ,+.
(3) This processcan be repeatedfor T,, ,+3,T,, +4,etc.
CONCLUSION
Accurate results are possibleby use of shallow refraction methods provided the
data are properly interpreted and computed.Establishmentof a systematiccompu-
GEOPHON
Vo
SHOT Vl
JE PATH ,UMED PATH
(Va = Avg.of Vi
Vo < Va<V <-Va V$
T$
tr
/// I/Va
FG. 10. Raypathsand refractiongraphfor shotabovevelocityreversal.
tation routine will permit the calculationsto be made with ease by the average
explorationfield crew.A numericalexample(Figure13) is nowpresentedby way of
illustration.
The refracted traveltime graph is shownin the body of Figure 13, uphole time-
depth graphsfor shotpoints1 and 2 just below, while a profile of the overburden
layersis drawn at the top. The distancebetweenshotholesis about 2,000ft but the
geophonespreadis 1,600ft longwith the nearestgeophones beingplaced200 ft from
each shothole.
At shotpoint1, three velocitiesappear: 3,500; 6,320; and 8,400 ft/sec (true
velocities:6,000, 8,000 ft/sec). At shotpoint2, however,only two velocities,5,720
and 7,700 ft/sec, are evident. Despite the absenceof a low-velocity intercept, there
is a hiddenlayer of 3,500 ft/sec material beneaththe shot as can be seenfrom the
upholetime-depthgraphand the fact that tr is lessthan T2, wheretr is the uphole
time at shot depth of the refractionrecordusedfor the refractiongraph.
Depth to the base of the V0 layer can be obtainedby inspectionof the uphole
time-depthgraphs,yieldingZ0-30 ft and 25 ft for shotpoints1 and 2 respectively.
The depth could also have been computedfrom T at shotpoint 1 although this
couldnot be done at shotpoint 2 becauseT is absent.
Thicknesses for layershavingvelocitiesV and V2canbe computedwith the aid of
equations(5) and (6), respectively.Becausethereis no V interceptfor shotpoint2,
EXAMPLE
GIVEN' Tn = .020 TO FIND: Zn; Tn,n+2

Vn = 6000
Vn+l = 8000
Vn+2 = I0,000
CHART I CHART 2
Nn, n+l = .75 Zn = 91

Nn,n, 2 .60 Tn, n+2 = 24
4000
-- io,ooo Vn 5OO0
--9000 Nn'n+i
= V"';i
-- 8000
6000
-- 7000 1.00-- 7OO0

.90 --
.80--
8000
9000
- ooo .50--
- . I0,000
.40 m
--4000 -
.30--
_
14,000
--3000 .20m
Vn+i
,10--
2000
Nn,n+i
-- iooo
Vn
FG. 11. Nomogramfor computingsin i..--
150--
Vn 600 --
2 COSi n,n+i 500 --
I00 --
400--
.090--
350 --
.080--
.070-- 300 --
.060--
250 --
.050--
200--
.040--
150--
.030
--20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
.020
-- 12,000
-- io,ooo
_
-- 9000
_
-- 8000
_
--7000
.010 --
40-- 6000
.009 --
_
.008 -- -- .80
--5000
.007-- 30--
--4000
.006--
--.90
.005--
20-- --3000
.004-- -- .95
.003 --
L--2000
I0--
.002 --
Tn N Zn Vn
m. 12. Nomommfo compudng]sythickness,Z.
SURFACE
Vo = I000
50-- - 50
V 3500
-- IO0
I00--
-- 150
150--
V2 = 6000 -- 200
200--
--250
250--
V3 = 8000
I I
500 1000 1500
.35o i I
,300
.3oo --
25O
.25o --
.200 --
z
o
_z
150

_
.15o -
T3
=.
106 I00
T3 = .083
Ta=.078
tr: 039'050;/ Ta:
t r:
.043
.032
,,:1o29
SHOT POINT I
o 500
I GEOPHONE
SPREAD I000 1500 2000
SHOT POINT 2
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE IN FEET
060 -
,(3 OU o, .060
t = ,032 -I.oo
0
I
50 I00
I 00 0
SHOT DEPTH IN FEET SHOT DEPTH IN FEET
FIG. 13. Numericalexampleillustratinguseof formulas.

To2and Toaare to be computedby multiplying the vertical time through layer Vo

(.025 secfrom the upholegraph) by cosio2and cosioa.
True velocitiesof layers V and Vaare 6,000 and 8,000 ft/sec, but an averageof the
apparent velocitieswill give a slightly different value if refractor dip is ignored.
Numerical computations can be made with the aid of the nomograms. The
following format is suggestedfor the computations:
SP1 SP2
Vo= 1,000 1,000 Vo = 1,000 V1 = 3,500
3,500-Va=2
Vi=3,500 /(,6,320 1) = 2/(.158
q-5,720 q-.175)
= 6,000
Va=6,320 -Va=2/(,.8,400
5,720 + 7,700'
= 2/(.130
q-.119)
= 8,020
Va = 8,400 7,700 N01 -- .29 N12 = .58
Ds = 60' 50' N0a = .17 -/Via = .44
tr- .039 .032 N0a=.13 N:a = .75
Ti= .029 .025
Ta= .078 .043
Ta = .106 .083
Zo = 30' 25'
T0 = .030 .025
T0a= .030 .025
(SP1) Z1 = (.078- .030)4(N12)(V1) q- (60- 30)/2 Tla = .054

= 105 q- 15 = 120'
(SP2) Z1 = (.043 --.025)(Nl)(V1) q- (50- 25)/2 Tla = .020
= 39 + 12.5 = 52'
(S) Z = (.06 -- .0S4 -- .030)(V)(V)
= 101'
(s2) = (.0s3 - .020 -

= 174'
The symbol qdenotesthe operation of aligning Nn. n+. V,, and T as instructed
in the directionson the nomograms,Figures 11 and 12.
I would like to thank Mr. Carl H. Savit for his patient help, suggestions,and
encouragementduring preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
Althoughnot all referenceshave beenspecificallycited in the text, thoselistedherehave a direct bear-

ing on shallowrefractionexploration.
Surfacetopographiceffects
Burg, K. E., 1952,Explorationproblemsof the WillistonBasin:Geophysics,v. 17,p. 465.
Burg, K. E., Ewing, M., Press,F., and Stulken, E. J., 1951,A seismicwave-guidephenomenon:Geo-
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Hawkins, L. V., 1961, The reciprocalmethod of routine shallowseismicrefractioninvestigations:Geo-
physics,v. 26, p. 806.
Pakiser,L. C., and Black, R. A., 1957,Exploringfor ancientchannelswith the refractionseismograph:
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Thralls, H. M., 1957-58, Topographyand its apparenteffecton averagevelocity:Tulsa Geophysical
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Thralls,H. M., andMossman,R. W., 1952,Relationof seismic corrections
to surfacegeology:Geophysics,
v. 17, p. 218.
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Computationmethods
Dix, C. H., 1952,Seismicprospecting
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Hagedoorn,J. G., 1959,The plus minusmethodof interpretingseismicrefractionsections:Geophys.
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Nettleton, L. L., 1940,GeophysicalProspecting
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Slotnick,M. M., 1959,Lessonsin seismiccomputing:Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists.
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Computingaids
Davis, D. S., 1943,Empiricalequationsand nomography:New York, McGraw-Hill.
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Knox,
W.A.,1958,
Aslide
rulefornear-surface
exploration:
Geophysics,
v.23,p.14.
Lyons,P. L., 1952,Nomogramfor simpletwo-layerrefractionproblem:Geophysics, v. 17,p. 962.
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Vajk, R., 1954,Devicesfor the construction
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v. 19,p. 237.
General
Domzalski,W., 1956,Someproblemsof shallowrefractioninvestigations' Geophys.Prosp.,v. 4, p. 140.

Johnson,R. B., 1954,Use of the refractionseismicmethodfor differentiatingPleistocenedepositsin the
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Engineeringapplications
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Fritz, A.M., 1960, The engineeringseismographand its application to highway engineering:11th
AnnualSymposium on HighwayEngineeringGeologyProceedings, Florida GeologicalSurvey.
Gough,D. I., 1952,A newinstrumentfor seismicexplorationat very shortranges:Geophysics, v. 17,p.
311.
How explorationcancollaboratewith pipelineconstruction,1959:Oil in Canada,v. 7, no.40.
Leet, L. D., Use of seismicmethodsto improve blastingpractice: 6th Annual Drilling and Blasting
Symposium, UniversityCenterfor ContinuousStudy,Minneapolis.
Little, C. R., 1958,Applicationof seismology
to highwayengineering problems:9th AnnualSymposium
on Geologyas Appliedto Highway Engineering,Universityof Virginia and Virginia Departmentof
Highways.
Seismicanalysisaidsin overburdenremoval,1959:Mining Eng., v. 7, no. 8.
A CURVED PATH REFRACTION METHOD
JOHN C. HOLLISTER*
ABSTRACT
The exponentialvelocity-depthfunction,V--C(z-+-A)/'*,suggestedby Banta, is developedfor single-

layer and two-layersystems.The solutionsare applicableto low-velicity-layercorrectionsand to refrac-
tion seismicsurveys.Familiesof curvesrepresentingthe integralsinvolvedin the expressions are pre-
sentedand step-by-stepprocedures are provided.
INTRODUCTION
More than 20 yearsago,a flexiblevelocityfunctionwassuggested by Banta (1941)

for applicationto weatheringproblemswherea continuousincreaseof velocity with
depth is revealedby a curved time-distanceplot. Although originally proposedto
assistin solving troublesomelow-velocity-layercorrections,this velocity function
may be applied to explorationrefractioninterpretation as well. This instantaneous
velocity function is
V = C(z q- A) /n, n> 1 (1)
where C, A, and n are constantsand z is depth.
Elastic energyfollowinga particular raypath which reachesa maximum depth of
Zm(seeFigure 1), will havea maximumpropagationvelocity
dX
Vm -- C(Zm --JI-
A) 1In= at Xm, Tin. (2)
dT
Its initial velocity will be

Vo -- CA 1/n. (3)
The angle,a, whichthe ray makeswith the vertical is expressed

as
V (z -Jr-A) 1In
sin a = -- , (4)
Vm (Zm -Jr-A) 1In
and hence
z = (Zm + A)sinna- A.
Differentiation gives
dz -- n(Zm q- A) sinn- a cos (s)
But for any curvedray, dx= tan adz and hence

dx -- n(Zm q- A) sinnot
* Colorado Schoolof Mines, Golden, Colorado.

217
I/Vm
Tm
I/V o
Xm
Zm V= C(z+A)I/n
dz Vdf
dx
Fro. 1. A single-layer
systemwhosevelocityis definedby Banta'sfunction,V=C(zq-A) /',in which
C, A, and n are constantsand is depth.
For the complete raypath emerging at Xm
Xm = 2n(Zm + A) sinna da
o
= (Z+ A)I., (6)
where I= representsthe integral multiplied by 2n.

The definite integral, I=, is a function not only of n but alsoits lower limit of a0,
which means that a unique value of Ix existsfor each raypath. That Ix can be also
consideredas a function of Vol Vmand of A/Z followsfrom
sina0 = Vo/V = A/'*/(Z q- A) /'* = [(A/Z)/(1 q- A/Z)] TM. (7)
Curved Path Refraction Method 219
The integral, I,, may be evaluated by Simpson'srule for various n's and various
A/Zm's or variousVo/Vm's.A family of curvesfor Is versusn can be plotted, each
member being identified by a particular A/Zm ratio. These plots will be used in
computation as we will see later on.
To find Tmfor a particular ray, we refer to the basiccurvedray expressionindi-
cated in Figure 1,
foz dz V cos a
into which we substitute(4) and (5) and by changingthe limits obtain
t =
n(Z
+.4)
Vm o
sin n-2 a da.
For the full path

Zmq--A
T = I, (8)
Vm
where It representsthe integral multiplied by 2n.

Dividing (8) by (6) gives
Tmrm It
= --, (9)
Xm I
which, with a plot of It/1,, versusVo/Vmfor various n's (Plate I), will determine n.
A methodfor determiningvaluesfor Voand Vmwill be discussed in AppendixII.
Having determined n, we can evaluate the other constants,A and C. From (7)
we find
(Vo/Vm)n
A/Z m -- , (10)
1 -- (Vo/Vm)n
and from (6)
Xm
=
(1 q- A//Zm)I,
Knowing Z, and A/Zm, we have A. The value of Is is obtained from the plot I
versus n for various A/Zm's (Plate II), and the value of X'mis that used to find
I,/L,.
The physical significanceof A is indicated in Figure 1. It is the distanceabove the
groundsurfaceat which V would be zero were the regionentirely filled with material
governedby V=C(z+A) TM.
The value of C comesfrom (3) or
C = VolAnt". (12)
220
!.8
2.3
1.5
2.2'
1.100
1.7 }.....
0.2
O.3
Determination
PLATE I
of Weathering
6
Thickness
IT:Y FUNCTION
HART
$.9
125
150
2
0
!
2
3
Curved
4
Path
PLATE II
Refraction
6
Method
7
V.-ALUE.':
8
9
221
The constantsC, A, and n are independentof the path whereasIx, It, and A/Z,,
are parametersof the particular path.
SINGLE-LAYER SYSTEM
Now that the constantsof the material are known, reductionto datum beginsby
the selectionof the proper value of the depth, Zm, from the surface to the datum.
Not only must we choosethis depth, Zm, but we must also compute the corre-
spondingvertical time, r, to be subtracted from the reflection times. This vertical
time is
rm
=fozm
dz v
1 - 1In c
1- 1In vm ' (13)

TWO-LAYER SYSTEMS
A similar approachmay be made to a two-layer systeminvolving an upper layer

of Z thicknessand identifiedby the velocity function V=C(z+A) TMand a second
layer, V2=a constant>C(Z+A) TM.Figure 2 depictssucha system.
In the figure we see that if the entire half-spacewere describedby V, the ray
emergingat X would be definedby ao and the constantsC, A, and n. Under this
imaginarysituation,sin ao= Vo/V,. Actually, the ray that refractsalong V2 is such
that sin o'= V:/ V.
The ray that is common in V to both the actual and imaginary paths is defined
by sin ao/Vo=sin ao/V:=i/Vo=i/V. It is one whosemaximum velocity Vm
(with layer V absent) is equal to V. With this ray so defined(V,= V0, we can
start from the top of V2 and determineZ, Zm' and henceZ, the quantity desired.
From the above, we can write V= V= C(Z,+ A)/' or
--
The correspondingX and Tm for the imaginary ray (V absent) can be found
from (6) and (8) and the plots Ix versusn (Plate II) and It versusn (Plate III) since
C, A, A/Zoo,and V and n are known.
The time differencebetween the imaginary ray penetrating to Z and emerging
at X and the actual refracted ray emergingat X can be written as
Z' + A' X,,,'
T,--T- I'
V, V=
But from Figure2, Z'+A'=Z,+A. AlsoV= V=and X,'=(Z,d+A')Id. (Here

Tm I/V
/v2
Xm X
A .r--,,,.
cco
' !1 I=C(z+A)
i/n
,, .
Z'm // V2 = Consfont
>C(ZI+A)
I/n
. :X
0m
FIG. 2. A two-layersystemwhoseupperlayervelocityis definedby V=C(zq-A)/'and whosesec-
ondlayer velocityisconstantandgreaterthan V=C (Zq-A) lln . C, A, and nare constants,zisdepth,
and Z is the thicknessof the upperlayer.
and in succeedingequations,primes are added to the integrals,e.g.I ' to emphasize

that they are functionsof a0' and not a0.) Hence,
Z,'+A' Z,+A
T, -- T, = (!t' -- Ix') = (!t' --
Vm
or
Vm(Tm- T,,) V,.(T- T,)

I,'-- Ix'= = (15)
Z'+A Z+A
Equation (15) leadsviaa plot of It'-Ix' versusA'/Z' for variousn's (Plate IV) to a
224
.
.
2
3
.........
i........
i........
i.......
Determination
4
........
i.......
i......
PLATE III
of Weathering
6
7
Thickness
8
9
10
3.0
2.0
1.o
Curved
4
Path
FOR
PLATE
5
Refraction
6
FOR.!.VAL.
Method
7
LES..CF..
REFR,ACT.iON:
.AIZ
8
I'L'ATION
225
value of A'/Zm'. But sinceA' = A -1-Z and Z,,' = Z,,- Z, then

/z,)z,- A
(16)
(A'ZJ) +
and the thicknessof the upper layer is determined.
The vertical time in this layer is found from (13) to be
T1 -- (17)
i - 1In C
I/
II Xrn/2
I
;Zrn= ds V=C(+A)I/n
Fro. 3. The single-layersystemof Figure 1 shot from a deep hole. The inverseslopeat the inflec-
tion point of the time-distancecurveequalsthe maximumvelocity, V,, of a ray whosegreatestpene-
tration, Zm, is equal to the hole depth.
Step-by-stepproceduresfor both the single-layersystemof Figure 1 and the two-

layersystemof Figure2 are presentedin Appendix1.
CORRECTION FOR DEEP SHOTHOLES
Throughoutthe foregoingdiscussion,surface-to-surface
timesand distanceshave
beenpresumedand no allowancefor the depthof shothasbeenmade.If the shot-
holesare shallow, then uphole times may be added to refraction times without
appreciableerror and Vomay be computedby dividingthe shotdepth,ds,by the
uphole time, tuh.
For deepshotholes, a moreexactproceduremaybefollowed.Reference ismadeto
Figure3, whichrevealsthe rather interestingrelationthat the inverseslopeat the
point of inflectionof the time-distance
curveequalsa Vmcorresponding to a Zm
equalto thedepthof theshot,ds.The coordinates of thisinflectionpoint,X,/2 and
-t I
IXl ]Xm-XI
L. Xrn
4x,lx,F--
V=C(z+A)
I/n
i' /
/ V2=
cnstant
/ >C(+A]
/n
Fro. 4. The two-layersystemof Figure2 shotfroma deephole.To restorethe refractiontime, T,, to
its surface-to-surface
value,a time,h, isadded.The surface-to-surface
distanceismeasured froma polar
x to the left of the shothole.
Tin/2, are onehalf of thosecorresponding to a surface-to-surfaceray penetratingto

Zm(=ds). Together with a Vo obtained from an auxiliary surfaceor near-surface
shot, the data at the inflection point permits a ready determination of the constants
of the material, C, A, and n, by the single-layerprocedureoutlined in Appendix I.
For the two-layer system only the refraction time, Tr, need be corrected. This is
done graphically. Referring to Figure 4, we see that to "restore" the shot to the
surface,an amount, t,must be added to the measureTr-tand Xm must be measured
from a point, x, to the left of the origin. To find the distancex and the time t, it is
only necessaryto find the point on the time-distance curve between the inflection
point and the origin where the inverseslopeequals V2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The original study which resulted in this paper was made in 1955-56 during a
review of low-velocity-layer correctionproceduresin a student seminar on seismic
exploration at the Colorado Schoolof Mines. To members of that seminar, Messrs.
C. W. Kerns, R. C. Adamson, and M. N. Qureshy, go my sincerethanks for their
stimulating discussions and for the many hoursof hand calculationsspentin prepar-
ing the forerunnersof Plates I through IV. Also my thanks go to ProfessorsL. J.
Prince and C. R. Baer of the Mathematics Department at Mines for writing the
program used in computing the data for the plates, and to Mr. F. S. Lobato for his
drafting of theseplates.
I am particularly grateful to the anonymousreviewer of the original manuscript
for his thoughtful and significantsuggestionswhich have been incorporatedin this
version.
REFERENCE
Banta, H. E., 1941,A refractiontheoryadaptableto seismicweatheringproblems'Geophysics,

v. 6, p.
245-253.
APPENDIX I
Single-layer system
1. Plot the Tin,X data on ordinary rectilinear paper, and using French curvesor
a spline,draw the time-distancecurve.
2. Using a slopemeter(seeAppendixII), find Vo (the inverseslopeof the travel-
time curve at the origin).
3. Measure V with a slopemeterat some convenientpoint (X, T) on the
curve away from the originand using(9) and the It/Ix versusVo/V plot (Plate I)
find n.
4. Now using the n determinedin step 3 and expression(10), computeA/Z,.
5. From (11) and the Ix versusn for variousA/Z,'s (Plate II), find Z which with
the value of A/Z,, givesA.
6. Find C from (12) which completesthe determinationof the constants.
7. With the requireddepth to datum (either fixed or floating) as a new Z, find
the corresponding verticaltime,r, from (13).
I..iJ
Curved
Path
Refraction
Method
229
Two-layer system
1. Find the values of Vo,n, A, and C as outlined in steps1 through 6 above. Then
determine V2.
2. Determine Zm from (14) and the correspondingXm and T using (6) and (8)
plus the plotsIx versusn (Plate II), and It versusn, (Plate III).
3. From the traveltime curve, measureTr correspondingto Xr.
4. Find It'--Ix' from (15).
5. From the It'--Ix' versusn for variousA/Z,'s (Plate IV) determineA/Z, .
6. Finally, calculateZ and r from (16) and (17).
APPENDIX II
The determination of values of Vo and V from the time-distance curve can be

made quickly and with enhancedaccuracywith the aid of a prism-protractorslope-
meter, similar to the illustration. Although, to the author's knowledge,this is not a
commercialitem, onemay be constructedfrom readily availableparts; for example'
1. A 6-inch 360-degreetransparent protractor
(Post 1534-A)
2. A small 90-degreeprism
(Bauschand Lomb 1/4 inchX 1/4 inch right anglefaces),
3. An illuminated magnifier
(Bauschand Lomb 10X, Cat. No. 81-34-34)
The prism is mountedon the centerof the protractor (by cementor with a Plexi-
glasholder)with its hypotenusefacedownand with the apexbetweenthe 90-degree
facesperfectlyalignedwith the 90-270 degreesdiameter.
When viewed through this combination,the line whoseslopeis desiredwill only
appear continuous acrossthe apex of the prism when it is parallel to the 0-180
degreesdiameter of the protractor at its intersectionwith the 90-270 degrees
diameter;otherwise,it will appearto be broken (see illustration). The illuminated
magnifier, preferably mounted directly over the prism, adds markedly to the ac-
curacy.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF BLONDEAU
WEATHERING SOLUTION
A. W. MUSGRAVE* AND R. H. BRATTON*
ABSTRACT
A seriesof simplifieddiagramsare presentedas aidsin the applicationand mathematicaldevelopment

of the BlondeauWeathering Method.
The final result of the Blondeaucalculationis the vertical traveltime through a zone boundedby the
surfaceof the groundand a datum at a specifieddepth belowthe surface.
The step-by-stepanalyticalsolutionfor two actual field examplesare presented.
This paper describesa method for determining the vertical traveltime to a pre-
determineddepth below the surfacein an area wherevelocity increaseswith depth.
The method is normally used for correctingreflectionrecords for weathering and
near-surfacevelocity variations. The mathematical solution is credited to the late
Mr. E. E. Blondeau with GeophysicalResearchCorporation and, therefore, bears
his name. Publicationscoveringparts of this subjectincludeBanta (1941), Handley
(1954), and Duska (1963). The mathematical theory for this method is included in
the Appendix of this paper.
The first caseof the Blondeau solutionis demonstratedby referring to Figure 1.
The assumptionis made that velocity is proportionalto depth to the 1In power (V
=CZ /'). By mathematical manipulation, it can be shown that the slope of the
time-distanceplot on log-logpaperis equalto !- 1In. This slopeis referredto as B.
Also, mathematically it can be shown that there is a function F such that the rela-
tionship betweenB and F is as shownby the tabulated B-F Table, Figure 2, or the
plotted curve, Figure 2A. Since l_<n< o the quantity B, the linear slopeof a line
canvary from 0 to 1. As a practicalmatter we usuallyuseslopesbetween0.2 and 0.98.
The function F representsthe ratio between the horizontal distance (X) and the
vertical depth (Z). It is also equal to the ratio between the refraction time (T) and
the vertical time (tv), that is, the raypath time (T) at distance(X) and the vertical
time (tv)from the surfaceto a depth Z. The depth to which it is desiredto determine
a vertical time may be selected;thus a peel-offof a certain thicknessof material, for
example to a depth of 1,000 ft, may be utilized for the problem area. At the top of
Figure ! the quantities X for distance,T for raypath time, Z for depth, and t for
vertical time are illustrated. Below this is showna plot on log-logpaper of refraction
time versusdistance.The linear slopedy/dx of the line is equal to B. The value of F
may be determinedfrom the B-F Table, Figure 2. Now, if a Z has been chosen,then
the productFZ will yield X. From the plot, shownin Figure 1, the value of T can be
read at a distanceX. T divided by F will give tvwhich is the vertical time. However,
it is seldomthat a geologicconditionis encounteredwherethe velocity gradient is so
* Mobil Oil Corporation,GeophysicalServicesCenter, Dallas, Texas.
231
I
I
I
T
IogT
log:X:
dy
=B --.,. F from B F table
Z F = X -- T from plot
T
- = tv
Fro.1. Blondeau
raypathmodelanda time-distance plotona logarithmicscaledepicting
relations
usedto determine
verticaltime (tv)to desired
depth(Z).
uniformthat time-distance
pointswillplotasa singlestraightlineonlog-log
paper.
Therefore,provisionhasbeenmadefor severalotherpossible solutions.
The secondcase,shownin Figure 3, is referredto as the normal knee case.The
slopeof the second
portionof thelinebreaksup asshownin Figure3 andis dueto a
decrease in velocitygradientbelowthe depthZ. Now two slopes mustbe deter-
mined.SlopeB will yield a valueof F and slopeBswill yielda valueFsfromthe
B-F Table. The depthto the interfaceZ canbe determinedby the distanceto the
normalkneeX dividedby thevalueF of thefirstlinesegment. The depthZ to the
interfacemay be subtractedfrom the desireddepthZ to determinea/xZ. This
may be multiplied by F to give a/xX. zXXis now addedto X to determinea final X
to yielda corresponding
finaltime T from the log-logplot. Returningnowto the
Blondeau Weathering
233
234
I
m.I'ON
T
'ON 3ABn3
I
,
3An3
,
I

,

Determination of Weathering Thickness
I
zz
oo
Blondeau Weathering 235
log 'Z'
dYl= BI -' FI dy,=B2 ---- F

dx
X__L=
FI Z Z-Z = AZ (AZ)R, =AX
X,+'GX=X ----T
= tv T- T AT
TI
F
= = Atv tv:+Atv=tv
FIG. 3. Blondeauraypath modeland a time-distanceplot on a logarithmicscaledepictingrelationsused

to determinevertical time (tv) to desireddepth (Z) for the normal knee case.
time at the knee, T may be divided by F to give a vertical time, tv.Then the total
time T minus the time T yields a AT which may be divided by F2 to give a Xtv.The
total vertical time to the depth Z may be determined by adding these two portions
of vertical time tq- At, = t.
The third case,shownin Figure 4, is somewhatmore complicatedand may be re-
ferred to as the reversedknee case.Here the slope of the secondline breaks down
relative to the slopeof the first line. Again, from the two slopes,it is possibleto de-
termine the values of F and F2 for the two line segments.Depth to the interface will
be Z again. This time the deeper material has a higher velocity than the shallower
zone; therefore, it is impossibleto observea first arrival which stays wholly in the
shallowermaterial and reachesthe depth Z. In order to determinethe depth Z, the
distance to the knee Xk is divided by the value of F., the F function for the second
I
TI
tv I ,z
I
Atv
I
I' j
I i
T I .
A,T iI ',.-'
! ',,,/,
log T I I
A
i
' II AX
I
Xz X
log X
___
dy,.Bi ' FI
dx dy,
dx:,= BE , F2
Xk
F, = Z, Z - Z = AZ (AZ)F,= AX
(Z) F = X, '--T XK+ AX = X '--" T
T, T-T AT
-- =
F, =tv, F F =Atv tv, + Atv = tv
Fro.4. Blondeau
raypathmodelanda time-distance
plotona logarithmic
scaledepicting
relations
used
to determineverticaltime (tv)to desireddepth(Z) for the reversedkneecase.
material.The mathematical reasoningbehindthisstepis not easilyunderstood,

but
it appearsthat, due to the highvelocity,it is necessary
to assumethat the whole
upperbedisfilledwiththehighvelocitymaterialto determine thisdepth.Physically
it worksquitewell, and thereforethisis probablythe bestargument.Now take the
desireddepthZ andsubtractZ to determine/xZ again./xZtimesF2is equalto zXX
asin thepreviouscase.However,nowtakethedepthZ, multiplyit by thefunction
F, and determinethe actualX. Usingthis value of X, read the actual T on the
projectedportionof the firstline. In orderto determineX, addXknt-zXX, andfrom
X on the secondportionof the curvereadthe time T. Now divideT by F to deter-
minet,, andtakethe total time T minusthe timeat the kneeTk whichgivesusa
AT and divide this by F to get a Ate.Again, in order to get our total vertical time t
the times t and At must be added together.
Figure 5 is enclosedto give a generalsolutionof n number of breaksin the line. It
shouldbe explainedhere, however, that drawing many detail breaks in the lines for
relatively shallowdepthsusually causesa lot of work for nothing, becausea general
line can often be drawn that will yield the same vertical time within a few milli-
seconds.In order to show the value of this method, two examplesare includedfrom
the Delaware Basin of West Texas.
Figure 6 showsa sampleplot and calculationsheetfor point A where the refrac-
tion timesversusdistanceare plotted in the upper portion of the diagram. The calcu-
lations are made on the right-hand portion of the diagram, and the plot of the final
More complex coses ore extentions of the foregoing
coses or combinotions thereof. Thor is, using o series of

AX's ond AT's to obtoin lltv's.
Above reversed knees divide

AXK n
= AZn
Fn+2
Belowreversedknees add AXn + XKn=X or Xn+,

and subtract TKnfrom T or Tn+ for ATn.
logT TK
I i
X XKX2 X$ X
log X
Fro. 5. GeneralBlondeausolutionfor multiple knees.
238
z
o
o
<
,..
o
o
Determination
(SON003S)

o_
31NIl
of Weathering
Thickness
--o
o
'

'--c
information is made in the lower portion of the diagram for comparisonto the up-
hole survey. The refractiondata have beenapproximatedby three straight lines, and
the B values have been determined. They are determined by use of the horizontal
distance acrosstwo cyclesof the logarithmic paper which measure 1.0 on the linear
scale. Then using this linear scale on the vertical axis, the intercepts are noted,
and the difference between the intercepts gives a value of B for the linear slope.
Thus, the left intercept of the line through the first portion of the data is equal to
.438, and the right intercept of this line with the secondcycle of the paper which
occursat a horizontal distanceof 10,000 ft is projected back onto the same scaleand
read as .816. A differencein thesegives a value of .378, and from the B-F Table a
value of F is then read to be 2.74. The values for F2 and F3 are determined in the
same manner.
The values Xs, T8 for the shortestrefraction time are used to calculate the Z, and
tv, which are the coordinatesof the first point on the vertical survey from the refrac-
tion calculation. The values at the first knee Xk and Tk are equal to the value X
and T sinceit is a normal knee. These values are used to calculate Z, tv,the second
point on the calculatedvertical time survey. A parallel line to the first line on the
refraction curve should connect these two points, thus allowing a check that all
calculations are made correctly.
Since the values X. and T. are the values of a reverse knee, it is necessaryto
establishthe valuesX. and T..This is doneby first establishingthe/xZ, the vertical
distancerepresentedbetweenthe two knees.From this Z2, the depth of the second
knee is determined. Also/xX is calculated and used to determine X. By knowing
X., T.may be read then from the extensionof line 2. From this/xt the vertical time
in the secondlayer and t2the total time to the baseof this layer can be calculated.
Next the/xZ.,the thicknessof the third layer, and ZF, the depth of the final refraction
point, may be calculated.The /xtv2,the time in the third layer, and tF, the total
vertical time of the final point on the calculatedvertical survey, are alsodetermined.
As on the first curve, this givestwo valueson eachportion of the curve,and the slope
of eachline is parallel to that of the correspondingrefractionline, thus checkingall
calculations and establishinga time-depth curve representative of all measured
refraction information. In this casethe depth rangesfrom 186 ft to a total of 1,338
ft. It is noted that the vertical times, plotted with circles,from an uphole survey
along this profile check reasonablywell with the exception that the times are
slightly shorterthan thosemeasured.Although the hole was shot at a depth of ap-
proximately200 ft rather than at the surfaceas prescribedby the BlondeauTheory,
the surface-to-surfacetraveltimes consistingof the uphole time plus the refraction
time(s) are plotted versusdistancesfor the refractionsurvey.The empiricalmethod
usedfor adjustingthis deviationfrom theory is to shift the calculatedtime-depth
curveby the amountof time requiredto move the curveto the upholetime at the
200ft depth.Whenthisadjustmentis made,it canbe seenthat the calculatedvalues
agreefavorablywith thosedeterminedfrom the upholesurvey.This methodof cor-
rection allows a simple and effectivecorrectionfor hole depth and shalloweffects
that are not accountedfor by the Blondeaumethod.
Figure7 showsa similarsetof informationto that shownin Figure6 and a corre-
240
Determination
of Weathering
Thickness
.,-
spondingplot of refraction information at location B, which is located about two

miles from point A. Note that a very good correspondenceoccurs between the
measuredupholeinformation and the calculatedinformation. In this casethe calcu-
lated time is slightly longerthan the measuredtime. If the correctionis made in the
samemanner as recommendedbefore, the correspondence is well within observable
limits for this area, particularly in view of the large variation which occursbetween
them. This is shownbest by the tabulation below'
Measured Calculated Correction Final calc. Error
Point A 200 ft .054 .052 +. 002 .054
700 ft .102 .095 +. 002 .097 --. 005
Point B 200 ft .062 .067 --. 005 .062

700 ft .140 .143 --. 005 .138 --. 002
Thus by the Blondeaumethod a time couldbe determinedto a depth of 500 or 1,000

ft at eachof theselocations,and this value strippedoff the seismicreflectiontimes to
give a more accuratereflection-timepicture below that datum plane.
SUMMARY
The Blondeaumethod may be usedto determinethe time to a flat datum plane or

to a depthbelowsurface,thus helpingto correctfor the variation in velocityin the
near-surfacesedimentsin areas where velocity is erratic or difficult to obtain by
easier methods. However, sinceit takes a long distance to observethe refraction
information, velocity information obtainedby the Blondeaumethod is measured
over a zone and doesnot give a specificpoint-by-point correctionthat can be used
for trace-to-tracecorrection.From this it can be seenthat this type of correction
shouldbe usedfor determiningthe major structureproblemsof the area shotpoint-
by-shotpointrather than to be usedfor a trace-by-tracecorrectionof seismicinfor-
mation.
REFERENCES
Banta, H. E., 1941,A refractiontheoryadaptableto seismicweatheringproblems:Geophysics,

v. 6,
p. 245-253.
Duska, Leslie,1963,A rapid curved-pathmethodfor weatheringand drift corrections:Geophysics,
v.
28, p. 925-947.
Handley,E. J., 1954,Computingweatheringcorrectionsfor seismograph shooting:World Oil, v. 139,
no. 6, p. 118-128.
APPENDIX
In the followingmathematicaldiscussionthe expressions for time-distancerela-

tion, depth-distancerelation, and vertical time-total traveltime relation will be
derived.
From Snell'slaw, the ratio of the sineof the angleof incidenceto the sineof the
angleof refraction is definedasfollows'
sin i,m V sin i,m sin r+l,m

or --
sin rk+l,m Vlc+l V/ V/+I

Applying Snell'slaw to the raypathpictured in FigureA-I, the followingexpressions

can be written (since
sin io,m sin i,m sin i,. sin i,m 1
Vo V1 V2 V3 Vm
or that in general
sin ik,m __
1
Vk Vm
rearranging
Vk
sin i,m -- ' (1)
Vm
io
ro Vo
rI Vl
r V2
V3
rm
Vm
V m > V3>V2>Vi > Vo

Fro. A-1.
We can assumethat the medium can be approximatedby dividing it into a large

numberof layersboundedby velocity interfaces.By relaxingthe restrictionon layer
thicknessand allowingthe thicknessto be madesmall,we approachthe fundamental
conceptof curved-raypaththeory (Figure A-2).
X/2 J
I /
/
I /
I /
/ dz
/
dz /
/
dx
dx
tan i =
dz
Fro. A-2.
Substitutingthe assumedvelocity function V-CZ TMinto equation(1)

sin i = Z1/n/Zml!n
and solving for Z,
Z = Zm sinn i. (2)
Equation (2) statesthat the depth to any point on a raypath is equal to the maxi-
mum depth of penetrationfor this particular raypath multiplied by the sinni,where
i is the anglebetweenthe raypath and the vertical at the point Z on the raypath.
Differentiating equation (2) with respectto i yields
dZ = /Zm sin-1 i cos i di. (3)
Solvingfor dx as shownin Figure A-2,

dx = tanidZ,
and substituting equation (3) for dZ yields

sin i
dx = /Zmsinn-1 i cosi di (4)
cos i
dx = nZm sin n i di.
Performing the integration
fO
x/2 fOa'/2
dx = l,Zm sin n i di
fO
r/2
X -- 2nZm sinn i di,
and defining
F = 2n
fo'12sin ' i di
yields
X -- ZmF.
The depth-distancerelation is
Zm = X/. (S)
The expressionfor surface-to-surfacetraveltime can be derived as follows, from
Figure A-2'
cosi = dZ/Vdt,
and solvingfor dt,
dt = dZ/ V cosi.
Substitutingequation (3) for dZ and rearranging,the followingexpressionis ob-
tained'
foa'l'fo/2Zm
dt=
sin'*-1
idi V
ReplacingV with equation(1) and integratingyields
T -
2nZm
fo Vm
sin"- i di,
and defining
G = 2n
f0'/2sin *- i di
yields
gm
Go
Substituting for
Vm: CZmTM
Xm G
y S :--- Zml-l/n,
CZmI , c
and letting B= 1- l/n,

G
T = --- ZmB. (6)
C
Substitutingequation (5) into expression(6) yieldsthe time-distancerelation,
T = -- . (7)
C
Solving for X,
1/B
(8)
The X componentof instantaneousvelocity acrossthe surfacecan be obtained by
differentiatingequation(8) with respectto time,
= T 1/B-1. (9)
dT B
Solvingfor C/G from equation(7), and substitutingin equation(9),

C X B
G TF
dT
: __.
B ( T (1/)--1
'
dX FX
-- T(1/B)--I
dT FBT 1/s
dX X
o
From similar triangles,Figure A-3, it can be shownthat the angleincludedbetween

the wavefront and the surface,dx, is equal to the angiebetweenthe raypath and the
vertical at the point A on the raypath, and that the X componentof instantaneous
velocity acrossthe surfaceis equal to the maximum velocity penetrated.
dx
FiG. A-3.
From Figure A-3,

Vdt
sin i -
dx
and
d! sin i 1
(11)
d V Vm
Substituting(11) into equation(10) yields
dx X
-- V, (12)
dt BT
Taking the logarithmof both sidesof the equation(7) and rearrangingyieldsequa-

tion (! 3)'
log T = B(log X -- log F) q- log G - log C
(13)
log T= BlogXq-logK,
where
logK = logG- logC- BlogF.
Equation(13) is of the form y= mxq-b,and the valueof B and K may be obtained

by plotting log T versuslog X.
The expression
for verticaltime canbe derivedfrom the followingrelation(Figure
A-2):
t=f dZ V
Substitutingthe assumedvelocityfunction V=CZ TMfor V, and rearrangingyields
lv----
fozm
1 ----
CZI/n
dZ = 1/C
foZm Z-11ndZ,
and integrating
lv = Zm1-1In.
C(1- i/n)
Rememberingthat B- !-- i/n,
1 1 Zm
tv -- ZmB -' (14)
CB B Vm
Substituting
Zm=X/F from equation(5) and Vm=X/BT from equation(12) into
equation (14) yields
T
showing
therelationship
betweentheverticaltimeandtotal traveltime.
REFRACTION REFINEMENT TECHNIQUE
H. L. MEND ENHALL*
ABSTRACT
Conditions
existin thenear-surface
rocksin manyof theareasexplored
by thereflection
seismograph
that profoundly
influencethe traveltimes
of the deeperreflections.
Theseconditionsexistat depths
considerablybelowthe depthsof present-day economic shotholedrilling,and quite often a measureof
theseeffectsis a prerequisite
to the correctreflectioncorrelations.
The salt problemof the Western
Anadarko Basinisanexample ofthisproblemandseveral otherareasarepostulated asexamples. Refine-
mentsin the reversedin-linerefractionprofilingtechniqueare described whichcan be employedto
solvetheseproblems. The refinementsareapplicable to all reversed
in-linerefraction
profiling.
In many areas explored by the reflection seismographmethod, the weathered

layer and other near-surfacelow-velocityconditionsprofoundlyinfluencethe re-
flection traveltimes. In certain parts of the Edwards Plateau the variable thickness
of talusin the filled valleysmustbe determined.Measurements of glacialmaterial
is an important part of Canadianprospecting.Many other areascould be men-
tioned where near-surfaceconditionsposea difficult correctionproblem. A more
accuraterefractiontechniquefor measuringthe thicknessof near-surfacematerial
shouldresult in better correctionsto be appliedto the reflectiontraveltimes.
Figure 1 illustratesa usefor an accuraterefractiontechnique.It showstwo con-
tinuousvelocity logsfrom coreholes,approximately10 miles apart, in the Texas
Panhandleor WesternAnadarkoBasin which were drilled throughthe Tertiary
cover and the upper Permian Blaine and Stone Corral formations.The q-2,000-ft
datumshavebeenmatchedsothat the apparentdip of certainbedsis readilyseen.
Note that the StoneCorralis nearlyflat while the top of the Blainesectiondipsto
the right nearly 300 ft. Also, note the interval velocitiesimmediatelybelow the
Blaineon both logs(Log A average=13,500ft/sec whileLog B average=7,500ft/
secto 9,000ft/sec). This is a restatementof M. B. Widess(1952). It is believedthat
the Blaine and Stone Corral were oncemore nearly conformableand that subse-
quentlysalt (Vs= 15,000ft/sec) hasbeendissolvedby groundwaterfrom the section
below the Blaine at the locationshownon the right, allowingthe Blaine beds to
slump, thereby allowingadditional Tertiary materials (V= 6,500 ft/sec) to be de-
positedabovethe Blaine.Fromthetime-depthdata (Figure2) weseethat a falsedip
of .054 secwould be measuredby a Stone Corral reflectionbetweentheselocations
if the seismograms were perfect. Furthermore,any deeperreflectionwould be in
error by the sameamount.Widess(1962) correctedfor this by velocityprofiling
(determiningvelocitiesfrom At analysis)whichis quite applicablewhenthe reflec-
tion quality is good.It is suggested that an accuratedepth map of the top of the
Blaine is a necessaryaid to reflectioninterpretation in the salt-basinarea and that
it will provide the means to make a better correctionfor the error due to salt solu-
* PhillipsPetroleumCompany,Bartlesville,Oklahoma.
24?
CORE HOLE,
COREFK)L
C TOP BLAINE
TOP BLAINE
lo 15 2o25
15 2o5'
VELOCITY
+ O00
BASE STONE
BASE CORRAL MARKER
STONE CORRAL
MARKER
FIC. 1. Continuous-velocity-logmeasurementof the salt problemin the Western Anadarko Basin.
tion. Such a map is obtainable with sufficientaccuracyby employing a technique of

reversed in-line refraction profiling, provided proper computation of data is em-
ployed.
To illustrate, in a simple manner, the use of the structural data of the Blaine to
correct for the loss of salt and the addition of Tertiary materials, it seemslogical
that Point D (Figure 1) should theoreticallybe moved up to a level with Point C
by replacing the excessTertiary material above the Blaine with an equivalent
thicknessof salt below, and determiningthe traveltime and hence the correction to
be applied to the old time. This assumesthat the Blaine was locally flat-lying be-
fore the solutionof the salt. The computation of the new one-way traveltime is then
made by subtractingthe vertical interval, Zc), at 6,500 ft/sec and restoringthis
same interval at 15,000 ft/sec. The false dip of .054 sec is reduced by .049 sec to
.005 sec by this correction.Additional data and experiencemay suggesta more
accurate empirical formula.
Figure 3 showsnear-surfaceconditionsin parts of the Delaware Basin, which are
very similar to those found in the above-mentionedWestern Anadarko Basin.
Here the attitude of the Santa Rosa formation should be mapped and a similar
replacement computation made.
As shownby the discussionand illustrationsso far, I believeit is apparent that
Refraction Refinement Technique 249
CORE HOLE CORE HOLE

A B
1.1.1
.288
Fro. 2. Time dip of the nearly flat StoneCorral marker in the coreholesin Figure 1.
an accurate method of mapping shallow horizonswould be very beneficialin mak-

ing time correctionsto apply to reflectiondata. It is the intention of this paper to
present a few new ideas which, coupled with other interpretational theories, will
produce a more accurate and useful tool, possibly capable of solving the above
problems. The application of the techniquespresented is not restricted to near-
surface correction problems, but should be an aid in refraction interpretation
wherever used.
It is not the intent of this paper to cover the problem of mappingnearly vertical
boundariessuchas exist in the salt dome. This has been well coveredby Gardner,
(1949).
QUA'ERNARY
S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
S S S S S S S S S
S S S
Fro. 3. DelawareBasinproblem.
Sl
FIG. 4.--Simple, one-layeredweathering.
Before introducingnew ideas, the old theoriesand computationsshouldbe re-

viewed. '
Figure 4 showsthe simpleone-layerproblemwherethe depth of the top layer,
Z0,is small.Thisis adequatelysolvedin detailby a simple"summationweathering"
calculation with which we are all familiar.
When the upper layer or layers becomethicker, a center point (Figure 5) com-
putation is made. This method has the advantage of simplicity but doesnot have
sufficientresolving power, in most cases,due to inaccurate measurementof V or
to dip in the refractor.
Others have attempted to gain resolvingpower by the introduction of a "Ate"
type dip interpretation of reversein-line refractionprofiling, Barthelmes(1946).
This procedureis illustrated by Figure 6. Each geophonespreadis recordedfrom
shotsin holesoffsetin-linefrom both endsof the recordingspread.Dips are com-
puted by subtractingthe normal horizontaltraveltime. These dips are added end-
to-endin-line of profileand averagedto eliminate V errorsto obtain a dip picture.
This system was a big step in resolvingrefraction data. However, it has two
important disadvantages'
(1) No meansis providedto identify the eventwhendealingwith secondary re-
fractions.It is apparentfrom Figure 7 that attemptsto map the Va layer, with re-
TIM
E /,T
Z:KTo=IT-x.
TO / | vn/
DISTANCE
S G
Fro. 5. Center-pointcomputation.
Fro. 6. Incremental(/xt)dip interpretation.
cordingdistancesabout equalto X, wouldresultin confusionwith respectto the

event beingpicked.The propersequence of eventsdoesnot existin refractionwork
as it doesin reflectionwork. As can be seenfrom Figure 7 other interferencedis-
tancesare possible,with no easy method of avoidingthe recordingof interfering
refractions.
(2) Dip errorsresultingfrom wind noise,computers'mistakes,and thosecaused
by the refractioninterferences mentionedaboveare cumulative.They may be quite
sizable,particularly the interferenceerrors,and thereforecan seriouslydistort the
structuralpicture. This is illustratedin Figure 8 by an obviouslyridiculousinter-
pretation.Severalmilesof line have been condensed here to illustratepossible
erroneous accumulations from the incremental, Ate, process.
A satisfactorysolutionto the accumulationof dip errors, under certain circum-
stances,is a combinationof the center-pointcomputationand the dip intepretation.
Figure9 suggests a procedureand the eliminationof dip errorsmadeby the
system.The right sideof equation(1) is the determinationmadefor center-point
computationand the right sideof equation(2) is the dip determinationby the
"At/' process.Simultaneous solutionof equations(1) and (2) produces(T0/2)t
and (T0/2) (plottedat A' andB', respectively).
The processis repeatedat BC and
'rIME
DISTANCE
Vt
V2
V3
Fzo. 7. Refraction interference zone.
Fro. 8. Erroneousaccumulationfor the incremental(/xti) process.
CD, etc., producingseveralcomputationswhich shouldtie "end to end." This failure

to tie is assumedto be causedby error in the dip determinationsand an average
curve (showndashed)is then the correctpicture. An accurateknowledgeof V
and the ability to follow or correlate the same refraction is presupposed.If V
is variable over a prospectarea, then this systemis very difficult to employproperly
as the discrepancies at B' and C' may be causedby a variable V. An important
feature of this procedureis its usefulnessin determining the depth of refracted
events so that proper fault interpretations can be made.
The main purposeof this paper, to be specific,is to describea computingproce-
dure that will identify and follow refracted events by continuousprofiling and
properly accountfor all variablesso that the errorsinherent with all of the pre-
viouslymentionedmethodswill be eliminated.This computingtechnique,whichwas
developedby the writer along with several men including N. K. Moody, W. O.
Heap, Leonard Larguiere, and J. L. Hollis, was adapted to a refraction program in
the Texas Panhandle designedto map pre-Pennsylvanianrefractions. We called it
the "Self-Adjusting Procedure."
In order to seethe principlesof this procedure,refer to Figure 10. If it is assumed
that the refractorvelocity is known, then the valuesplotted at C, D, D', and E may
easilybe computedby subractingX/V, from the recordedtimes at R, R2, and R3.
L.. . X 1
I- ^ --I c o
I I I / I /
\\ \ III \\ .JLII // x. I , // II / /
, IA' _.. /
()---(To/2).
A4-(To/2)B
- T-n---RIGHT
SIDE
ISCENTER POINT DETERMINATION
(SEE FIG.- )
()--- (To/2)A-- (To/2)B= DIP FROM
Afi DETERMINATION
FROM A TO B, ETC. FOR BC AND
CD
Fro.9. Combination
of/xtiandcenter-point
computations.
$1 $2 R R2 R3
'"' ................................r......,.....
t t I I
I I I
\ I / /
// _*///s.P.

Fro. 10. Principlesof Self-AdjustingProcedure.
(It will be shownlater that it is practicalto assumeV and any errorin suchassump-
tion will be eliminated.) In order to obtain the data representedby this diagram,
a spreadof geophoneslaid betweenR and R. recordedthe refracted wavesinduced
by the explosionin S. Also, a spreadof geophoneswas employedfrom R. to Ra to
recordthe refractionsset up at S. The slopesof Lines CD and D'E then represent
time dips as describedby Barthelmes (1946). However, the differencebetween D
and D' is a measureof changesproducedby usingdifferentshotpointlocationsince
R is the commonreceivingpoint for both shots.This differencebetweenD' and D
is the time dip in the refractor at the shotpointend (proper horizontaldisplacement
employed)and is shownby A B. The dip from B to A is then equal to D--D'. This
presupposes that D'E is determinedfrom the samephaseof the samerefraction as
that producingCD. In order to seethe purposeof plotting A B let us assumethat an
error (which could be causedby the computer, wind noise,refraction interference,
etc.) was made in determiningD' and the value D" had been used instead. We
would have an erroneousdip D"E but at the shooter's end we would have the
erroneous"shooter'smove-dip" B'A which contains the same error made at
with the sign reversed. The error D'D" is then exactly compensated.The name
Self-Adjusting Procedure is used since by this procedure any error which might
be made at any point will be compensated.
We have presupposedthat we know the correctcorrelationof eventsto compute
the data shown in Figure 10. (Confirmation of correlationscomesfrom similar
computationsof recordsmade at S and S, etc., and shot at R, R, Ra, etc.) It is
obvious,for example, that if we shot at R into a spreadof geophonesat S to
we shouldmeasurethe dip A B. Any error in the V assumptionwill produceiden-
tical errors in both determinations.Minor discrepanciesin the two measurements
are causedby the computer, wind noise,or refraction interference.Discrepancies
in the order of .040 secwould indicate "leg jumping."
It was stated above that the data shownin Figure 10 were computedusingan
assumedrefractor velocity. Compensationof errors in this assumptionmust come
from averaging of data computed from waves which have traveled in opposite
directionsin the refractor. Barthelmes(1946) quite adequatelycoveredthis point.
Therefore, data recordedat S and S, etc., and shot at R, R, Ra, etc., when com-
puted and properly averagedwith the reverseddirection of shooting,becomesthe
compensatorfor errorsin the assumptionof V.
Figure 11 showshow all data is computed,plotted, and averagedto obtain the
Xd (DI3PLACEMENT DI3TANCE)
I- '-I ---- EAST
'r ......... 1....... i ......................... '...............
/ I /
\ /
/ \ /
\\ . //
Fro. 11. Self-AdjustingProcedure.
structural interpretation. An east-west line has been assumedfor demonstration.

Curve A (dotted) representsthe east bound "A&" curve composedof dips CD,
D'E, etc., (Figure t0) hooked end-to-end to make a continuouscurve. Curve C
(dashed)is the west-bound"shootersmove-dips"joined end-to-endwhich acts as a
continuouscompensatorfor Curve A. Curve B (solid) is the averageof A and C and
may be consideredas the compensatedor adjustedeast-bounddip curve. Similarly
Curve E (dotted) is the west-bounddips joined end-to-end and Curve G (dashed)
is the end-to-endplot of the east-bound"shootersmove-dips"(seeAB, Figure t0).
F (solid)is the averageof E and G or the adjustedwest-bounddip curve.The aver-
age of B and F (seeCurve D, heavy dashed)is the true structuralpicture.
The vertical or depth positionof all thesecurvesis arbitrary. In order to properly
plot this horizon, the computation shown in Figure 9 must be employed at the be-
ginning of a line or prospectand it must be made at least once on each side of a
fault in orderto determinethe amount of throw. The interpretationof faulting may
resultfrom charactercorrelationof events.The dipsbetweenA' andB', etc., (Figure
9) are determined by the processdemonstrated by Figure 11. Determinations for
Xd (Figure t t) need not be discussedhere, as this point has been coveredby Bar-
thelmes(1946) and many othersduring the past severalyears.
In order to illustrate the applicationof the above ideas to the near-surfacelow-
velocityproblem,referagainto Figure7. The Valayer asshownherecouldrepresent
the Blaine, the Santa Rosa, the Edwardslime, or consolidatedrocksunderlyingthe
Canadian glacial material. Since it is necessaryto use "first breaks" for Va deter-
minations in the foregoingexamples,then shootingdistancesgreater than X must
be maintained, which, in the Texas Panhandle and parts of the Delaware Basin, is
about 1,800 ft. The geophonespread should start at distancesgreater than X and
be at least as long as the distance between shotpoints.Profiles on both sidesof the
shotpoint must be employed to obtain the reversed direction of travel in the re-
fractor. At least 200-percentsubsurfacecoverageis then necessary.A specialfield
procedure
andextraequipment
areobviously
necessary
butthese
problems
arenot
insurmountable and can be handled economically.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Theauthorexpresses hisgratitude
to PhillipsPetroleum
Company for allowing
thismaterialto bepresented
andparticularly
to W. H. CourtierandC. D. Hierfor
very helpfulsuggestions
in organizing
thispaper.
REFERENCES
Barthelmes,
A. J., 1946,Application
ofcontinuous
profiling
to refraction
shooting'
Geophysics,
v. 11,
p. 24.
Gardner,
L. W., 1949,Seismograph
determination
ofsalt-dome
boundary
using
welldetection
deep
on
domeflank: Geophysics,
v. 14, p. 29.
Widess,
M. B., 1952,Saltsolution,
a seismic
velocity
problem
in theWestern
Anadarko
Basin,
Kansas,
Oklahomaand Texas'Geophysics,
v. 17,p. 481.

INTERPRETATION
TECHNIQUES
Section
5
FOR REFRACTION
WORK
Section 5
Interpretation Techniquesfor Refraction Work
This sectionis the longestand most important part of this volume, and, therefore,
has been divided into several subdivisions.These are separatedfor the following
reasons:
A. A few of the papersthat did not fall in any of the other classificationsand are
consideredas general interpretive techniquesare included in the first group
under that title.
B. The secondgroup includesgraphs and nomographsused for refraction inter-
pretation. Theseaids for making rapid interpretationsare describedquite well
by three papers.
C. The third sectionis devoted to a delay-time method which has beencoveredby
two papers,one of which includesmore information on its application.
D. The fourth section covers the wavefront techniquesthat utilize an instanta-
neoustrace of the wavefront surfacein preferenceto the calculation of a point
alongthe raypath as is usedin most of the other methods.
E. The fifth sectionis concernedwith errorsin refraction interpretation.
258
Section 5A
General Interpretive Techniques
"General Interpretive Techniques,"in this part of the volume, includea descrip-

tion of a multilayer technique,of an inline profiling procedure,and of a curved-ray
method.
The first paper, "The Mid-Point Method of Interpreting a RefractionSurvey," by
MacPhail, is an analytical method for the approximatesolutionof the n-layer refrac-
tion problem.
The secondpaper, "A Method of In-Line Refraction Profiling" by Woolleyet al., is
a detailed descriptionof a continuousrefractionprofiling techniquefor mapping low
relief refractors.It describesthe useof a computer to utilize a modified Hale's tech-
nique.
The third paper, "Outline of a Systemof Refraction Interpretation for Monotonic
Increasesof Velocity with Depth," by Evjen, dealswith the increaseof velocity with
depth in a way which is satisfactoryfrom both practical and theoretical points of
view.
259
THE MIDPOINT METHOD OF INTERPRETING

A REFRACTION SURVEY
M. R. MAcPHAIL*
ABSTRACT
An analyticalmethodfor the approximatesolutionof the n-layerrefractionproblemis described.Its

main advantageis the speedand easewith which solutionscan be obtained.An estimateis made of the
error of the methodby comparingthe exactand approximatesolutionsfor the two-layercase.
INTRODUCTION
Slotnick (1950) has describeda graphical method of solvingthe n-layer refrac-

tion problem for the particular caseof constantseismicvelocitieswithin the layers
and plane interfacesbetween them. In principle, the method was exact in the sense
that the laws of geometrical optics were applied without approximation; but in
practice the accuracywas restricted, usually to an unknown degree,by the validity
of the assumptions concerning the model--particularly the assumption that the
velocity stratification could be inferred unambiguously from the time-distance
curves. Thus, we might say that Slotnick's method was mathematically exact but
not necessarilyphysically correct. Moreover, when the number of layers to be
consideredwas greater than three or four, the method becameexceedinglytedious
to apply. We were therefore led to considervariousapproximationsto Slotnick's
exact solution for the purpose of speedingup the processof interpretation. One
such procedurewill now be described.It is an analytical method that exploits the
enormoussimplification in the equations of the time-distance curves when the re-
fracting surfacesare flat. The procedurein essenceis to calculate the depth of a
horizontal refractor for which the traveltime to a given distance X from the shot-
point is equal to the traveltime observedat distanceX and to regard this as an
approximationto the averagedepth of the actual refractorin that interval, that is,
the actual depth at a distance X/2. For that reasonit will be referred to as the
midpoint method. In the following sectionwe outline in sequencethe various steps
to be taken, and in the third or final sectionwe estimate the error of the method for
the two-layer caseand give a numerical example. It would have been interesting, of
course,to extend the error calculationsto deeperlayers, but becauseof the analytical
difficulties this has not been done.
PROCEDURE
Wesuppose
thattheproblem
is two-dimensionai,
thatthetime-distance
curves
have been reversed, and that they consist of straight-line segmentsso that the as-
sumption of plane interfaces is justified. The analysis or interpretation may be
carried out in the following steps'
* Humble Oil & RefiningCompany,Houston,Texas.
260
The Midpoint Method of Interpretation 261
1. Observethe velocityV of the uppermostbedand the apparentvelocitiesup-

dip anddowndip,Vu and Vd,respectively, of the secondbed.
2. Let V.be the averageof the updipand downdipvelocities;that is,
V. = (V,, + Va)/2.
3. Observethe time T on the secondleg or segmentof the T-X curvecorrespond-

ing to a particularvalue of X.
4. Calculatethe depth h of a flat bed of velocity V. for this particularpair of
valuesT and X, using,of course,the observedvelocity V for the overlying
bed. The equation for h is
2x/(V./V) - - 1. h = V.T -- X.
5. We shouldexpectthat h thuscalculatedwouldbe approximatelythe average

depthof the actualrefractorin the intervalfromthe shotpointto the pointat
distanceX; and sincethe averagedepth of the refractoris its actualdepth at
the midpoint,we thereforeplot h at a distanceof X/2 from the shot.
6. Repeating(4) at a second distancewe get a second valueof h, whichis to be
plottedas in (5) at a distanceX/2 from the shot.Thesedepth-points should
then be connectedby a straightline, whichwill representthe refractinginter-
face or, rather, our approximationto it.
7. For the third bed we proceedas above,taking T as the time on the third leg
or segmentof the time-distance curveat distanceX, and letting Va be the
arithmetical mean of the corresponding updip and downdip velocities.Its
depthbelowthe surfaceat a distanceX/2 from the shotis hq-h.,whereh
is the depthof the top of the secondbed at X/2, whichwe havealreadyde-
termined,and h2is given by the equation
2x/(Va/V2) - 1.h.= VaT -- X -- 2x/(Va/V)" - 1.h.
8. The process
may be extendedin thisfashion,the depthof the top of the nth
bed below the surfaceat a distanceof X/2 being
whereh,h.,h_.havealreadybeendetermined
andwhereh_l is givenby the
equation
2x/(V,/V,_)"-1.h,_= V,T- X- 2 x/(V,/V,)"- 1.h,.
It has been found convenientand sufficientlyaccurate to determine the co-

efficients
2x/(V,/Vg)- ! fromVi andV by meansof a nomogram, whichis shown
hereas Figure1. An accuracy of threesignificant
figuresin the coefficients
and
hence in the h's should be obtained if T and X are measuredwith corresponding
accuracy.
262 General Interpretive Techniques
18,000
17,000
16,000
15,000
10.0
14,000
9.0
13,000
12,000 8.0
11,000
7.0
10,000
6.0
90OO
25,000
80OO
5.0
vi 20,000
7000
15,000
4.0
6000
10,000
3.0
5O00
2.0
4000
5000
4OOO
1.0
3OOO
0.5
300O
0
THE ERROR IN DEPTH FOR THE TWO-LAYER CASE
We wish now to estimate the error of the method. This would undoubtedly be a
formidableproblemin the generalcaseof n dipping beds,but for a singleinclined
interface, which is all we shall attempt, it is not too difficult. The method is ob-
viouslyexact for a horizontalinterface.Furthermore,by symmetry the error must
be an evenfunctionof the dip; therefore,whenexpandedin ascendingpowersof the
dip it shouldstart off with a second-degree term. Our problemherewill be to calcu-
late this term.
It will be convenientto take the origin O at the point midway between shot-
point S and point of observationR (Figure 2); thus, if X is the distancefrom S to
R, SO= OR= X/2. The refractoris indicatedin Figure 2 by the line REF, whichwe
have drawn dipping downwardto the right at an angle a. Let the depth of REF
below O (measuredalong the vertical) be h. The perpendiculardistancesfrom O,
R, and S to REF are then
X
h cos a and hcosa+msina
2
respectively.
Supposethe true seismicvelocitiesof the upper and lower bedsare V and U2
respectively.(We wish to reserveV2 for the averageof the apparentvelocitiesof
the secondlayer and thereforedenotethe true velocityby U.) Then by Snell'sLaw
the angleof incidencefor refractionalongREF is qb=sin - V/U. The distancea
wave travels in the upper bed is
(hcosa
x )
2
sina secqbfrom S to REF
and
(hcosa[ x2 sina) sec from REF to R.
The tinespentin the upperbedis the sumof thesedistancesdividedby Vx, namely

2h cos a sec4/Vx.
The distancetraveled along REF is
Xcosa--
(
hcosa
2
sina
) tanqb-
( hcosa-[---
2 sin
a) tan 4
= Xcosa- 2hcosatanqb;
\x\\\
Fro. 1. A homogramfor thecalculation

of 2/(V,/V) -- 1. A straightlinethroughpointsontheleft
andcentralscalescorresponding
to thevaluesof V and Vn,respectively, will intersecttherightscale
at the pointwhosevalueis 2/(V,/V) 2-- 1.
s x/2 0 x/2
Surace
Velocity
Vi
X cos :forREF
Velocity
U2
Fro. 2. The two-layercasein whichthe originis taken at the
point midway betweenshot S and detectorR.
and the time requiredto traversethis distanceis foundby dividingby U. Thus,

the total traveltimefromS to REF, alongREF, andfinallyto R is
T = 2h cosa seck/V + (X cosa - 2h cosa tan k)/U
= X cosa/U. + 2h cosa(seck/V - tan k/U)
= X cos/U. + h cosc.2x/U. - V/UV. (1)

FromFigure2 weseethat theanglesmadewith theverticalby therefractedray
fromS emerging
at R andby the refractedray fromR emerging
at S are-+-a and
-a, respectively.The corresponding
apparentvelocitiesare therefore
Va = V/sin ( -3-a)
and (2)
Vu = V/sin ( - cO.
Asin thepreceding
sectionwelet V be the averageof thesevelocities;
that is
V = (Va + Vu)/2. (3)
The procedure thenis to determinea depthhm(m for midpoint)from (1) in which
a is put equalto zeroand U to V; thus,
r = x/v + 2 - vF./vv. (4)

We nowestimatethe errorof the depth,hm--h,in termsof a' from (2) and (3)
we have
V2= V[1/sin
(4
+ a)+ 1/sin
(4- a)]
= V sin cos/(sin - sin )
= U cosa/(1 - sin a cosec
)
= s('-./2+...)(+.cosec +...)
= u( + . + -.. ) (S)
where =cosec -=(2U-V)/2V . To the same degree of approximation,
that is to termsin the squareof the dip, (5) gives
V = r( - . + ... ). (6)
Hence,
(2r - r)/2r. (7)
In (1) let us write for convenience
F(V) = 2V -- V/VV, (8)
and let us substitutein (8) the value of U2 from (6). By Taylor's theorem
(U) ()
( -- ,
,()/
+ ..-) + ....
(9)
To the samedegreeof accuracy
cosa 1 - a/2. (10)
Then substituting(6), (9), and (10) in (1) we get
r x( - ./2)/r( - .) + h( - ./2) [(r) - r.(r)/r]
= x[+ (- ).]/r+ h[- (r'/ + ).]. ()
where for short we have written F and F' for F(V) and dF(V)/dV2 respectively.
In the samenotation equation (4) reads
r = x/ + h. (2)
Subtracting(12) from (11) we have
so that the error in depth is

E = hm-- h = [X(- )fFV -- h(V2F'/F + )]a . (13)
Thereremainsonly the problemof insertingin (13) the valuesof from (7) and of
F from (8). From (8) FV or, more explicitly,
F(V) V = 2V - V/V
and
= v2/v2(v22- v2).
Hence,
E= IX x/V'2-
V
V'- h3V?-
V.'- 2V'1o/2'
V '_1
(14)
This is our expressionfor the error in depth. As regards units, the dip a is to be
measuredin radiansbecauseof the approximationin (5) and (10); V and V. may
be measuredin any appropriate units, such as ft/sec, provided of coursethey are
both in the sameunits; E will then be in the sameunits as X and h.
A numerical example may be instructive. Supposea is one degreeor about 1/60
radian, V is 6,000 ft/sec, V. is 10,000 ft/sec, X is 6,000 ft and h is 1,000 ft; (14)
givesE-0.6 ft. For a dip of two degrees,E would be four times as large, or 2.4 ft,
and so on. Thus, for dips of only a few degrees,the errorsdue to the mathematical
approximations of the midpoint method are undoubtedly small, and possibly
negligible,comparedwith the errorsto be expectedfrom other sources.
SUMMARY
The time-distance relations for n refractors of zero dip have been adapted to
provide an approximatesolutionfor the caseof n plane-but-dippingrefractors.The
error of the method has been estimated by comparingthe exact and approximate
solutionsfor the two-layer caseand was found to vary as the squareof the angle of
dip. The resultsare containedin equation(14). A numericalexampleis given.
REFERENCE
Slotnick,M. M., 1950,A graphicalmethodfor the interpretationof refractionprofiledata: Geophysics,

v. 15, p. 163.
A METHOD OF IN-LINE REFRACTION PROFILING
W. C. WOOLLEY*, A. W. MUSGRAVE*,
^D HELEN GRAY*
ABSTRACT
Thispaperdealswith an approximation modification of F. W. Hales' graphicalmethodandits execu-

tionby a computerprogramfor relativelysmalldips.
Fromavailablevelocityinformation,"paperplots"of time-distance andraypath-distance are madeto
determinethe optimumshot-to-cable locationfor a particularrefractor.Theseresultsare testedby field
shooting.After determination of the "window"for shooting, a programof datalinesis shotandrecorded
on magnetictapeswhichareplaybackprocessed; tilted, filtered,andphasecorrected.
Data analysisincludesthenecessary correctionsto datumand the analysisof all reversedtime tiesand
subsequentlisting on "shift-plot"sheets.Data, times,and distancesfrom thesesheetsfor forwardand
reverseshotsare input independently into the electroniccomputerprogramwhoseoutputis a scaled
verticalsectionof bothsetsof dataandtheiraverage.The programis versatilein that the refractormay
be solvedas a two-layerproblemor the shallowerhorizonsmay be strippedoff prior to solvingfor the
particularhorizon.Model studiesshowtheresultsfor an asymmetrical anticline,a fault example,and a
multilayer problem.
I, INTRODUCTION
Refractionprofilingas definedhere will coverthe profilingand mappingof beds

deeperthan the weatheringlayer and of a fairly conformablenature with the beds
above and below. Severalmethodshave been usedin the past for this profiling.
Probably the earliest method used was fan shooting,for which a shotpoint was
locatedand geophones wereset in a wide arc or circlearoundthe shotpoint.Another
method,broadsideprofiling,has alsobeenusedand discussed in the literature. This
methodhasoneline of shotpoints,with a line of receiverson a parallelline a certain
distance
awayfromthelineofshotp0ints.
A thirdmethod
isin-line
profiling,
for
whichthe shotpointsand receiversare in one straightline and completecoverage
may be obtainedby movingthe receiversand the shotpointsalongthe profile.
In fan shooting,a systemof interlockingfans wasusedin which a time lead (that
is, a shorter time than normal for a certain distance) was determined acrossthe
salt dome from two or more directionsthus giving the location of the dome. This
is a reconnaissance method which is usually followedby reflectionand refraction
seismicdetailing.
Broadsideretractionhas the advantageof trace-to-tracecontinuity so that it is
easierto follow an event than for in-line refractionin that the stepout is greatly
reducedbetween adjacent traces. However, it has the very definite disadvantage
that one cannot tell the differencebetween a high velocity refractor and a low
velocity refractor or low velocity noise, which passesacrossthe spread at right
angles.
In-line refraction methodshave many advantages.They provide the means for
computingrefractor velocitiesand preparingisopachsbetweentwo or more beds.
* Mobil Oil Corporation,GeophysicalServicesCenter,Dallas, Texas.
Referencesto F. W. Hales usedwith permissionof the EuropeanSocietyof ExplorationGeophysi-
cists.
267
The main disadvantage hasbeenthe difficultyof pickingalonglargestepouts.This

disadvantagehas beenlargely eliminatedby the useof magnetictape. The traces
may be alignedby static corrections
for any nominalvelocity.Thus secondaryand
later arrivals may be aligned for easy interpretation.
II. AN IN-LINE METHOD
By referring to Figure 1, we will attempt to derive the principal relationships

which Hales (1958) saysmay be deduced.At the top of the figure,note the refrac-
tion profile, M to N, with the shotpointsat SM and S for reverseprofiling.Note
the two receiversat positionsRA and RB, which have a commonrefractionpoint
at O. In further discussion,R and S will be dropped.
The averagevelocity down to the refractor is Va; the refractor velocity is VR.
The anglei is equal to the angleof incidenceand TR is equal to the time, T,oBor
AOB/Va. The distanceAB is equal to X. Snell'sLaw statesthat sin i= V/V.
The central portion of the diagram is then redrawn with a circle passingthrough
A, B, and O. A vertical diameterpassesthroughthe point C and is a perpendicular
bisectorof the line AB. The angle betweenthe horizontal and the refractor is the
dip angle,a. Sincea semicirclecircumscribes a right triangle,it may be seenthat
the perpendicular,R, erectedto the refractorat the point O, will passthroughthe
point C. The length of the chordis equal to R or OC.
A geometricproof for equation (2), Figure 1, is given in AppendixI.
The radius,R, is givenby equation(3), and is equalto the averageof AO divided
SM R/ XR-
RB SN Va = Average Velocity to Refractor
VR = Velocity of Refractor
P
Va Refract._
V
r Q
RT - Reciprocal
T R = TAOB (or AOB/Vo)

Time (TMPQN)
-I Va
i.' CriticalAngle
or sin V
()sinL= Vo
VR
(2)AB-x(AO+OB)
sinL
RB rface
COS G:
AO + OB
(3) co= R-
2 cos L
(4) AO + OB = Va(TMPoe + TNQOA-TMPQN)=VaTR
(5)XR= VaTRsinL
cos a:
or (6) XR= Va
TR
sin
cos
L
(7)R = 2Vocos
TRL
(8)AE= X.._R
2
(9)CE= XR
2
tan L
XR
(0)Slope
=R=va sinL
RetfOCtf
Fro. 1. Definitionof termsand principalrelationships
statedby Hales.
In-line Profiling 269
by cosi and BO divided by cosi. The geometricproof is alsogiven in AppendixI.

Looking back at the upper part of Figure 1, the time, T, from M to P to Q to N
is equal to the reciprocaltime and will be referredto as RT. The distanceAO plus
OB is equal to the averagevelocity multiplied by the time,
that is, it is equal to the averagevelocity, Va, times the time, TR, in the upperlayer.
By the substitutionof equation (4) into equation (2), equation (5) is obtainedand
it is foundthat the ratio of XR to T is equalto Va sin//cos a. Substitutingequation
(4) into (3) yields (7).
The refractor is profiled by swinging an arc of radius, R, about a center, C, at
each point of measurement.The point, C, is located by equations (8) and (9).
Angles CA E and COB both equal angle i sinceboth are inscribedby the arc CB.
Hales showsthat the net effectof dip on the slope,X/T, cancelsitself in locating
the refractor. Therefore by allowing cosa= 1, the slopeis given by equation (10).
The subsequentfigures are not necessarilyrelated but are presented as isolated
examplesjust to illustrate the method.
The upper portion of Figure 2 showsthe plot of a refraction time-distance re-
versedprofile recordedcontinuouslyfrom M to N. Also, geophonepositions,A and
B, are shown. If TB is recordedat receiver B from shotpoint M and TA is recorded
at receiverA from shotpointN and the reciprocaltime, RT, is plotted at the top
of the diagram, then ha' is set equal to ab' at distanceA. Then a line can be drawn
betweenpoint T and a'. As shownin Figure 1, TAq- T-- T_N-- T and AB-XR.
Therefore the reciprocalslopeof this line from a' to T equals V times sin i. Note
that for convenienceof plotting, we plot time along the ordinate and distancealong
the abscissa.The reciprocal slope referred to is abscissaover ordinate rather than
the reverseas is normally true. All of the times from N may be moved as for a to a'.
Looking at the lower part of Figure 2, the same profile from M to N can be
plotted and then at the distance,N, the profile is reversedand time is plotted in-
creasingdownwardly and distanceincreasingto the left and this processestablishes
a time loop. The first step in this diagram is to establishthe reciprocalslopewhich
is equal to V sin i. This means that in the vertical direction along the time axis,
one secondis set off to intersect a point on the distancescaleequal to V sin i. This
slope may be drawn between the two limbs of the time loop from any point to
determine the T for a particular refractor point. The time, T, for any refractor
point is the differencein time intercept of the slopeline on each of the two limbs of
the time loop. The distance,X, is the differencein distancebetween the two inter-
cepts. Center points may be establishedon the slope lines between the two limbs
of the time loop and a line drawn through these points should have a slope equal
to the velocity of the refractor, V. The horizontal position, E, is obtained from
ME equal to MA plus AE, whichis equal to X (the distancefrom the shotpointto
the geophoneplus XR/2).
Referring to Figure 3, it is seen that this method may be used to make a large
time loop for a continuousline which may be 20 or 30 miles long. We have estab-
lished that the critical distance is less than the shortest distance and that we are
recordingat an optimum distancefor refraction quality. This may best be estab-
lished by shooting a long reversed profile. As shown in Figure 3, recordingsare
R.T.
SM RADistance RB SN
dist--
SN
1 'd%
clt.
VR
.t
---'-dist [: Subsurface
Coverage
X '
SM RA E RB
ME MA+ AE-X+ XR
2
FIG. 2. Upper' time-distancecurve for a reversedprofile. Lower' time-loopfor reversedprofile

with quantities XR, TR, Vn, slope,and plotting distanceindicated.
2.0
1.0
5000
0
7 9 II 13 15
Shot or Receiver Location
FIG. 3. Dashedlinesshowtime-distance
plot for in-linerefractionprofile;odd numberis shotpoint
numberand evennumberis recordinglocation.All reversedtimesmusttie. Solidlinesshowtime-loop
with times shifted to make a continuous line. Primed numbers indicate location of translated zero time
coordinateof (east or north) shots.Double primed numbersindicate locationof translatedzero time
coordinate,time plotted downward,of (west or south) shots.
madeat a distanceof 3 to 4 shotpointintervals.The dashedlinesrepresentthe time-

distanceplotswith the distancealongthe abscissa and the time alongthe ordinate
for shotpointsfrom 1 to 15 (odd numbersonly). The first number indicates the
shotpointand the secondindicatesthe centerpositionof the recordingsetup(even
numbersonly).
If the time from SP at 1 to receiverat 7 is selectedas the startingpoint for the
largetime loop,then the plot 1-8 will not be altered.Proceedingwith receiverloca-
tions,the line 3-10 may be movedup to the position3'-10 by addinga time which
is equal to the differencein time recordedfrom 1 to 9 and 3 to 9. This time should
also be equal to the time difference recorded acrossthe record 9--2 which is laid
between1 and 3 and shotfrom 9. In practice,an averageof thesetwo valuesmay
be usedif it is within observationalerror. Likewise,5--12 can be moved up to
5'-12 by this same constantplus an additional constantwhich is equal to the
differenceacross11-4. This processmay be continuedas far as desiredalongthe
line. Now, the time loopmust be completedby plotting9-2 at the position9"-2
starting at 0 time with 9 to 1 and increasingtime as true time decreases.
Again
11-4 may be plotted in the position11"-4 by inverting the time and movingit
to the point 3' by the average of the differencesin the time from 9 and 11 shot into
3 and the differenceacross3-10. This is the sameadjustmentas usedin the op-
posite direction. When this processhas been completed,a time loop is then estab-
lished, as shownin Figure 4, and a slopemay be set off so that TR and XR may be
read at eachgeophoneposition.In order to usean accurateplotting scale,a diagonal
plot is used,as shownin Figure 4 betweenthe dashedlines, (i.e. 1 cm-0.040 secfor
the time scale and 1 cm=400 ft for the distance scale. Note that time must be
multiplied by 10,000when calculatinganglesof slope).The diagonalplot is inclined
approximately equal to the refraction velocity slope.
The adaptation and applicationof Hales' Refraction Method concernsthe follow-
ing'
1. From existingvelocity information, a solutionis made on paper to show the
refractors to be expected,
2. In a part of the prospectivearea having a normal geologicsection,shoota long,
(40,000 ft), reversedline to checkthe solutionfrom (1) above,
3. Lay out field procedure,
4. Play back field tapes,
5. Interpret refractor time data,
6. Calculate and plot depths and positionsof refractors.
The above points will now be developedin more detail:
1. Using available velocity information in the area, which may be a conventional
velocity survey or an acousticvelocity log with check points, these data are pro-
cessedthrough a Mobil developedwavefront program on an electroniccomputer.
This program can handle up to 40 layers. The computer output yields data for the
preparation of time-distanceand depth-distanceplots similar to Figure 5. The effect
of attenuation is neglectedand the figure showsthe refractors to be expected and
the particular timesand distancesfor whichthey will be eitherprimary or secondary
(later) arrivals.
2. Next, it is advisableto check the above solutionby shootinga long reversed
"normal line" in the prospectivearea. This line couldbe 40,000 ft or longerdepend-
ing upon the subsurfacevelocity configuration and depths to the refractors of
interest. For this line and also for subsequentshooting,production is materially
increasedthrough the use of two or more shooters.
3. From the results of (2) above, lay out field procedureto obtain the desired
refractor(s), and, if necessary,the weatheringdata. It must be rememberedthat the
refraction energy doesnot travel a vertical path to a correctionplane but is at some
angle to the vertical. This angleis the arc sine of the (subweatheringvelocity)
/(refractor velocity), seeAppendixII.
4. A field monitor record is obtained at the time of shootingtogether with a re-
cordingon magnetictape. Thesetapescan be correctedand processedon playback
with a tilt of an approximaterefractor velocity. Also severalgain settingscan be
played togetherwith band-passfiltering and phasecorrectionto give definitedata
enhancementand to increasethe reliability of picking the same refraction event.
With longin-line spreads,it is possibleto have a widevariation in frequencycontent
of the refractors.For this reason,it is imperative that the recordingsystemhas no
phasedistortion.However,undermany conditions,the quality of the refractionin-
formationcan be improvedby filtering. For this, phasecorrectedfilters are needed.
SeeFigures 6a and 6b.
2.0
i.0
...........
1
I :5 5
Determine VR from center line slope

37500
VR= 1.920=19,500/S
Determine Va from well control or
from slope between anomalouspoints
Slope
=Vosin
i.=v2atan:8(I)
VR
Vo= VRxSlope (2)
= 19,500x 6400
= 11,200/s
XR
Slope = tan :8 = (3)
TR x I0,000
:,X R =J[ sin :8 (4)
T R =.. cos :8 (5)
I0,000
if jl is measured at same scale as .X
R'AXR
E R'B For very low dip areas
Va h=VaTRcosi.
2
XR
or 2teni.
(6)
E,L
TI Va TR sin i. XR (7)
AE= 2 or 2
FIG.4. Diagonal
plotof timeloop,fromFigure3, shown
between
longdashed
lines.Methodshown
fordetermining VR,Va,andslope
are shown in the lower box.
(tan/).Equations
fordepthanddistance
forrelatively
flatareas
distance
FIG. 5. A combinedtime-distance
plot and raypathchart showing'criticaldistanceto eachrefractor;
which refractor is a first break and the time relation of the refractors at all distances. Refractors are
assumed to be flat and without attenuation.
5. For data analysis,the refractortimesfrom the playbackrecordsare plotted to

yield an averagedata line whichwill usuallybe a singleline althoughit may have
two or moreslopes.By drawingthe lines,onetendsto adjust for variation in times
becauseof noiseor other interferencesand for any remainingweatheringor shallow
velocity variations. Using theselines, all of the reversedtimes that have beenmea-
suredmay be checked,and adjustmentsmade that are necessaryso that the total
times and the stepoutsacrosseach record all fit together. These times establisha
time loopfor future plottingor calculating.There are a few generalassumptions that
help a great deal in the analysis'
(1) the apparentrefractorvelocityshouldnot changeabruptly,
(2) overlappingportionsof adjacentcablesshouldbe parallel and shouldshow
the sameweatheringanomalies,and
(3) the At acrossa givencableis moreimportantthan the absolutetimes,because
time breakscouldpossiblybe missingor unreliable.
As shownin Figure 7, times may be determinedfor shotpointswhich were not
actuallyshotbecauseof inaccessability. This methodrequiresthat doublecoverage
be shot,but the systemis very flexiblesothat shotpointdistances
may be adjustedto
fit permit requirements.All distancesmust remainwithin the optimumdistances
which have been established;that is, beyondthe critical distanceand beforethe
refractiondiesout or changescharacterdue to thin bed effects.
After all the timeshave beenestablished,the analysisis completeand the data is
In-llne Profiling 275
Shat 2.0
Paint Receiver
- 15ooo__
B,S 3.0 3.S 4.0 4-__
5ooo
300OO
o(S. P. )
4 0000
eu($.p. I )
a:
$5ooo
3o0oo
5000
20000
2.0
FIG. 6a. Record sectionof a reversedrefraction profile showing
relative strengthof refractionsand their velocities.
276
General Interpretive
Techniques
Fro. 6b. Four recordsfrom different processingof a field tape.

SHOT POINT LOCATIO NS

29 27 25 2:3 21 19 I? 15 1:3 II 9 7 5
43W 39W 35W (:3:3) :31W 27W (25) 2:3W (21) 19W
41W 37W32W 29W 23W 2lAW I?W
SURFACE LOCATION OF RECORDING SPREADS
EAS SHO rS
3,.4
:3.6 :3.4
- ..... .. .
2ND REFRACTOR WEST
SHOTS
EAS' SHOFS
:3.8
........
4.0 - - .-- -
. , , RDREFRACT(,R ESTSHOT
FIG. 7. Time-distance
plot of secondand third refractorsfrom recordsprocessed
as the last recordin
Figure6b. Dashedlinesindicateinterpretedresultsthat wouldbe obtainedif shotpointsin parentheses
were shot.
ready for conversionto Hales' "time loop." Figures8 and 9 are "shift-plot" sheets
usedfor listing data from the time loop. AlsoseeFigures3 and 4. On the first line are
listed the shot and receiver locations. The second line lists the raw times from the
analysis, recorded for each cable. These times include an additive correction that
wasinitially subtractedfrom the tracesin taking the "tilt velocity" from eachtrace.
On the third line, a backoff of 0.020 sec,determinedfrom the records,is subtracted
from line two to give in line four the refraction break times that should occur on a
field recordif we had sharpbreaksand accountingfor filtering and phasedistortion.
Beginning with a plot time of zero on the south (or west) shots, at the extreme
south (or west) shotpoint position, our "continuouscables" are established.Since
reciprocityis required,shift timesfor southshotsbecomeplot timesfor north shots
and vice versa (compareFigures8 and 9).
6. Calculationsfor depthsand positionsof refractorsmay now be handledby the
two-layermethoddescribedearlier,seeequationson Figure 4.
Digital processing'The electroniccomputerprogram calculatesdepth and hori-
zontal position from corrected and shifted refraction times based on the mathe-
matical technique describedby Hales. Adaptation of this technique to machine
computationwas made with the programreplacingthe graphicalportion of Hales'
procedureby solvingsimultaneouslinear equations.Other modificationswill be de-
scribed below.
ISHOT
25w Sa 54. 33
Tr .,95 2.4G?2.4 2.4/ 2.92 2 31 2.4q

Tc -.20 , - .020
Tr-Tc 2X 2. 7 2.420 Z.q Z.37 Z 351 2.2 2.Oe 2.28 2.2&8 2.2
X /5000 Zoo
-- Tc -.020
I - .OZO
Shift
Plot
.9/0
X
-0.521
.7
2o
.7ZOZ/
/.43
/.064
/.0
A/I.I25 Z 5000
, ! I , I ,
Tr-Tc Z.5 436 Z.414 .E,

' [ !
71 2.545 Z.ZO .97 2.274 .25/,2.2Z8
'0
]>
Tc
-.ozo
Shift
X 1260o 0000
..................... ..__ ,
Fro. 8. Sampleshift-plot sheetfor west shotpoints--eastreceivers.
SHTI 2I
Eli E sp
Tr
2G
,2.2. 2.27/ 2.293 2 1 2.337 Z 5 2.82 ZO .27 .
Tr-TcZ.2Z8Z.z/ Z.2792.29.2.172 2 2 2.852.7 2.4d2.42

2
2.472
Shift A353 Z53 i

ot 5./ , .62& . .60 .6Zi3 7/6 5.7E 57&0 5 7 3.805
- I !
Tr 2.21 ,g7 2,2ql Zgl 2350 2.37 2.404 g.4g 2.445 ,62/ ,
Tc 020
Tr-Tc 2.23/ 2.z2
Plot ,805 .8 ,
X 000 0
i,
Shift /.800
Plot .05
Fro. 9. Sampleshift-plot sheetfor east shotpoints--westreceivers.

Data for the programcan be punchedinto cardsdirectly from the shift-plot sheets
codedby the field crew. The card format and identificationof the data are controlled
by the program. The groupingand sequenceof the data cards is controlled by the
geophysicistor operator,within the variationsallowedby the program.
The programcalculatesin cycles,the sizeof whichis controlledby input data. At
the end of each cycle, someof the data is droppedand an equivalent amount of new
data is added. This means that the total amount of data may exceed the memory
capacity of the computer.
A calculationcyclecontainsthree major phases.The first of theseis the determina-
tion of refractor velocity, VR, and the equation of a least squaresline which is
equivalentto the centerline betweenthe two limbs of the time loop.
The secondphase of the calculationcycle computesdepth and position values
from the forward and reverseprofilesseparately.This is doneby first calculatingthe
slope,Va sini. This slopeis projectedfrom a forwardor reversetime to intersectthe
centerline. The time and distanceat the point of intersectionof this slopewith the
centerline, previouslydetermined,are usedto determineXR and T. Thesequanti-
ties re then usedto calculatedepth and positionusingthe value of V obtainedin
the first phaseof the calculationcycle.The value of Va is determinedby input and
may either be constant or variable.
The third phaseof the cycleis the one which shiftsthe data in memoryto incre-
ment the calculation cycle.
The averagevelocity, Va, in the first layer may be determinedin the following
ways: (a) from the first slopeof the time-distancecurve, (b) estimatedvelocityfrom
lithology as projectedfrom surroundingwells, (c) vertical velocity surveysin the
area, (d) syntheticvelocitiesfrom wells where depthsare known and where a refrac-
tion line has been shot acrossthe well, (e) calculatedvelocity by measuringtime in
onewell with the shotpointat the critical distancebeyondanothernearby well, (f)
anomalousevents on the two limbs of the time loop.
Each of the above methodsfor determining Va will be discussedin more detail:
a) Refraction: Hales stated that the early part of the time-distancecurve, as
shownin Figure 2, could be used to determine Va. This is true only if there are no
thin high velocity memberswithin the upper layer. However, if the velocity is
lower under a relatively thin high velocity layer, as is the casein many areas, the
averagevelocity must be determinedby oneor more of the other methods,
b) Lithology' Reasonablevelocitiesmay be estimated for a sectionif it is known
that it is all clastic,all calcareous,or high in anhydrite content, whether it is geo-
logically young or old, etc.,
c) Vertical Survey' If vertical surveysare used(it is helpful to have acousticlogsin
orderto seea mixedzonecontaininghigh and low velocitylayers). It shouldbe noted
that the averagevelocity alongthe critical wavepathmay be higherthan that along
the vertical. This may be due to a pseudo-anisotropic effect causedby the raypath
seekingthe shortesttime path in a mixedlayer--high and low velocity--zone. Or it
may be due to true anisotropiceffectin which the velocity is higher horizontally
than vertically through the same material. This anisotropiceffect seemsto be a
function of density (Kaarsberg, 1959). We do not seeits effect in the Gulf Coast
clastic sectionbut we do encounter it in the Cretaceouslimes,
d) Synthetic'After the time loophasbeenplotted by a well wherethe depthto the

refractoris known, an averagevelocitymay be determined.This value may be deter-
mined explicitly from a singleequation,however,the equationis so long and in-
volved that it has beenfound best to determineit by a trial and error methodusing
the followingrelationshipdevelopedfrom equation(6), Figure4'
Va- / VR2
e) Horizontal' Velocitiesmay be calculatedat a well where the depth to the re-

fractor is knownif anotherholeis drilled at a distanceequalto the normalshooting
distanceplus or minus. A geophonemay be placed at the refractor in the new hole
and the shot spaceda critical distancebeyond the first well (as shownin Appendix
III). The averagevelocitymay be determinedfrom the followingrelation'
Va
All of the terms are the sameas have been usedexceptX which is the distancebe-
tween the shotpointand the new hole, and T which is the time from datum plane to
the geophone.It may be seenthat severalvelocity determinationsmay be made by
drilling one coreholeat a proper locationbetweenold holes.
(f) AnomalyCorrelation'Correlationof anomalieson the two limbsof the time loop
determinesthe averagevelocity, as shownin Figure 4. If the anomalieson the re-
fraction lines are definite, they are probably the best velocity information, sinceby
using them velocity changesmay be determined ahead of the drill.
The way in which the digital program varies Va can now be explained.Each time
the program reads data, the values of Va to be used to calculate the first and last
points in the limits of the secondphaseare also read in. The program linearly in-
terpolatesa value for all points betweenthe first and last. The interpolation is done
on the basisof point number. The interpolatedvalue of Va is usedto calculatedepth
and positionfrom both the forward and reversetimes at a given input distance.This
meansthat the program doesnot correctlyvary Va unlessthe variation is causedby
changinglithology near the surfaceof the ground. The way in which Va actually
varies alonga line of data shouldinfluencethe choiceof step size.
The program also contains an optional routine that will apply a correctionto the
input times.The initial value of this correctionmust be input with the time-distance
values. An increment to be added or subtracted from this initial correction must also
be input. This increment can be changedthree times in the first and last calculation
cycle and can be different for eachintermediate cycle.
The accuracy of results from this method is most seriouslylimited by its require-
ment that velocity be constant down to the refracting horizon. Compensationfor
bending of the raypath, which is more normal, can be partially made by applying
I n-line Profiling 281
correctionsto either or both the input times or Va. Sucha correctionprocessis itself
proneto errorin eitherdepthor positiondependingon how the correctionis applied
versushow the actual raypath was bent. This is discussedfurther in the sectionon
model studies.
A meansfor making a better compensationfor this limitation was made by writ-
ing a programto calculateand subtractfrom deeprefractor times, the portion of
traveltimes aboveshallowerhorizonswhosedepth wasknown. This program accepts
depth, position,and velocityinformationconcerningthe shallowerhorizondirectly
from the output cardsof the previousprogram. The program will output the cor-
rected times and distancesin addition to either the times adjusted to distancesthat
are multiplesof somechosendistanceor the timesand distancesfurther correctedto
a datum plane below the depth of the shallowhorizon.If the datum plane option is
elected,the datum-correctedtimes and distancescan be adjustedto even multiples
of a chosendistance. The distance adjustment can be elected to be either to the
nearestmultiple or to the next multiple. In the latter case,the first adjustment is
made to the nearestmultiple. After this stripping process,the output cardscan then
be input to the Hales' refractionprogram.
Multilayer refractionproblemscan be accuratelysolvedby thesetwo programsif
the data are not taken in an area where velocity logsshowlarge decreasesin interval
velocity with increasingdepth. In areaswherethis conditiondoesexist,the program
can still be used to make accurate shapemaps.
Data machineplotted' The output of the computerprogram is a scaledvertical
crosssectionfor which the forward and reverse times are calculated and depth and
position points plotted independently.These points are machine averagedand
plotted as a third symboljoinedby linesto give the final profile.Depths can then be
read at convenientlocationsalongthe profile and postedon the basemap.
Model Studies: Computational models, with controlledinput, were used to test
the modification of Hales' method and these have brought out some of the limita-
tions of the method and pointed out someof the pitfalls.
In general,careshouldbe takennot to set Va toolow. It seemsto be wiseto evalu-
ate as accuratelyaspossiblethe averagevelocity of the raypath, rather than usingan
averagevertical velocity. An even highervelocity than the actual velocity may be
desirableas it appearsto be better to have the offset as nearly correct as possible
eventhoughthere will be a resultingerror in depth.
Presentedare three examplesof the model studies. Example 1, Figure 10, is a
simpleanticlineon the 1st Refractor.The depthvariesfrom 4,000ft at 0 distanceto
3,000ft at 18,000ft and back down to 4,500 ft at 35,000ft. The sidesof the anticline
arestraightlines.The Va to the 1stRefractoris 7,400ft/sec and the refractorveloc-
ity is 13,000ft/sec.
The slopesof the anticlineare straight in orderto avoidexcessivelycomplexcalcu-
lations.The anglesof the slopeswerecalculatedand then the slopesof the raypaths
in each direction on both sidesof the anticline were calculated. The raypaths were
then drawn and the distanceswere measuredfor each travel path through the upper
layer on both ends,and alongthe refractor.Thesedistanceswere then converted
into times.
EXAMPLE I
ASYMMETRICAL ANTICLINE- I ST REFRACTOR
, T' o,DATUM
PLANE
o Va=7400'/s o o
o
= " I STREFRACT
OR =
TRUE SCALE
COMPUTER DATA: NOTE:

Vo-- 7400Ys NFON'-AN ARBITARYCONTROL
VR'- (12891S-13071/S) WHICHDETERMINES
THE
NFON= 5 NUMBER OF POINTS USED BY
NN = I0 THE COMPUTER IN AGIVEN
CALCULATION CYCLE
5NFON CALCULATION CYCLE

(I ST AND LAST)
NN' APPROX.. XR
GEOPHONE INTERVAL
AND IS CALCULATED IN THE
PROGRAM
Fro. 10.Modelstudies:
Example1, showing
physicaldimensions
andvelocities
of program
input.
Later exampleshave all parts calculatedand shouldbe slightlymore accurate.

However,the errorsdue to the graphicmeasurements in thisexampleare probably
minor.The output crosssectionfor Example1 is shownin Figure11.
Example2, Figure 12, is a 150ft fault throughthe 1stRefractor.The upthrown
sideof the fault cutsthe 1st Refractorat a distanceof 30,000ft. The Refractoron
the eastsideof the fault is at a constantdepthof 3,850ft; on the westsideat a con-
stant depthof 4,000ft. The Va is 7,400ft/sec and the refractorvelocityis 13,000
ft/sec.
The outputcrosssectionis shownin Figure13.Thisis a verysimplefault example
showingthe "apparentdrapingeffect"of the output of the programovera fault.
.
---:X)O' - 3000'-
o LUT:ON
---$50(f TIMEs -3500'.
20000' 15000'
I I
DISTANCE
Fro. 11. Model studies:Example1, output results.

EXAMPLE 2
FLAT AND FAULTED- I ST REFRACTOR
FAULTWITH 150'THROW,
FROM-:5850'TO-4000'
AT :50000' DISTANCE FOR HIGH SIDE
o
1:3
o
'o
o
0 'o
0
o
c o o m
DATUM
' I I I I
PLANE
Va= 7400
o = TRUE SCALE
I ST REFRA:TOR
COMPUTER DATA:
Vo= 7400s
VR= (12992-1:5015S)
NFON= I0
NN
Fro. 12. Model studies:Example 2, showingphysicaldimensionsand velocitiesof programinput.
Since only one velocity existsin the model above the refractor and the refractor is
flat on both sidesof the fault, it is possibleto obtain a very accuratereproductionof
the model with the exceptionof this "draping effect." The fault itself occursat the
extreme edgeof the "drape effect," on the upthrown side. It may not be possibleto
produceresultscloseto the fault on the downthrown side, and the depth closeto the
fault will have to be deducedfrom the generaldip farther away from the fault.
Example 3, Figure 14, is a multirefractor problem with the sameconditionsfor the
1st Refractor asin example2. The same45 degreefault cuts a flat 2nd Refractor with
400 ft of throw. The east and west sidesof the fault are at -7,600 ft and -8,000 ft
depths. The fault cuts the 3rd Refractor with 800 ft of throw and the depths on the
east and west sidesof the fault are -15,200 ft and -16,000 ft. The velocities be-
tween the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Refractorsare 7,400ft/sec, 11,000ft/sec and 14,250ft/sec,
respectively.The averagevelocity vertically from datum plane to the 3rd Refractor
COMPUTERSOLUTION
. J:- - ,,
REVERSE
TIMES
; ? -
-_....... : ..... --'--- - .
5,1000, I
30,000"
DISTANCE
I
25,000'
FIG. 13. Model studie:Example2, output results.

284
I
General Interpretive Techniques
--
I
--
HJ. d3a
Hd3Q
I
'
I
T'
I n-line Profiling 285
is approximately10,900ft/sec while the averagevelocityof the raypathsis approxi-

mately 11,375ft/sec. The objectiveof this exampleis to check the 3rd Refractor.
The output crosssectionis shownin Figure 15.
Referring to Figures 14 and 15, Example 3C was programmed as a singlelayer
rather than as three separatelayers with the result that effectsof the fault through
the 1st and 2nd Refractors are also producedin the output and further tend to con-
fuse the picture.
In Example 3B, the raypaths are subtracted off down to the 1st Refractor. The
resultsdown to the 3rd Refractor are programmedas onelayer without a break at the
2nd Refractor. The velocity usedthrough the first layer is the true vertical velocity of
the model 7,400 ft/sec, but the depthsto the 1st Refractor were calculatedby the
programusinga refractorvelocityof 13,000/ft sec.Here again,this producesa slight
error in the depth to the 1st Refractor for the conditionsset up in Model 3, but it is
not significant.
Example 3A was programmed as three separate layers, using the actual average
velocitiesof the model. There is a point at approximately 30,000 ft that doesnot fit.
However, the rest of the data fits the model almost exactly, with the exceptionof the
fault drape.
The following table lists the velocities,depths and offsetsfor the Output versus
the Model for Example 3'
EXAMPLE 3C: PROGRAMMED AS A SINGLE LAYER
Ouptut Depth Model: Depth

V
Upthrown Downthrown Upthrown Downthrown
10,900 ft/s: Vertical

11,375 ft/s: Actual Raypath
10,870 ft/s: Used - 14,800 ft -- 15,400 ft -- 15,200 ft -- 16,000 ft
Output Offset* Model' Offset*
10,370 ft 11,165 ft 13,600 f t 14,333 ft
EXAMPLE 3B: PROGRAMMED WITH ONLY THE 1ST REFRACTOR STRIPPED OFF
V Output' Depth Model:Depth

n Downthrown
U__pth_rw_
11,350 ft/s 12,000 ft/s' Vertical
13,156 ft/s 13,011 ft/s' Actual Raypath
13,250 ft/s' Usedbelow 1st Refractor -15,075 ft -- 15,950 ft - 15,200

ftI --16,000 ft
Output-Offset* Model' Offset*
1l, 494 ft 12,237 ft 11,294 ft 12,590 ft
* Offset' refers to the distance of the resultsrelative to the shotpoint.

EXAMPLE 3A: PROGRAMMED AS THREE SEPARATE LAYERS; 1ST AND 2ND

REFRACTORS STRIPPED OFF
Output Depth Model: Depth
1st layer: 7,400 ft/s: Vertical

7,400 ft/s: Used
2nd layer: 11,000 ft/s: Vertical
11,000 ft/s: Used
3rd layer: 14,250 ft/s: Vertical

14,250 ft/s: Used - 15,200 ft -- 16,000 ft --15,200 ft -- 16,000 ft
As a result of the model studies we find:

1. The computer program operatesproperly on input data,
2. The controlled input data acrossa fault shows that the correct location for a
fault on output is at the immediate upthrown sideof the "drape effect,"
3. The proper handling of calculationsfor depth and positionof a deep refractor
is to successivelystrip off the shallowerlayers.
CONCLUSIONS
This methodof in-line refractionshooting,althoughdifficult,is aidedby the useof

playbackprocessing to enhancethe data for picking,and the useof a computerpro-
gram simplifiesand mechanizesthe output and allowsa choiceof controlparameters.
The model studiesindicate that the most correctresultsare obtainedby stripping
off the upper beds over a deep refractor, and these studiesalso provide meansfor
fault interpretation and location.
It is believedthat the method can yield excellentdeepmaps at a costcompetitive
with the reflection method in favorable refraction areas.
REFERENCES
Hales, F. W., 1958,An accurategraphicalmethodfor interpretingseismicrefractionlines:Geophys.

Prosp., v. 6, p. 285-294.
Kaarsberg,E. A., 1959,Introductorystudiesof natural and artificial argillaceous
aggregates
by sound
propagationand X-ray diffraction methods:Jour. of Geology,v. 67, p. 447-472.
APPENDIX I. GEOMETRICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Constructa circlethru pointsAOB and drawOCthe

bisector of angle AOB. Arc AC=CB
(Subtends equal inscribed angle)
Draw CE J. chord AB and bisecting AB
ConstructAC' and BC".LOC (OC .LAC, C"B and
Refractor ooAC' II C"B II Refractor)
Then 4 C'AB and C"BA= cc
AE'+ E'B= AB
AC' , BC"
AE'= c and BE cosec
A C' BC" AC'+ BC"
Then AB= c + cosa: = cosa:
AC'= AO sin L and BC" = BOsin L
AB= AOCOS
sinLC+ OBsinL = (AO+OB)
COS :sinL
- = XR
Tb cos=: = CO
CD =2r
R
or :;)r =
COS
AE
sin 2L= r
AE
r= sin2L
2AE A B R
so 2r= sin2L = 2sinLcosL = COS C
COS
T c . CAE= COB = . L AB cosa: (AO+OB)sinL
R= 2sin LcosL= cosa: a si cos L
since they are inscribed
by the same arc CB = (AO + OB)/2 cos L
FIO. 16. AppendixI:

Ia: Geometricaldevelopmentof the equationfor XR.
Ib: Geometrical
developmentof the equationfor R, the radiusof the deptharc.
Ic: Geometrical
proofthat the angleCAE equalsthe anglei.
APPENDIX II. ANGULARITY CORRECTIONS TO DATUM
Thisangularity
correction
isusedtocorrecttheTc'sthatareassumed tobevertical
travelpaths;
when
actually
thetravelpathisat someangieto thevertical.
Thisangle isthearcsineofthesubweathering
velocity/refractor
velocityor5,700ft/secdividedby 13,000ft/sec,(26degrees).
Receiver Shot
Weathering WSurface
B. Weathering
Subwear her ing

%
Velocity= 5700 ?Sec.
500' /
Sea
Level
/
/
//
Refractor Velocity= 1:50007Sec.
S FrstRefractor
, 13,000'
Fro.17.Appendix
II' Weathering
correction
forrefraction
shooting.
Angularity
correction
= (Pq-r _ (qq-sh
\5,700/ \13,000!
Er- W Er- W
P .... (0.198)(10-4)(E- W)
(cos26) (5,700) 5,700
Ea Ea
r = - (0.198)(10-4)(Ea)
(cos26) (5,700) 5,700
then
p q- r = (0.198)(10-4)(E q- Ea -- W)
(E -- W) (tan 26)
q= = (0.3752)(10-4)(E- W)
13,000
Ea tan 26
s= = (0.3752)(10-4)(Ea)
13,000
q q- s = (0.3752)(10-4)(Er q- Ea- W).

Angularitycorrection= (0.177)(10-4)(Er q- Ea -- W).
If weatheringvelocity - 2,000 ft/sec; W = 2To(2,000/2).
This can be incorporated
into the standardreversedweathering
procedure
very easily,since
To= k2(Eq-E,)q-k(2ro)
Tc= .175X 10-a(Erq- b:)q- .347(2To)
-- .177X 10-4(Erq- Ea -- 2r x 0)
= .157 x 10-(E+ E,) + .347(2Tw)+ .177 X 0-(2T X 0)
= . 157 X 10-a(Erq- Ea) q- .365(2To).
APPENDIX III. A DEVELOPMENTOF EQUATION FOR

Core Hole Well Shot
I --x - -
q (I)T' """
* hcosl.
V.
I -1 '2)
T' R
+hcsi'
V"
.I.hcOf.
I. VRsini ' V.
(3) T VR - X + h cot L.
Oeophone
VR
(5) co TVRh - X
V.
sini- V_g
(6)
VR2
-V"2"
TV
a-
X
V; V. h
. vR
2. Va
a
Va unknown (7) ?. h
assume that
' h
X, h, VR, and T
are known
///,
Fro. 18. AppendixIII: Developmentof the equationfor Va obtainedby
recordingin a well and shootingX/2 beyondanotherwell.
OUTLINE OF A SYSTEM OF REFRACTION INTERPRETATION

FOR MONOTONIC INCREASES OF VELOCITY WITH DEPTH
HAAKON M. EVJEN*
INTRODUCTION
In the early 1930's,Dr. Evjen wrote a treatiseon "The Geometryof Refractionand ReflectionShoot-
ing" whichto thisday remainsa classicin its field.Most of the seismologists
of the ShellCompanies over
the entireworldhavelearnedpart of their tradefrom this treatise.The bookwasreleasedto Dr. Evjen
after he left the serviceof Shell,but circumstances
havepreventedhim from publishingit, whollyor in
parts. It was, therefore,an honor as well as a genuinepleasurefor this writer to condense,with Dr.
Evjen's permission,one of the chaptersof the book.It dealswith monotonicincreasesof velocitywith
depthin a way whichis entirelysatisfactory fromboth the practicaland the theoreticalpointsof view.
NOTATION
V= velocity at the surface.

Vz=veloci W at depth Z.
q= dimensionlessconstant.
L=a constant with the dimensionof length.
T, X=time and distance on a time-distance curve.
t, x= time and horizontaldistancefrom shotpointto any point on a trajectory.
i= angle between raypath and vertical at any point of path.
i =value of i at surface.
U-dX/dT= V/sin i=Vz/sin/=reciprocal of slopeof T--X graph.
Z-depth below datum.
ds=element of raypath.
A FAMILY OF VELOCITY-DEPTH FUNCTIONS
A velocity distribution or a family of velocity increaseswith depth must fulfill

two requirements--integrabilityof the time and distanceintegralsand easeof con-
struction of the trajectories.Although many velocity distributionssatisfy either
one or the other, distributionssatisfyingboth requirementssimultaneouslyare
hard to find. Perhapsthe family of velocity functionsrepresentedby
Vz
=VI(L
+qZ)ll/q L
is uniquein this respect.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THIS FAMILY OF VELOCITY FUNCTIONS
The rate of increaseof velocity with depth dVz/dZ is a function of Z and the
constantsVx, L, and q. Differentiationof equation(1) gives
* Retired from ShellResearchand DevelopmentCompany.Now deceased.
, Introductionby F. A. Van Melle, Shell DevelopmentCo., Explorationand ProductionResearch
Division, Houston.
290
Monotonic Increases of Velocity with Depth 29t
dZ [1+()Z1(1-q)/q
dVz_() (Vlq-1
=(-)\z/ (2)
and
d2Vz
Vz-q
dZ --(-) / (-) V1q--- I(1
(I-q)(V11_q - q)lVz2q
, Z Vl2q
-1
(3)
Equation (3) showsthat for q< 1, the secondderivative is positive,and the velocity
increasesfaster than linearly with depth; for q-1, it is zero, and the velocity in-
creaseslinearly with depth; and for q> 1, d2V/dZ is negative,and the velocity in-
creasesmore slowly than linearly with depth. In the last case,there is a wide range
of possibilities:For large q, equation(2) and Figure 1 showthat the rate of increase
with depth decreasesrapidly with increasingdepth.
An important property of this family of velocity increaseswith depth concerns
the radius of curvature R of the path. We have
R =
ds dZ dZ dZ dZ(Vz)dZ
- = = = U--- --, and
di (cosidi)d(sini)
() dVsin/
dV d
dZ
Rsini= Vz . (4)
dV
From (1),
= 1+ z =
dZ (L q- qZ)
therefore,
R sin i = L q- qZ. (5)
This is the property that allows constructionof the trajectories, not rigorously
but with any degreeof approximation desired.Although the family of velocity dis-
tributions treated here has been described in the literature--for instance, in H.
Kaufman's(1953) comprehensive tabulationof the characteristics of a largenumber
of velocity distributions--this particular property has, to our knowledge,not been
brought out.
A simple, accurate, but not very elegant, procedure for the construction of an
x F. Kalisvaart, who was so kind as to read the manuscript,pointed out that stating formula (1) at
the beginning,as we did for the sake of concisedevelopment,makes the reader wonderwhat led to this
particular function. Dr. Evjen's book showsthat it was obtainedfrom the propertiesof the radius of cur-
vature of the raypath, as given in formula (4). R= U(dZ/dVz) and R sin i= VzdZ/dVz, the vertical
distancebetweenthe centerof curvatureand the corresponding point of the raypath. For an exponential
increasein velocitywith depth Vz-- V exp (Z/L), we find R sin i-L.
For a linear increasein velocity Vz= Vq-kZ, we have R sin i=(V1/k)q-Z=Lq-Z. This leadsto con-
siderationof the more generalformulationin which R sin i=Lq-qZ= VdZ/dV. From this follow
dZ(L+qZ)=dV/V. Integrationyieldsformula(1).
vz x I0'a,ft/sec
oo
IO
z/;:,,ooo ft/sec
V INEAR
PARABOLICCII
q' :) %.LVI /k IZ,000'
L' '4,400' _Vz(6000+O.SZ)ft/sec
.,6ooo(,+ 2z '/2.
\ 14,400/
zo ;6000+2500T) ft/sec
FIG. 1. Velocity-depthfunctions.
approximate trajectory is to strike, for each of a number of zones,an arc with the
radiusR = U(dZ/dVz) arounda centerlocatedon a line, L+qZ abovethe depthZ,
which is the middle of the zone for which the radius is assumed to be constant. This
shows the merit of the relation R sin i=L+qZ. The constant radius means that
the processapproximates the actual velocity distribution with a number of zones
of linear increaseof velocity with depth, for each of which the centersof the trajec-
tories are easily located. Figure 2 shows a more elegant, geometrically oriented
construction which also yields a good approximation with a moderate number of
zonesof linear speedincrease.The center,Co,and the radius,R0, may be thought to
belongto a very thin surfacezone(not shown).This construction yieldstrajectories
with a continuousfirst derivative. It must be noted that, in this age of electronic
computers,the paths can be obtainedby machinemethodsthat yield, for any point
along a path starting with a given ix, X, and Z as parametric functions of i or of V.
THE TIME AND DISTANCE INTEGRALS
The integrals in terms of i are
di (6)
sin ix
and
, di. (7)
t= -- sinix
Monotonic Increases of Velocity with Depth 293
$ o
ZONE
I
ZOIE ---
Fro. 2. Constructionof trajectory.
These integrals follow from
ar, (8)
dx= tan
idZ= (U'_ V').
V= ,sini dV = ( V) cosidi = (U ' -- V')/2di.
Vx sin ix sin i
(9)
Equations(2), (8), and (9) give
\V/ sin
i)qdi,
,
sin i
(0)
from which follows (6). A similar derivation based on
dt = - = - = di,
Vz (Vz cosi) (U ' - V')TM
etc., yieldsintegral (7).
Generalforms with V as independentvariable follow from (8) and (10), namely,
x = dV (11)
(U'- V)-
and
f (
t= vs \-/ ,(v.- .)-/.V (2)
THE DETERMINATIONOF THE CONSTANTSq AND L

The determination of q and L from the time-distancedata is made as follows'
Integration by parts of equation (6) gives
x= -- sine-Xix cosix - sine-Xi cosi + (q - 1) sine-2idi .

q sineix ,
The integralin this equationis essentiallythe time integral(seeequation7); thus,
x=
q
cot ix-- coti
sinj)
sine q
and the time of travel
t= q
(q -- 1) U IX q---coti
L
q sinq
sinq i L
ix q
cotix
Hence, for the total time, T, in terms of the shootingdistance,X,
T = (q-- q1)U IX 2L
q
cotix . (13)
Therefore,if the T--X graph is given, the parameters,q and L, can be determined
from this equation,provided the equationis satisfiedby the graph to a sufficient
degreeof approximation.Over limited regions,this requirementcan always be
fulfilled.Therefore,a generalmethodof analysisof normalT--X graphsmay be
basedon equation (13). This analysismust begin with the first part of the time-
distancecurve, for which valuesof q and L are determined.At the point at which
these values cease to hold, the time-distance curve must be reduced to a lower
horizon,whichcan be donewith the aid of formulas(6) and (7) or (11) and (12),
as can be seenfrom Figure 3.
A B C
II
Fro. 3. Reduction to a lower horizon.
Althoughq doesnot necessarily

have to be an integer,integervaluesof q will
neverthelessmeet all ordinary needsin refraction interpretation.
REFERENCE
Kaufman,H., 1953,Velocityfunctions
in seismic
prospecting:
Geophysics,
v. 18,p. 289-297.
Section 5B
Graphs and Nomographs for Refraction Interpretation
"Graphs and Nomographs for Refraction Interpretation" groups three papers

which specificallydeal with the subjectof graphsand nomographsfor refraction in-
terpretation, although many other papers within the volume use these techniques.
The first paper, "Nomogram for Curved-Ray Problem in Overburden" by North-
wood, demonstratesa homogram utilizing the conventional reflection wavefront
chart to calculate refractor velocity, dip, and depth from observedapparent veloc-
ities and total traveltimes from reversedrefraction profiles.
A secondpaper, "Constructions,Graphs, and Nomographsfor Refraction Com-
putations" by Stulken, describesproceduresand devicesto facilitate conventional
refraction computationsthrough multilayers, discretelayers usinglinear increaseof
velocity with depth and also with time.
The third paper, "Refraction Profiling UsingAverageVelocity to Near-Horizontal
Beds" by Savit, usesa nomogram to compute depths from unreversedrefraction
plots of averagevelocity and intercept times.
NOMOGRAM FOR CURVI='D-RAY PROBLEM IN OVERBURDI='N
E. J. NORTHWOOD*
ABSTRACT
Often there is a knowledgeof the overburdenvelocity-depthrelationship.This knowledgecan be

incorporated into a nomogramutilizingthe conventional reflectionwavefrontchart which is then used
to calculatethe refractorvelocity,dip, and depthfrom the observedapparentvelocitiesand total travel-
timesof reversedrefractionprofiles.
The nomogramgives the relationshipsbetweenthe dip of refractor, the velocity of refractor, the
depth, and the apparentvelocity observedat the surface.It alsopermits a simplecalculationof the
total traveltime oncethe positionand velocity of the refractor are estimatedor assumed.Hence, the
nomogramcan be usedfor successive approximations.
INTRODUCTION
On occasion,the refraction interpreter is facedwith the problem of determiningthe

velocity and attitude of a refractor overlain not by discrete velocity layers but by
an overburden whosevelocity-depth relationship is a continuousone. If this rela-
tionshipis known from velocity surveysin the area, the interpreter would normally
wish to introduce this information into his refraction interpretation.
CONSTRUCTION OF NOMOGRAM
The introduction of knowledgeof overburdenvelocitiesinto refraction interpre-

tations can becometediousand involved (Dix, 19S2,p. 247-2S4). The following
method utilizes the generallyacceptedmethodsof constructionof wavefront charts
in reflection seisinologyfor refraction interpretation (Musgrave, 19S2). Let us
assumethat a standard wavefront chart can be constructedfrom the knowledgeof
velocity-depth relationships within the overburden. This chart would normally
consistof a set of wavefrontsspacedpossibly.010 or .020 sec apart. There would
alsobe a set of trajectoriesor raypaths which are orthogonalto the wavefronts.In
reflectionseisinology,eachof these trajectories would be associatedwith a moveout
time (A! acrossa fixed-lengthsurfacespread)for conveniencewhen migratinga dip.
In refraction interpretation, thesetrajectoriesshouldbe designatedby their respec-
tive apparent velocitiesas follows'
Apparent velocity = spreadlength/At,
where spreadlength is definedas the surfacespreadlength.
Superimposedon the wavefront and trajectoriesthere should be two additional
sets of curves. The first set is simply a set of horizontal lines. These represent iso-
velocity layers of the overburden. The second set of curves are curves of equal
angles,i.e., the angle between the trajectory and the vertical. This angle can be
found as follows:
sin i = Vz/V,,,
* StandardOil Companyof Texas,Houston,Texas.
298
Nomogram for Curved Ray 297
where
/=incident angle (angle betweentrajectory and vertical),

Vz-velocity at depth z,
Va-apparent velocity at surface.
Now this chart with the four setsof curvesis shownin Figure 1. Only the right-
hand side is shown as it is symmetrical about its vertical axis. It will be noted that
the chart is for velocity varying linearly with depth, but this is not a necessarycon-
dition.
6OOO
7OOO
I I
8000
9O0O
o
I0,000
I I000
12,000 -.
13,000
80
14,000
'0
15,000
30 40 50 60 70
LEGEND
Curves of quolApporenf Veloc/ty

Curves of Equol Angle
Curves of quol T/me
Curves of quol Overburden Veloc/ty
Fro. 1. Nomogramshowingrelationshipof apparentvelocities,dip, and depthof refractorand

traveltimeto a refractorfor an overburdenvelocityV= 5,000+Z.
298 Graphs and Nomographs for Interpretation
AI vocm)tms wAcxo
In normal refraction practice a time-distance curve of first arrivals is obtained as

shownin Figure 2. From this curve the apparent velocity can be determinedby the
measurementof the reciprocalof the slope.Under the conditionsof an overburden
whose velocity is a function of depth, a uniform dipping refractor of constant
velocity will not appear as a straight line on the time-distancecurve. Nevertheless,
at any distancewhere the first-arrival energy is consideredto have traveled along
the refractor during someof its travel, the apparent velocity of the refractor can be
determined.This apparent velocity determinesthe trajectory of the energyup to
the surface but the apparent velocity will equal the refractor velocity only if the
refractor is horizontal.
In the caseof a constant velocity of the overburdenthe relationshipsbetweenthe
apparent velocity shootingdowndip and the apparent velocity shootingupdip are
given by the following relationships(Dix, 1952, p. 255)'
V V V
q- = 2 cos a.
Va V V
In the case of the overburden velocity increasingwith depth, the relationships

of the observedapparent velocities,the refractorvelocity, the dip and the depth of
the refractorare a very complicatedexpressionbut can be expressedin a nomogram
suchas shownin Figure 1 which determinesthe relationship of these parameters.
Now let us considera caseof a refractordipping at 10 degreesasshownin Figure 3.
Let us assumean apparentvelocityof 15,000ft/sec at A. Then the emergentpoint is
2.125- -2.125
2.0- -2.0
-i.O
A B
5000 2500
DISTANCE
Fro. 2. Time-distancecurvesfrom shotpointsat A and B.

6000
I I I \ \
/ I I i ' \ L'
.... t--- -.-.--\ -
7000
I i
---I,.... -.L ....

8000 i I
I
I
I
9000
,o
I0,000
,ooo
13,000
80*
4,ooo
}0
15,000 ;50 40 50 60 70
LEGEND
,, Curves of Equal pparen! Velocl'fy

Curves of Equal Angle
---- Curves of Equal T/me
-- --. Curves of Equal Overburden Velac/ty
F1o.3. Nomogram
showing
themethod
ofdetermining
thetruevelocity
ofa refractor
whose
position
is assumed
andwhose
apparent
velocity
is known.
G whichliesonthetrajectory
of 15,000
ft/sec.Thetruevelocity
of therefractor
is
obtainedbymoving alongtheisovelocity
layeroftheoverburden
fromG toH, i.e.,
horizontally
fromGtoa curveofequalanglethatis10degrees
lessthanthecurveat
G.ThispointH iswhere
a horizontal
refractor
would
havethesame
angle
ofinci-
denceandthe sameoverburden velocityasthat of a refractordipping10 degrees
at
G. It musttherefore
havethesamevelocity.NowthepointH isalmostonthetrajec-
torycorresponding
to anapparent
velocityof 20,000
ft/secorprobably
aboutthe
equivalent
ofa trajectory
of19,500
ft/sec.Thisvelocity
valueequals
thatofa hori-
zontalrefractor
at H andalsoequals
thatof a refractor
dipping10degrees
at G.
3OO Graphs and Nomographs for Interpretation
EXAMPLE OF USE OF NOMOGRAM
The useof thehomogram canbebestunderstoodby an example.The generalpro-

cedureis oneof successive
approximations.
Let us considerthe followingconditions'
(a). The refractoris of constantvelocityanduniformdip.
(b). The time-distancecurvesfrom a reversedrefractionprofile are given in
Figure 2.
(c). The overburdenvelocityis known.In this exampleit is
v = 5,000 + z,
where V: is the velocity at depth Z in ft/sec.

This type of velocity function is not a necessarycondition but was chosenfor
easeof computation.
PROCEDURE
1. Let us approximatethe curvesin Figure 2 by straightlinesas shownin Fig-

ure 4.
20] "' ----

-'"-' 20
t0 t0 to
I 5l + t t
5000 2500
Fro. 4. Straight-lineapproximationof time-distance

curvesof Figure 2.
2. Using the set of straight-lineapproximationswe can computethe apparent

velocitiesfrom their slopesand can obtain the intercept times To as shownin
Figure 4.
3. We thus have a two-layer refraction problem. Using the methods of Dix
(p. 254-256)we canobtainthe solutionwhichgivesa refractorof 13,340ft/sec and
dip of 13 degreesas shownin Figure 5.
301
Nornogram for Curved Ray
=oo o7o F

2000
4000

Fro.5. Refractor
calculated
fromstraight-lineapproximations
shownin Figure4. Portion
of nomogramof Figure1 is shown
positioned
at A.
4. Wecannowcompute
thetruetotaltimefromA toB using
thenomogram
of
Figure1 andtherefractorof Figure5.
5. Figure
5 also
shows
theoverlay
ofa portion
ofthenomogram
positioned
at A.
6. Nowif therefractorwereflat thentheenergyarrivingat A wouldtravelalong
thetrajectory
of13,340
ft/secthroughCtoA.However,therefractor
dipsat13de-
greessowemovehorizontally
fromCtoD (i.e.,adistance
of13degrees
measured by
usingthecurves
ofequalangle).
D liesonatrajectory
ofabout11,500
ft/sec.
Point
E is theemergent pointfor therefractorasshown.
7. The time fromA to E is 0.775sec,asgivenby curvesof equaltime.
8. Onecanusethesame
procedure
at B to obtaintheemergent
pointF andthe
time B to F, which is 0.172 sec.
9. Using
thevelocity
oftherefractor
of 13,340
ft/secandthemeasured
distance
E to F, thetimeE to F canbecalculated
(0.882sec).
10. Totaltraveltimeis thusthesumof A to E, E to F, andF to B, whichis 1.829
sec.The observedtime is 2.125sec(Figure 2).
Wetherefore
mustmakeadjustments
tooneormoreofthethreeparameters,
the
depth,thedip,orthevelocity
oftherefractor.
Thegreatest
error
inourapproxima-
tionswasprobablytheoverburden
velocity.
Astheoverburden
isthickest
at A it
wouldcausethe greatest
errorthere.Solet usproceed
asfollows:
11.Measure
theapparent
velocity
at A resulting
froma shotat B.Thisis10,750
ft/sec.
12.If westeepen
thedipif therefractor
tosay16degrees,
wemustmakeadjust-
mentsto its velocityto honortheobserved apparent
velocity
at A. Theapparent
velocityat B isnotassensitivedueto thelargevelocitycontrasts.
13. In orderto determinethevelocityof therefractor
asdrawnin Figure6 that
wouldsatisfy
boththedipandtheapparent velocity
of 10,750ft/secobservedat
A, weagainusethenomogram ofFigure1.Theemergent pointontherefractor
is
G.Thedipoftherefractor
is16degrees.
Therefore,
move 16degreeshorizontally
to
H andreadthevalueofthetrajectory
onwhich H falls.Thevalueis13,000ft/sec.
14.Using13,000
ft/sec,
wecanagaincomputethetotaltraveltimeasbefore.The
302 (raphs and Nomographsfor Interpretation
2500 500
70*
/ 60*
J 40o 50'
Fro.6.Second
approximation
ofrefractor
showing
calculations
ofitsvelocity
fromitsposition
andapparent
velocity
at A using
thenomogram
ofFigure1.
valueis 2.071sec.We can,therefore,

makeanotherapproximation
asbeforeby
increasing
thedip,sayto 18degrees
asshown
in Figure7.
Theapproximation
leads
toarefractor
velocity
of12,800
ft/sec
andatotaltravel-
time of 2.130.
Wecouldcontinue
onto successive
approximations,
buttherewillbea limitdic-
tatedbyouroriginal
assumptions
andaccuracy
oftheobserved
data.
Wecouldhave,at step11,proceeded
to calculate
therefractor
velocity
which
wouldgiverisetoanobserved apparent
velocity
of10,750
ft/secatthedepthand
dipoftherefractor
inFigure5.Thiscould
bedonebyfirstdetermining
thecorrect
emergentpointG (Figure
8) foranapparent
velocity
of10,750ft/sec.Thenmove
13degreeshorizontally
fromG to//and determine
thevalueofthetrajectory
on
which//falls.Thisvalueis 12,500
ft/secandwouldbetherefractor
velocity.
Of
course,
thiswould
haveledtoanevenless
totaltraveltime,
andwecould
onlycon-
clude the refractor must be much deeper.
Wetherefore
seetheintimaterelationship
ofdipandvelocity
oftherefractor
for
a givenoverburden
velocity
andobserved
apparent
velocity.
2500 5000
50 e 60 e
Fro.7.Thirdapproximation
ofrefractor
showing
calculations
ofitsvelocity
fromits
position
andapparent
velocity
atA using
thenomogram ofFigure
1.
2000
4000
40' 50*'
Fro. 8. Usingfirst approximationof refractorit is possibleto obtain a better measureof its velocity
usingits apparentvelocityat A, whichis 10,750ft/sec, and the nomogramof Figure 1.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion,this chart can be used for more exact determination of refractor

depth and dip from total traveltimes and apparent velocitiesusingknown velocity-
depth relationshipsof the overburden.
REFERENCES
Dix, C. Hewitt, 1952, Seismicprospectingfor oil: New York, Harper & Brothers.
Musgrave,Albert W., 1952,Wave-front chartsand raypath plotters:Quarterly of the ColoradoSchoolof
Mines, v. 47, no. 4.
Slotnick, M. M., 1950, Graphicalmethod for the interpretation of refractionprofile data: Geophysics,
v. 15, p. 163-180.
CONSTRUCTIONS, GRAPHS, AND NOMOGRAPHS FOR

REFRACTION COMPUTATIONS
E. J. STULKEN*
ABSTRACT
A miscellanyof geometricconstructions, graphs,charts, templates,and homographsare described

briefly. These proceduresand devicesfacilitate conventionalrefractioncomputations.Included are
(1) a method of constructingsurface-to-surface refractionrays through multiple layers; (2) charts,
templates,and homographs applicableto depthcomputations for refractionsthroughdiscretelayers;
(3) coincident(critical) refraction distance,mirage distance,and generalrefraction-anglecharts; and
(4) chartsfor refractionsthroughvelocitysectionswhereinvelocityis Vo+Kz or Vo(i+Kz) /'.
INTRODUCTION
ComputtionMMdshemny usesin explorationwith seismicrefractions.They

serves time-sersnd fcilitte computationof tril solutionss well s the test-
ing of multiple hypotheses.They re entertMning.They cn give insight into re-
frction-ry relationships.Designingthem providesn exerciseof ingenuity.
Numerous refraction computing deviceshe been reported in literature. See
riousissuesof G.o?ttYsIcsnd Goh2sa! Prosdngnd texts on geophysicM
prospecting
(Olhoich,1959;Reich,Zwerger,Tuchelet l, 1945).Mny morehe
undoubtedlybeen reported in oil companynd governmentfiles. An unlimited
number cn readily be designed.Here we describeseYerl which, so fr s this
uthor knows, he not yet been publicized.
The geometricconstructions describedin thispper enableoneto solverefractions
up to lyers without trigonometrictbles nd with pmcticMlyno computations.
Nomogrms,charts,nd templatespresentedhereinwill find serviceprincipMlys
time-svers.The lst prt of the pper offerscomputationalMdsfor solvingcurYed-
pth refractions.Thesechartsnd nomogrmspply wherevelocityis describedby
Vo+K or Vo(I+K) either throughoutthe sectionor down to higher velocity
refractor.
REFRACTION COMPUTATIONS USING A GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
Ruler and compasssolutionsto refractionproblemsare novel and, upon occasion,

very practicalin that no chartsor tablesare required.
Supposea net surface-to-surface refraction traveltime T is determinedat R in
Figure 1, a distanceX directlyup- or downdipfrom a shotat S. Let this time also
be obtainedin shootingfrom R to S, with in-line time-distancedata indicatingthe
apparentvelocitiesVa,2,Rat R from a shot at S and Va,2,sat S from a shot at R.
Assumea slowerseismicpropagationvelocity V appliesfrom the surfacedown to a
plane lower boundarydippingas described.Let V2 representvelocitybelowthis
boundary.
* GeophysicalServiceInc., Dallas, Texas.

304
Constructions, Graphs and Nomographs 305
/
/
/
(V)
Vo,2,S
/
/
/
\\ Vo,2,R
11,2
FIG. 1. Determinationof a dippingrefractioninterface(1-1) by measurement

and geometric construction.
Along the surface,on a small-scalecrosssection,we lay off lengths representing

V1 inward from S and R, drop perpendicularsdownward at the inward extremities
of the V segments,and swing arcs with radii representingthe appropriate meas-
ured apparent velocities. See Figure 1. The desired rays extend from S and R
through the respectiveintersectionsof arcs and perpendiculars.These rays are
projected until they meet at O. Next, we measurethe length SO+OR. We then
multiply observedrefraction time T over the spread distanceX by the low-speed
velocity V. This product, VT, we subtract from SO+OR and divide the differ-
ence by two. We then swing an arc with O as the center and this difference M
(-t-OR-VT)/2--as radius.Wherethisarccuts andO-, at M andN, erect
perpendiculars.
Thesemeetat P, whichlieson the bisectorof/SOR;and the normal
to thisbisector,
1-1, constitutes
the topof therefracting
layer--theV.layer.
Incidentally,/SOP=/ROP= i,.wheresin i,.= V1/V2. So V.= V. OP/MP.
Many readerswill noticethe similarity, up to a point, betweenthis and Slotnick's
(1950, 1959) graphicalsolutionfor refractions.
This method can readily be appliedto morelayerswith plane boundaries.Figure 2
showstwo. It is assumedthat Vx, V2, and the boundary (1-1) between them are
known. Both interfacesare presumedto have strike directionsnormal to the figure.
Apparentvelocities(V,.a.s and V,,3,R)are usedto constructrays in the first layer as
before.Vajk's (1954) constructionis usedto determineray directionsin the second
SCV _ VR
x
..
'.V2
V2
0
-i'..'"(SS'
"'-
+'"''1
+ +'-'-VT)./2
FiG. 2. Determinationof a seconddippingrefractioninterface (2-2) by measurement
and geometricconstruction.
layer.1 At O, the intersectionof the rays through the V2 layer, a circleis drawn with
radius (SS'V2/V-kRR'V/V-kS'O-kOR'-VT)/2. The rest of the construction
proceedsas before.
This construction can be extended straightforwardly to n layers provided all
boundariesare plane and dip directly in the direction of the refraction profile. (See
Figure 3.) From time-distancedata one can constructray segmentsthroughthe first
layer, the positionof the baseof this layer having beenpreviouslydetermined.At the
first interface, Snell's law applies so one has at hand the information necessaryto
constructray segmentsat each end of the profile through the secondvelocity layer,
the baseof this layer having likewisebeen previouslyestablished.Again the Sne]l's
law constructionsapply in establishing raypaths through the third layer. This
procedurecan be continuedthrough all n--1 previouslyestablishedlayers. Further-
more, the rays through the nth velocity layers can be drawn and projected to the
point of intersection,O in Figure 3, as in the two-layer case.With O as center and
the quantity
V.(s/Vt -+-s/F, -+- -+-S._l/V._t + rt/Vt -+-r/V2 -+- r,_t/V,_l
q- S'O/V,, q- OR'IF,, -- r)/2
as radius,an arc is swung.Where this arc cuts the projected nth layer rays at M and
N, tangentsare erectedand extendedto their point of interesection,P. As before,a
line throughP perpendidularto OP constitutesthe desiredline (n -- n)--the base
of the nth velocity layer.
Concentriccircleswith radii V and V, are centeredat the foot of the first ray segment.A per-
pendicularto the boundarywherethis ray segmentterminatesis droppedfrom the intersectionof the
ray with the V.ocircle.The centerof the circleand the point wherethis perpendicularintersectsthe V
circle determine the secondray segment.
Constructions, raphs and Nornographs 307
Fro. 3. Determinationof the nth dippingrefractioninterface(n-n) by measurement

and geometricconstruction.
A NOVEL NOMOGRAPHIC PROCEDURE
Figure4 illustratesa novel,quite completerefractionnomograph. It applies

simplytosurface-to-surface
refractions
throughonelayerhavingparallelboundaries,
a velocityV, anda fastervelocitybeneath,V2.For specific
velocityvaluesanda
particularX andT, thenomograph yieldsdepthof refractor
andcriticalreflection
distance.
A rectilineargridworkis scaledto showshotdistanceX anddepth/-/(seeFigure
4a). Thisgridwork,preferablyonstifftransparent film, is pivotedat its originatop
the originof a secondrectilineargridwork.This second sheethasa V scalehori-
zontallyanda VT scalevertically(seeFigures4b and4c). Radiatingstraightlines
on this sheetshow T valuesand serveas multipliers--to provide the product VT
graphically.Thecurvedlinesrepresent V2values.Theyaresoplacedthat whenthe
X scaleof the overlyingfilm is tilted to passthroughthe intersection
of a selected
V line with an appropriateV.curve,it makesthe anglei with the V axis,where
i-sin-(V/V). With the two sheetsso arranged,one determinesVT for the
examplein mind,andfollowsthisvalueacross horizontally
to the specific
X value
that applies--reading
nowontheoverlay.Thisintersection hasonthetiltedfilman
/-/value whichrepresentsdepthof the refractor.
Figure4d illustratesthe nomogram set for the particularexamplewherein
V= 7,000ft/sec, V.=11,000ft/sec,X= 16,500ft, T--1.80. The X axisis tilted
io
o 4 x 12(
KILO
FEE'IF O 24
(,a)(X,H)GRIO
('C)(X,H
) GRIDVI (FT/ms)
OVERLAY
ON(Vi,ViT)
SHEET
28
0 4 18 20
ViS(FT
/msI vl -
(b)T LINES
AND
V2 CURVESON( VI ' ViT)SHEET (d)EXAMPLE OF NOMOGRAM IN USE
Fro. 4. Nomogramfor refractions throughonelayerwith horizontalboundaries. Final settingshows

H= 1,380ft for a T of 1.8secat X = 16,500ft using7,000ft/secfor V and 11,000ft/secfor Va.
to passthroughthe intersectionof the 7,000-ft/secVz line with the 11,000-ft/secV2

curve.The Vz line is then followedup to the 1.8 T line to determinea VzT product,
12,600ft. The X = 16,500-ftline intersectsthe horizontalline havingthis VzT value
at a point whichon the overlyinggrid hasthe valueH= 1,380ft. Incidentally,the
tilt of the (X, H) sheetrevealssini= .636,usingthe X and VTz axesas merenumeri-
cal scales.Furthermore,the VzT and Vz scalescanbe readasshownin the example
to find that tan i-.825 and that for H = 1,380ft half the critical reflectiondistanceis
about 1,140 ft.
Constructions, Graphs and Nomographs 3O9
The nomogramcan alsobe usedto find T if V, V2, X, and//are known.

It is basedon the relationship
VxT/(4H 2 q- X2) TM= sin (i q- 0).
This is related to the conventionalone-layerrefractionequation

VxT = 2H cos i q- X sin i
by defining0- tan-1 2H/X.

A REFRACTION RAY PLOTTER
Figure 5 illustratesa simpledrafting deviceto facilitate refraction-rayplotting.

It consistsof a transparent,fairly rigid plastic sheeton which concentrichalf-circles
represent V2 and parallel lines represent V. Radial lines make the angle i--sin -1
V/V2 with the parallel lines,and are labeledin terms of their sinevalues.
The useof the plotter is illustrated in Figure 6.
In a-i we indicate a shotpoint S, a layer having a velocity of 6,500 ft/sec and
horizontal bounaries, an underlying medium with a velocity of 10,500 ft/sec,
and a recordingpostion R to the right of S. We want to draw a ray at S and ac-
complishthis by placing the template as shownin a-ii. The intersectionof the left
6.5 V line and the 10.5 V arc marks the radius which is to be placed in a horizontal
positionthrough S with the origin of the plotter at S. By interpolation we seethat
this radiuscorresponds to the ratio V/V.--.62=sin i, and, incidentally, that i is an
angleof 38 degrees.The desiredray runs through S along the edgeof the plotter. To
draw the ray up to R, one would center the plotter at R after swingingit around so
as to bring the right-hand portion of the plotter on the line SR. Figure 6a-iii shows
rays drawn at S and R.
Rays can be constructedacrossany refracting interface by employing an inter-
mediate step, as illustrated in Figure 6b. In b-i is showna seismicray I0 in a medium
having a velocity of 8,000 ft/sec. It is desiredto continue the ray acrossthe inter-
faceFF' into a mediumhavinga velocityof 12,000ft/sec. First, onesetsthe baseof
the template alongthe ray sothat its origin coincideswith O--as in b-ii--noting the
point p where the 8,000-ft/sec V line intersectsthe interface FF'. Next, one notes
which arc passesthrough p and locatesthe point q at which this arc intersectsthe
12,000-ft/sec V. line. Then the plotter is pivoted about O and its origin until this
point q falls uponFF'. One can then draw OR alongthe edgeof the plotter. asshown
in b-ill and b-iv.
The device can be applied directly to draw rays through any of n layers having
parallel boundariesand involving a refraction along the (n+ 1)th velocity medium.
The settingfor thejth layer would be given by Vj/Vn+. One can alsousethe device
to plot rays through layers with nonparallelboundaries.For the first layer the ratios
of V to the apparent velocitiesobservedalong the surface apply. Velocities and
boundariesof succeedinglayers must be known, and at each boundary in turn the
ray can be extended as describedin Figure 6b.
310
Fic. 5. A refractionray plotter.

0
bJ
n_
_
>
.
Graphs and Nomographs for Interpretation
NOllg3la
3AVM
Constructions,Graphsand Nomographs 311
.. $
i
v! =
v;. io,5oo'/s
iii)
(i)
a. Protractor
appliedto refractions
through
'a singlelayer
b. Protractor applied to refractions across an interface
FIO.6. Applications
oftherefraction
rayplotter.
THE G FACTOR
Let us define a G factor thus'
G,,j = V,/2(1- V?/V/) TM.

Here Vdenotesvelocity of propagationin the ith layer of a multilayeredrefracting
medium having parallel interfaces. Vj denotesvelocity of propagationin the layer
in which the particular refraction to which Gg,refers travels parallel to the inter-
faces.This is an important multiplier in refractioncomputationand often appearsin
refraction equationsin this form or as V/2 cosii,i or Vj tan i;,i.
Figure 7 showsGg,sin multiple line chart form. For refractionsthroughone, two,
and n parallel layers'
Z = To,'G,,
Z. = To,aG.,a- ZG,a/G,,,
and
Zn -- To,n+l-- ' Zi/G,,+zGn,n+l.

i=I
Here, Z, Z, and Z; representthicknessesof the respectivelayers, and To,2,To,a,

and To,,+representtime interceptsof time-distancelinesthroughdata pointshav-
ing the respectivereciprocalslopesV2, Va, and Vn+.
The G factor also appliesto refractionsthrough one layer with a dipping-plane
base.Considera profilefrom R to S in the directionof dip. Let Va,a,sand Va,a,abe
the apparentvelocitiescorresponding to V for shotsat R observedtoward S and at
S observedtoward R, respectively.The intercept times can be expressedas
To,2,s-- Hi,s[1/G(V1,Va,2,q)
+ 1/G(V,, Va,2,R)]
and
= + 1/a(v,,
After evaluatingthe G factorsand time intercepts,one can computeHI,Sand Hx,.
Theseare the vertically measureddepthsof the refractinginterfacedirectly beneath
S and R, respectively.
It followsthat a similar applicationholdsfor refractionsthroughn layerswith
horizontal interfacesand a dipping base.
Computationsare facilitated if time intercept (To) linesare addedto the G graph
asshownin Figure8. Theseare placedsoas to serveasmultipliers.By followinga G
factor acrossto the appropriateTo line one can identify the depth of the refractor.
A novel way to read the Gg,yfactor is to placeblank sheetsof translucentrecti-
linear graphpaperin positionas shownin Figure9. On onesheetthe bottomscale
representsV. The vertical scalerepresentsV;/2 cosi,the G factor. On the other
sheethorizontallines are given Vi values. The (Vi, Gi,j) sheetis laid atop the Vi
sheetso that its origin lies on the V=0 line and a selectedvalue of the Vy scale
falls on a selectedVi line on the underlyingsheet.The value on the G scalewhich
7OOO
gijFACT.OR
FOR
IEFRACTION
COMPUTATIONS
EXAMPLE OF USE
gijISVlVj/2
V
SCA cuu AT
I .7'/s 1,,v3-
1 rresents velocityifi lb4 ith layer
j repmntsvelocity
in lb4Jfitm--
in whh the rfroctlan I)Orallels the
. -./.. i,H..i vi-17,h.r the Jnterc41 tim
4 On v. IH .1 '
" ';'ITox' "" I..... ;,gJ",J

[To,J-
ZZi/gi,j]
' i=l
/]. 4. GeM ;'
12000 14OO0 2O00O
Vi (FEET PER SECOND)
FIG. 7. The Gii factor:Go= V/2 cosi.

2 4 6 8 I0 Gij(FT.
PER
12 SEC.)
,nthousands.
14 16 18 20 22
Fro. 8. The Gii chart with To linesfor multiplyingpurposes.
lies on this V line is the multiplying factor for converting delay-time elementsto
depth elements.
Figure 9 illustratesa settingfor V=6,000 ft/sec and Vi= 10,000 ft/sec, which
indicates G,i = 3,750 ft/sec.
COINCIDENT REFRACTION CHART
In planning refraction profiles it is important to estimate the spread needed

between shot and seismometerto get desiredrefraction penetration. One would like
to anticipatethe distanceat whichrefractionsfrom a particularbed will showup
asfirst arrivals. For suchestimations.wehave the chart illustratedin Figure 10b.
For n velocity layers having parallel boundaries,V,`> Vi, and an immediately
underlyingmediumwith a velocity V,`+> V,`, the coincidentdistancecan be written
thus:
ffd,n,n+l
: 2 Zi tan(ii,n+[
q-ii,n
).
Figure 10a showsa ray diagram, construction,and identification of symbolsfor n
layers. The symbolXa .... + denotesthe distanceat which the time-distanceline with
slopel/V,, intersectsthe line with slope1/V,`+. It is often termed the critical refrac-
tion distancebut is more properly the distanceat which the arrival times for refrac-
FIG. 9. A simplenomographicdeterminationof Gi.
tions from the nth and (n-+-1)th velocity media coincide.The angle ij,+ pertains to
the ray of a refraction which penetratesinto the medium having a velocity V+ and
travels parallel to the boundary therein. It denotesthe angle which this ray makesin
the jth layer with respectto a normal to the boundaries.The angle ii,, pertains to
the ray of a refraction penetrating into the nth layer and traveling parallel to the
boundariestherein. It denotesthe angle with respectto the normal, which this ray
makes in the jth layer. Zj denotesthe thicknessof the jth layer. (See Appendix for
derivation of relationship.)
Define
1
Fj,n,n+l = 2 tan (/j,n+l -- ii,n).
Then
Xd,n,n.l
= Zj.Fi,n,nq_lo
j=l
Since ii,n+=sin- Vj/Vn+I and ii,n=sin - Vj/Vn, Fj,n,n+l is a function of the

Vj/V,+ and VffVn ratios.
316
Graphs and Nomographsfor Interpretation
X
i
,,
,4-
._
.--
i
i
o
,._
r-
I0.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
o
I,I
.f.
"' .6
.4
.2
,I
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Vj / Vn+I
FIC. lob. Chart for computingcoincidentrefractiondistances.For refractionsalongthe nth and
(nq-1)th layersthe V and V+ velocitysegments
of the time-distance
chart intersectat
Xa,n,n+l
= Zj'Fi,,,,,,+.
This function F is illustrated graphically in Figure 10b.2 If one knows or assumes

velocity values for the different layers, Fi values can be read off this graph and
multipliedby knownor assumedvaluesof Zj. The sumof theseproductsconstitutes
an estimate of coincidentrefraction distance Xd .... +. Conversely,if this distance is
known then, provided one knowsall the velocitiesand layer thicknessesexceptZn,
he can solve for this last thickness.
A GENERAL-PURPOSE REFRACTION CHART
Certain quantitiesare usedso often in refractioncomputationsthat it has proved

worthwhile to devise a chart on which they can be read.
Figure 11 showsi (as ordinate) in terms of V (the abscissa)and V. or Va.2
(separatecurvesaslabeled).Here,i= sin- V/V2 or i_+a= sin- V/V2,a. Vt and V.
are usually taken, respectively,asoverburdenand refractor propagationvelocities.
a denotesdip of the refractorand V,2apparentrefractionvelocityobservedalonga
profiledirectedup- or downdipward.Curvesare alsoshownfor sini, cosi, tan i, and
B. The latter is definedas (1-- V1/V.)l/2/(l-4- V1/V2)1/9.and is the ratio of refraction
depth to coincidentdistancefor surface-to-surface
refractionsthrough one layer
having parallel boundaries.
The chart has many uses'
1. Upon knowing V1 and V. for a refractionthrough a singlelayer of uniform
thickness,one can read i, the angle the refraction ray makes with a normal to the
layer boundaries.
2. Uponhavingobserved apparentrefractionvelocitiesV,supdipward(V) and
downdipward(Vd) over a planerefractor,and knowingV1, one can read i--a='I%
and i+a='I% respectively.Theseare the anglesthe respectiveray segmentsat the
updipand downdipendsmakewith the vertical.
3, 4. From thesequantities'I,uandI'done can computethe dip of the refractor,
a (half the difference)and i (the average);and from i, V2 the true refractorvelocity
can be obtained on the chart.
5. If oneknowsapparentvelocitiesV and Va, and a (the dip angleof the refrac-
tor) from other information--from well control,for example--the chart can be used
to find V1. (This is the vertical line alongwhich the V and Vd curvesare separated
by 2a.) One can then alsofind i and V..
6. The cosi curveis usefulfor computingthe vertical reflectiontime correspond-
ing to a particularsurface-to-surface refractionintercepttime to--that is, to/cosi.
THE CRITICAL REFLECTION DISTANCE
The critical reflection distance is useful'

1. As an estimation of the minimum distance at which refractions arrivals are
possible.
2. As an estimateof the separationof refractionsfrom a particularsubsurface
fea-
ture observedfrom oppositedirections.(In this connectionit affordsa meansfor
: The functionF and the expressionfor X alsoappl to refractionsacrossnonparallelinterfaces
providedthe anglesare redefinedappropriatelin correspondence with $nell'slaw. In the chartof
Figure10bthe abscissaand velocities
wouldthenneedredefinition.
, ............
'- ....... . , ,, SINi or-, COS
i, end
TAN
i ' .... ,, . ' '' ' ' 09 o
o.r-,. ', o." '.. .:'.:.'....
.'i'.:
i:,,o.'-,..-i
.......0.4
,,.
,- ....,,o.5
' ,, ,,-.',,06
....... ,,o.?" ,,,,.,
o.s,.','....,,.-',v
. ........
'=',
.r.., ' .... _"_i..i'
0
.... ' -'-0i- ,":
' ';o.::,'."'
..
'...... ' .... - - "' B(,)'. '.................. -.:
:: "- "':"'":' 0- ' - "-..'
.5 .-'0,. ...........
-'' ' ' ...... '.4 ' . '..,....-..:
'50 ,, ,, ..: , . ,,-.:, . ........ ....,,
,, ..,:.:':
.;"...':.
i':'........
=.. .'::.
ii.;'
,:'":.'
... i:;.:i'.
.... :'.
::;;'
. .';':.'
'.,'.'
...... ':.:,....
........
. : .i , ',"' ,'............
, .."'". ._, ,,....
,, -. '_..............:""-
,= '-:'';'.' .-'
....
:'"" '........
....... ,.'.......
-.-. "'"'"'
."'.......
'-' ,...... '"i' '
:' "'
''i '. :.:'i.:...... :.-. - '--'.....' ' '.'.' ,',' or, FEET PER SECOND "
......-- ". .............":" -A ........go& ........ oo ....... o ._'. .,,oo
...
e',-' '. "' -" -,' .": " ' -' ; '- -'.....
';.':;'.,.".
:.,-.:i'.':
.:":.:.'.':. ,;..:::::''-:,;
'-'.,:
':,;'
' ' "..,' ',' ' '':'.
............. '"'" '..... "...."":' :'"' '.','
','.'.:,
' .,:,:i ' "so-
. .....
:,.:;::.
:- :':'';,.:...... ' ':.'.'-.::'.':,' :'.", i'.','. ".,,' '.:':,'- ' ," "'. .....' ..........
....... .... . ":' :;":'
'-'.:"
:.'".;::.
' ' 5.
' -:..':i _ . '.- - ' -: "" ' ' "-" ' ' - ....... -: . ; -. ....
75' ..... . .: ..... , ,, :....... : .
:..,
........' .......... . ...., ..................
. '..............
..... . ,.: . .. . ': ' .....'.........
,...., .,,.,,..... ,. , , .
_ :..A,........... .-............ ..:.:.....,.._. . . _.....
. . _-...
.......... '."- ' "' .Oo
'
7o. ...... :':. -'." .'...-';':- .' ........... :-. ..... ".' : ....... - ................. ., , .;',.:? :,:
.......... '--"............... ' .......... '.,:: . . - ' ........ i ';',.,'::. ' ................
' . ....... :':. :. ::i'-:. , ." '; , ,':'. ' ' .. ,:..... '-', ':' ,'.-, ..'..... :,' ,'
........ ,- . . _ . ; : . ..... . .,. ,. . ., .... .
...... F '": ..... ' " '. ' - .. _' .. :" ..- " - _ .'. : ' .... ' , '. ' .... - ....... ':_'.... ' ' 65-
65-
2.0"_.,TAN,
...... -.- : .'- ' - . ::.--.' .' '. . . .- -.' ' -- . ' '-' ' -: ' '- - -' . 2.o
' ,":.:i:i-::i:;;i._-':'.!,
, :!':i"1":.:-
_:'.::.'::-"':.:'-:',.
- ."-:.::.;'.':.":i':.,'"-
': "."..,__'.".;
......
-:.-"-.":'__.:":'...'::!.'
.'.:,'.';""/':.:o
-' '" ' -:' ' - -.?-.:
;.' ' - :F:;.'"..' .... 55-
so. :;.'i
......o'
"';'"'' "'-: ...."' ' ..... '":
"':'',:' ' . .':
..... ,i."
:'i;.... ' ' ", ,., . ,' ,, ,. . ',..:..:-
':'..,:-,,;,.:.,:.,:,;:'-'
". : ' ,7:r..;
........... -. -..o45-
,:
.
-.
...
.....
. . . .
,.
..
'1 I'"1
-I;Ia''I ':'' le, PLANE
SINGLE-LAYER
PROBLEMS "'' '1 - '1 1 5''' ''....... ' ....... io'
.':,. '. ,, TERMS

OFOVERBURDEN
VELOCITY
VI , ANDAPPARENT
REFRACTION...... ' "" ":..... ?....

' ,'i-:'.-
I i.',':.
..........
,;.....
, ...............
: ;,'
VELOCITY
AND
YIELDING
ALSO
SIN|
,ORVl/V2,COSi
TANi.
AND ,'".;':
-' -..- .. DISTANCE,X) FORPARALLELBEDS. ': ....... '.' - ' .:
....... . .._ _ . .;,.,._.,-..
;_...... : ......
.,
.. .. ,,.. .... ...,
0 ,:r '- '.......'-'........ ', "'; ' :. I I, ___2 2

Vi(THOUSAND$
OFFEETPERSECOND)
FIG.11.A general-purpose one-layer

refractionchart.i = sin- V/V.(ori_ c= sin- V/V,,) in termsof
V andV (or V,.).Sines,cosines,
tangents,andB = (1-- V/V.)t'(1q-V/V.)t'arechartedin termsof
i (or i_+_
c).Anglei of figuremay meani or i_ cascaserequires.
differentiatingbetweenanomaliesat depth and thoseassociatedwith shallower

beds.)
Considern successive
layers with parallel boundariesand with velocitiesVi,
j-- 1, 2, 3 n, and V+> V. The criticaldistance
for a surface-to-surface
reflec-
tion from the base of the nth layer coincideswith the minimum refraction distance
at which surface-to-surface
refractionsoccur.It is given by
X,
n = 2 hi tan i/,n+l,
j----1
wherehi is the thicknessof the jth layer and ij,n+=sin-1 Vj/V,+. Thesetangents
can be read directly from the general-purpose chart in Figure 11 or from a trigono-
metric table--upon computingVi/Vn+ and finding thesevaluesin the sinecolumns.
Alternatively, one can construct a single-linegraph of tan i;.+ with respect to
Vj/V,+ and read valuesdirectly.
CHARTSYIELDING H//X FOR CURVED REFRACTIONS
Supposerefractionsfollow circularor cycloidalpaths, as in the caseswhereveloc-
ity isrespectively
a linear[Vo+Kz]ora parabolic
[Vo(1-kKz)
/2]function
ofdepth.
If one knows Vo, the velocity at the referencesurface,then the chart in Figure 12
permits immediateevaluationof H/X. This is the ratio of refractionpenetration
(H) to distanceof seismometerfrom shot (X) and is given in terms of sin/o--the
ratio of Vo to the apparentrefractionvelocity observedat X. The solidcurveper-
tains to the velocity Vo+Kz and is given by the parametricequations
H/X = (sec io -- tan io)
.5
.4
forVz:Vo+Kz
.3
for Vz =Vo'ql+Kz
.2
o .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
sin io or vo AT/AX
Fro. 12. The ratiosof maximumrefractionpenetrationH to spread-length
X where
velocityis a linear or parabolicfunctionof depth.
1.6
1.5
1.4
HL 1.3
Hp
1.2
I.I
1.0
0 20 40 60 80
io (DEGREES)
Fro. 13. The ratio of depth HL computedfor refractionswhere V,= Vo-{-Kzto depth Hr computed
where Vz=Vo(1-{-Kz)J/2.Here, HL/H, is expressedwith respectto io=sin-VoZXT/zXX.
and
sin io = VoZXT/ZXX= VolVo,

where XT is the refraction time difference observed over a small distance increment
zkX at X. aThe dashedcurvepertainsto Vo(1nt-Kz)TM.In this instance
H/X = cos2 io/(r - 2io h- 2 sin io cosio).<
Figure 13 showsthe ratio of the two curves in Figure 12. That is, it showsthe
depth of penetrationH z givenby the linear functiondividedby the depth H given
by the parabolic function for the same ratio of initial velocity Vo to terminal
velocity zX/zT. The two velocity functions give appreciablydifferent results.
Even for terminal velocitiesno more than twice the initial velocity, the linear func-
tion indicates14 percentgreaterpenetrationthan doesthe parabolicfunction.
EMPLOYING REFRACTION DtTt TO DETERMINE Vo tND K IN Vz = Vo+Kz
Several methods have been developedfor evaluating the constantsin Vo+Kz

usingrefraction data. If one determinesiX/iT= Vi from time-distancegraphs at
a number of valuesof T, a template suchas that shownin Figure 14 can be put to
good use.
This is a chart of the expression
Vu/X = K coth KT/2
a tt/X obtainablefrom Nettleton's(1940,p. 258 and 355) expressions for p and X uponnotingthat
i= r/2 and that K= (VH--Vo)/tt wheresubstitutionis appropriate.
4 This relationshipand later onesinvolving Vo(1-{-Kz)/ follow readily from raypath relationsde-
velopedby Houston(1939) uponletting iH=r/2 or sin- VulVae,as the caserequires.Note that angles
are in radians.
1.0
.8
H
.6
1.0
.4 .8
.6 K
.2
2 4 6 $ I0
T
FIG. 14. A chart for determiningK in Vo-i-K from a plot of VH/X

or zIX/X.zIT with respectto T usingfield data.
for selectedvalues of K. 5 In applying the chart, one

1. reads (T, X) data to determine V/at various X values,
2. divides each V/by the correspondingX value,
3. plots this quotient upon the template with respectto the T which corresponds,
4. determines K by noting which computed curve most nearly representsthe field
data.
A marked disagreementin type of alignment would suggestthat the data do not
conform to a linear function. After determining K, Vo2 can be determined by apply-
ing Vi-IS--KsX2/4= Vo2 repeatedly to obtain a best value, the squareroot of which
would be the desiredquantity Vo.6
In fact, since this expressionis linear in X 2 and V/2, values of V/2 plotted with
respectto X 2shouldfall alonga straight line. The best straight line through a normal
scatteringof (X 2, V/2) points identifiesthe velocity constants.The slopeof this line
5 Obtained by combininginversesof Nettleton's (1940, p. 259 and 355) equations214 and 293.
Note that the secondterm of the latter disappearsin our case.
6 SeeNettleton's equation212 (1940, p. 258).
is K2/4 and its intercept on the VH2 axisis Vo. If the scatter is systematic,perhaps
the assumptionthat Vz= Vo+Kz is not justified.
DETERMININGro AND K IN [z = [o(1 q-Kz) '/2 FROMREFRACTIONS
Constantsof the parabolic expressionof velocity can be evaluated with the aid of
the chart in Figure 15. If surface-to-surfacerefractions are received through a
medium in which V:= Vo(l+Kz) /, then at the shot distance X, where T is ob-
served,
X/T = Vo(' -- 2io q- sin 2io)/(2- -- 4io) sin io.
As in earlier sectionsio is the angle the incident and emergingrefraction rays make
with the vertical. For Volsin io we can write AX/AT, as before, and obtain
(X/T).(AT/AX) = (- -- 2io + sin 2io)/(2' -- 4io).
This quantity is plotted with respectto sin io or VoAT/AX in Figure 15. The ordi-
nate (X/T). (AT/AX) can be determinedfrom observations.Using sucha determi-
nation, say p in the figure,onereadsVoAT/AX off the chart. This readingmultipied
by AX/AT yields a value of Vo.If refractionrays actually conformto the parabolic
velocity formula, repeated determinations, using X, T, and AT/AX at different
spreaddistancesshouldyield a goodrepresentativevalue of Vo.
To obtain K we use a well-known expressionfor KX:
KX = (KVoT/2 + 2 cosio)/sin io.
For sinioonecanwrite VoAT/AX'andfor cosio, [1--(VoAT/AX)]/. Solvingthis
for K yields
K = 2[(ZXX/Vo.
ZXT)
--- 1]/'/[X- zXX.r/2zxr].
[.0
.8
x fit
T fix
.7
0 2 4 6 8 I0
/T
sin io=Vo-
15. A graphof XzXT/TX with respectto VozXT/zXX
(or X/V. T vs. Vo/V) applicable
the determinationof Vo where V--Vo(i+Kz)X/L
With a variation of this expression,one can also determine Vo and K directly.

Upon squaringthe equationand solvingfor 1/Vo'oneobtainsa linear expressionin
terms of the variables (AT/AX) ' and (XZIT/2ZIX--
1/Vo'= (AT/AX) ' + K'(XAT/2AX- T/4)s.
Both variablescanbe computedfor variousX valuesusing(X, T) data andits slope.
The best-fitting straight line will have an intercept and a slope which represent
1/Vo' and --K s, respectively.
DETERMINATION OF DEPTH TO A FLAT HIGH-VELOCITY REFRACTOR BENEATH gz = l/o+Kz
The continuouslycurving time-distance graph is of little interest in mapping

geologicstructures.Much morepractical is the casewherea linearly increasingveloc-
ity is underlain by a high-speedrefractingmedium (see Figure 16). Usually this
underlying medium has, or is presumedto have, a constant velocity as is assumed
here. Nettleton's (1940, p. 261-266) Chi (x) function can be usedto expeditecom-
puting greatly. One can write
K To = [ln (1 + cosio)-- In (1 -- cosio)-- 2 cosio]
-- [ln (1 + cosin) -- in (1 -- cosin) -- 2 cos
where in denotesthe angle the curved rays make with the vertical at the refractor
SLOPE
=(Sech
KT/2)/V
o
sP >R
//r
iv
=vo+
K,
(VR;VR>V. )
(b) RAY DIAGRAM
FIG, 16. Time-distancecurveand raypathsfor a sectionwhich has V,= Voq-Kzto depth//

and a fastervelocityVa beneaththis depth.
I I I I I I
2.00
1.50
KTo
'X,(i )
1.00
.50
KH
0.:3 0.6 0.9

sin i
Fro.17.UsingNettleton's
x chartto determine H to a horizontalhigh-speed
refractor
abovewhich
V,= Vo+Kz.a represents
sinio;andc, xn. Uponfindingsinin d onecancomputeH.
depthH. Thetwopairsofbrackets
contain
identical
functions
ofi, withi takingon
thevaluesioandin, respectively.
TheyareNettleton'sChi (x) function,anda graph
of thisquantityappears
in Figure17.It canbe seenthat
KH/Vi = sin i,-- sin io.
This, together with
Zero = X(io) -
formsa pairof equations
that enables
oneto findrefraction
depthH fromthe x
graph.KTois thedifference
betweentwoordinates,andKH/Vi is thedifference
betweentwo abscissas. To apply the chart, one usesthe followingdata: VR or

/xX//XTfromthe slopeof a T--X graphof actualrefractiondata; To,the timeinter-
ceptof that graph;and VoandK, predetermined constantsof the velocityfunction
applicablein the area. The quotient Vo/VR constitutessin io. One can read the chart
at thisvalue,indicatedat a, andestablish the valueof x(io)--indicatedat b. Next,
onemultipliesTo by K and subtractsthis productKTo from b. The remainder,
x(in), is indicatedin Figure17 by c.The abscissa givenby the graphfor x(in) is
sin in and is indicatedat d. The differencebetweend and a constitutes Ktt/V.
Multiplying ad by V/K yields//, the depthof the refractor.
A nomographfor finding the depth of a dipping or slightly curvilinearrefractor
overlainby a mediumwith Vz= Voq-Kzhasbeendeveloped andvery ablydescribed
by V. A. Olhovich(1959)in CursodeSismologia Aplicada.
DETERMINATION OF DEPTH TO A FLAT HIGH-VELOCITY REFRACTIOR BENEATH

Vz = Vo(1q-Kz) TM
A similar nomographcan be constructedfor a section where velocity
Vz= Vo(lq-Kz)TMis underlainhorizontallyby a high-speed
bed.Here onecanwrite
(2in q- sin 2in) -- (2io q- sin 2io) = KoTo sin io
or
f(in) --f(io) = KVoro sin io = Af.

Also,
sin' in -- sin"'io = K//.sin io.
Figure 18 shows2i-+-sin2i-f(i) with respectto sin'i. The horizontalaxisof this

rectilinear graph is linear with respectto sin i, but is marked off in sin i values.To
use this chart, onefirst determinessin io--Vo/XT/AX--from time-distance data. One
enters the chart at this value on the horizontal axis and the curve determines
f(io) corresponding
thereto.Next, onecomputes/xf
usingvelocityconstants,
sinio,
and intercepttime--KVoTosinio.This quantity/xf is addedto f(io) to form a sum
whichrepresents f(in). Thisadditionis indicatedgraphically
in Figure18.Next, the
sin in value wheref(in) interceptsthe curve is noted. The differenceon the sin i
scalebetweenthisvalueandsin'iois Ktt sin'io,asillustratedin the figure.There-
upon, //can be obtained by division.
SUMMARY
This paperdescribes
a simplegeometricconstruction for determiningrefraction
pathsand refractordepthsfor one,two, and n layers(seeFigures1, 2, and 3). It
alsoillustrates
a nomogramfor quicklysolvingone-layerrefractions
in thefield(see
Figure4). With thisdeviceonecanreaddepthof penetration directlyforparticular
valuesof V, V.,T, andX. The refractionray plotterdescribed
in Figures5 and6
constitutesa useful drafting aid.
Severalchartsareincludedwhichcan expediterefractioncomputations. The G-
factorchartin Figure7 yieldsthevelocityfactorby whichrefraction
intercept
times
Constructions, Graphs and Nornographs 327
f (i H)
--f(io)
sin2 i
sin2
i
0I
o, o. o. o.
02
o.
0.$
o.
0.4 KHsin2i
015
o.
016
o'.
0.7 0.8
o'.
o.9

o
I
.o
sinZi
sini
Fro. 18. A graphicalmethodof determiningdepth H to a horizontalhigh-speed

refractor above which V= Vo(1-kKz)/2).
are multiplied to get depth or layer thicknesses.It eliminatesthe needfor evaluating

trigonometric functions. The F chart in Figure 10 facilitates determination of co-
incident times and distancesor the depths correspondingthereto. The general-
purposechart (Figure 11) providesseveralfunctionsusefulin refractioncomputat-
tions--such as sin i, cosi, tan i, and (V.--V)/2/(V.+ V)/'--and yields true re-
fraction velocitiesas well as dip from apparent velocities.
Penetration of continuouslycurved refractions in sectionswhere linear or para-
bolic velocity functionshold can readily be obtained from the H/X (penetration to
shot distance)ratio given in a chart form in terms of sin io (seeFigure 12). Means
are also describedfor evaluating velocity constantsfor linear and parabolicfunc-
tions (seeFigures14 and 15). Finally, the paper givesa very usefulapplicationof
Nettleton's Chi function and the equivalent expressionfor parabolic overburden
velocities(in Figures 17 and 18).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is impossibleto acknowledgehelp and sourcesof ideas as fully as one shouldin

a paper of this type. The work itself representsthe collective effort of many in-
dividuals. The ideas,at best, representlittle steps beyond the subjectsof conversa-
tions and literature. In particular, though, the author wishesto acknowledgethe
328 Graphs and Nornographs for Interpretation
thoughtful supervisionand encouragementreceivedfrom K. E. Burg and the kind

permissionof GeophysicalServiceInc. to submit this material for publication.
REFERENCES
Agocs,W. B., 1949,Curvesfor the rapid determinationof refractionseismograph velocityintervalsand

critical distances:Geophysics,v. 14, p. 361-368.
Goguel,J., 1953, Une r[gle pour les calculsde sismique-rfraction: Geophys.Prosp.,v. 1, p. 44-48.
Houston,C. E., 1939,Seismicpaths,assuminga parabolicincreaseof velocitywith depth: Geophysics,
v. 4, p. 242-246.
Knox, W. A., 1958,A sliderule for near-surface refractionproblems:Geophysics,v. 23, p. 154-163.
Meidav, T., 1960,Nomogramsto speedup refractioncomputations:Geophysics, v. 25, p. 1035-1053.
Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysicalprospectingfor oil: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.
Olhovich,V. A., 1959, Cursode SismologlaAplicada: Mexico, D.F., Editorial RevertS, S. A.
Reich,H., Zwerger,R. V., Tuchel,G., et al, 1943,Taschenbuch der angewandtenGeophysik:Leipzig,
Becker and Erler.
Schoef-fler,
J., and Dieruer,E., 1955,Rapporteur
pourla construction
rapidedurayonrifract: Geophys.
Prosp., v. 3, p. 234-239.
Slotnick,M. M., 1950,A graphicalmethodfor the interpretationof refractionprofiledata: Geophysics,
v. 15, p. 163-180.
------ 1959,Lessonsin seismiccomputing:Tulsa, Okla., The Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists,
p. 110-114.
Vajk, R., 1954,Devicesfor the constructionof refractedrays: Geophysics,
v. 19, p. 237-241.
Wyrobek, S. M., 1956, Applicationof delay and intercepttimes in the interpretationof multilayer
refraction time-distancecurves: Geophys.Prosp., v. 4, p. 112-130.
APPENDIX
Considersurface-to-surface refractionsthrough layers having plane and parallel

boundariesand constantvelocitiesVi. Let Vi_<Vn< Vn+where 1<j<n. Then re-
fraction ray segmentstraveling alongthe nth and (n-t- 1)th layers are realizableand
traveltimes for the (n- 1)th and nth refractionscan be written thus:
T = 2 Y.Zi cosii,,/Vi + X/V,,
and
T+ = 2 Zi cosii,,+/Vi+ X/V,+.
Here, ij,, pertains to the refraction ray penetrating into but not through the
nth layer and denotesthe angle which the ray segmentin the jth layer makes with
the vertical; ii,,+ is the correspondingangle for the refraction into the (n-t-1)th
layer.
Figure A illustrates the raypaths to which theseequationsapply for refractions
through one layer and through two layers (for n-2, in other words). We note in
particular the coincidentpoint Xd.,.,+where refractionsthrough (n-l) layers
arrive at the same instant as--or coincidewith--those through n layers--Xd,2.ain
Figure A.
At the coincidentpoint X .... + the two times T and Tn+ are equal, so we multi-
ply the resulting equation by V, rearrangethe terms and write the nth term of the
secondsummation separately. Thus:
n--1
X ....+(1 - V,/V,+O= 2V Y.Zi(cosii,+ - cosii,,)/Vi + 2Z,cosi,+.

Xd,2,3
il,3
(v)
-(il,3+
il,2)
Fro. A. Coincident refraction distance as
2'. Zitan
i---1
illustrated for n= 2.
Next, we divide by (1--Vn/Vn+), replacingthe velocityratio by sin i,,,n+where

appropriate.
Xd....+ = 2Vn Zj(cosij,n+-- COS

ij,n)/Vj(1-- Vn/Vn+)
'=1
+ 2Z cosi,n+/(1 -- sin in,,+).

The denominatorswithin the summationbecome(VffVn--VffVn+), which can be
replacedby sinij,--sin ij,n+.SOa formof the solutionis
Xd,,+= 2 Z(cosi,n+-- COS

ij,n)/(sini,,-- sinii,n+)
j=l
+ 2Zn COS
in,n+/(1 -- sin in,n+),
which is readily reducible to'
-- 2 Z tan (/j,n+l
J(a,n,n+l- x ' --i,n).
j=l
REFRACTION PROFILING USING AVERAGE VELOCITY TO
NEAR-HORIZONTAL BEDS
CARL H. SAVIT*
ABSTRACT
Vertical depthsto dippingbedsmay be computedfrom unreversedrefractionplotsprovidedonly that

the averagevelocity in the overburdenis known or can be estimated.With the simplenomogrampre-
paredfor this computation,verticalaswell asnormal-to-beddepthsare computedfrom intercepttimes
and observed velocities in a few seconds.
INTRODUCTION
Most classical refraction interpretation processeshave been concerned with

rigorous mathematical solutionsof the refraction problem given various assumed
conditions.The presentinterpretation method is primarily concernedwith a tech-
nique to produce a quite accurate, quick look at refraction solutions.With ap-
propriate nomograms,depth and dip of any refractinghorizonmay be obtainedwith
almost no computation. In particular, it is possiblein a few minutes to examine
several tentative refraction-horizonidentificationsas to consistencyof dips and
depths. Finally, even with an unreversedprofile it is possibleto obtain an estimate
of the depth to the refractor. The point whosedepth is calculatedis actually on the
refactor rather than on a hypothetical extrapolation of the refractor.
Becausethe method to be describedis an "average velocity" method it is assumed
that the averagevelocity from the surfaceto the refractor is known at least ap-
proximately.Suchknowledge,as in the caseof reflectionsurveying,is obtainedfrom
well surveys,reflectiondata (normalmoveoutor X 2, T 2 analysis),or eventhe refrac-
tion data itself. It is to be noted at this point that the refraction method is the
poorest for obtaining accurate vertical or slant-path velocitiesbecauserefracted
velocities represent the highest velocitieswithin rather large depth ranges. Some-
times, moreover, even thick, high-velocity sectionsare missedby reason of poor
lateral transmission characteristics.
REFRACTION EQUATIONS
To derive the basic equationsof the presentmethod, we assumea simple two-

layer casein whicha material with uniformvelocity V (taken as the averagevelocity
in the sectionoverlyingthe refractor)overliesa materialwith velocityV> .
Two casesare distinguished; shootingupdip, i.e., with the detectorsupdip from
the shotpointand shootingdowndip,i.e., with the detectorson the downdipside
of the shotpoint. Subscriptsu and g distinguishdata observedor derived in the two
cases.Figure 1 illustrates the configurationand notation assumed.
Fundamental solutionsof therefractionproblemgivenin texts[Nettleton,1940,
p. 271;Dix, 1952,p. 255]are'
* Western GeophysicalCompanyof America,Los Angeles,California.
330
Profiling Using Average Velocity 331
A X B
Hu Hd
Fro. 1. Diagramof theassumed configuration

of refractorV andoverburden
V. Dimensions
Huand
Haaremeasured perpendicular
to thesurface
AB whileZuandZdaremeasured perpendicular
tothere-
fractor.
2Zu cos i
Tou- , (1)
V
2Zd cos i
Toa = , (2)
V
sin i = F/V, (3)
-
sini = Vsec , (4)
whereTo,and Todare the up- and downdipintercepttimes,respectively.

If wesquare(1) andsubstitute1--sin2i for cos2i weobtain
4Z
To = __
(1 -- sin i). (s)
V
Now,if wesubstitute
the velocityratiofor the trigonometric
function(3) andre-
arrange,(5) becomes
4Z2/F = 4Z/V q- ro,. (6)
We notethat 2Z,/F is the reflectiontime of the refractorat shotpointA and can
thusbereplacedby TRz,,sothat finally
TRz2= (4/V)Z q- To, (7)
and similarly
Teza = (4/V2)Za -4-Toa, (8)
whereTez is in fact a functionof Z, the familiar reflectiontime versusdepthfunc-

tion.It is apparent
that (7) and(8) eachrepresent
theintersection
in Za,Tacoordi-
natesof thetime-depthcurvewith a straightlinehavinga slope4IV andaninter-
cept To,
or To2, respectively.
In practice,equations (4), (7), and (8) sufficeto determine
the refractorby
graphical
means uponassuming thata issmallsothatsecamaybetakenasunity.
A unit valuefor seca is requiredbothto determine V fromequations(3) and(4)
andto useTR(theverticaltwo-waytimeprovidedby theusualtabulations)

instead
of the slant path, normal to the refractor.
It is, however,theveryproblemof properpairingsof observed updipand down-
dipphasevelocities Vuand Vathat requires thegreatestexercise of judgmentonthe
part of the interpreter.The refractorvelocityV is thussubjectto considerable un-
certainty.It would,therefore,clearlybe preferable if equations(7) and (8) or their
analogues couldseparatelybesolvedwithoutreference to thetruerefractorvelocity
soasto provide,by an examination of theconsistency of theresults,anindependent
checkof the chosen pairing.As a bonus,sucha methodwouldprovideusefuldata
from an unreversedprofile.
It willbeshownbelowthat thereexisttwoapproximate
equations,
eachinvolving
only quantitiesdeterminable
from unreversed
profiles'
T. = (4/ra)a-- (4/ra)a + To; (9)
T.a = (4/Fa)Ha -- (4/ra)Ha + To. (0)
Onlyequation(9) will be derivedasthe derivationof (10) is exactlysimilar.We
beginby equatingtwoexpressions for thepathin theupperlayerat A in Figure1.
Z/cos i = H/cos (i + ), (11)
whence
cos i
Z-- // (12)
cos (i + )
If we now substitutethis value into (1), we obtain
2H, cos2 i
To,= _ (13)
V cos (i + a)
which may be transformedinto
ro =
2cos(i-a)
_
[ cos2i
V cos(i - ) cos(i + )
. (4)
We shallmakethe approximation that the termin bracketsis equalto one.By

sodoingweacceptanapproximate valueforH. Therelativeerroroftheapproxima-
tionisequalto thedeviationof thetermin bracketsfromunitvalueandis apparent
from the relation
cos i sin a
= + (s)
cos(i- a)cos (i + a) cos a - sin i
The approximateequationcorresponding
to (14) is
2 cos(i - a)
To, H,, (16)
V
or squared,
1--sin 2(i--a)
Tou' . 4 H . (17)
V
Equatingtwo expressions
for the ray constant,we obtain [sin(i-- a) ]/F= 1/Vu,
whencesin(i-a)=F/V,. We thustransform(17) into
To 4H a (18)
2
ic is seeno be a rearrangementof ). similar processmay be usedto obtain
10), te don-dip equation.
The relative error of te approximation for bot up- and dondip is exactly the
expression1) as can be sccny subsfimfin -- for in 14) and cncc 1).
Clearly, the error is zero for = and increasesith incrcasin . Table 1 displays
e error for dips to 1 derees and for velocity ratios from . to .8.
Table 1. Percent error of calculated depth

,,
0 5 10 15
.5 0.0 1.0 4.2 9.8

v/v .6 0.0 1.2 4.9 11.7
.7 0.0 1.5 6.3 15.1
.8 0.0 2.2 9.1 22.9
Errors of 10 to 15 percent in depth can usually be ignoredin refraction work and

dips greater than 10 degreesdo not normally occur on a refraction prospect. The
approximationmay thus be used without concernin routine work, especiallysince
both the updip and downdiprefractiondepthsare subjectto the samerelative error.
On the other hand, should a refined computation be desired, it is but a simple
matter to useTable ! (or a more finely dividedversionof that table) to correctthe
computeddepths.
COMPUTATION PROCEDURE
To permit speedysolutionof equations(9) and (10) or, for that matter, of (7)
and (8), oneneedonly preparerectangularcoordinategraphsheetswhosescalesare
squared.Figure 2 illustrates one of a set of forms which has been in regular usesince
1958. Times and depths are marked at distancesfrom the origin which are propor-
tional to the squaresof their values. Velocities are labeled with values of twice the
ratio of scaleddepth increment to scaledtime increment. The factor of two is re-
quired as the slopein (9) and (10) is (2/V) . Preplotted on theseforms is a selection
of standard reflectiontime versusdepth functions.If a different function appliesfor
an area, it may be plotted on one of theseforms and that form duplicatedfor compu-
tation purposes.Separateformshave beenfound convenientfor depth ranges1,000-
4,000 ft; 3,000-10,000 ft; 6,000-20,000 ft; 300-1,200 m; 900-3,000 m; 2,000-6,000
m; and 3.0-15.0 km.
334 Graphs and Nomographs for Inerpreaiort
7000
9000
1000
300o
0.1
1000 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
VERTICAL DEPTH (FEET)
... .................
:_.=,..=.::::.:: ::: :::: ::::: ::::..: , :,-:, ..... ::::.::::::::::::::
................................ ..... ::.: . . .. _ ...::::.... :..::.:....::..........:.............:z::::....:...:::..:::::_
SPREAD
( plottecl
fromlefttorcjht)
............
/.O ........................
/?'_4'0 SPREAD ( plotted
fromrght
toleft)
DIRECTION.......
_,..,4.,.,@...
....................
,..,J.._.40'/V
DIRECTION
Plane:
atShot
Hole
........
_ ........ atEnd
Group
.....
.,...,...,._,_
........... Plane'
atEndGroupO_O_
........
atShot
Hole
...........
DIPDIRECTION
.....
O'a/'....(ua-dlpod
....die)ii Velocity
FU,ct
........
...?.....[ DIP
.-_.,.-,.,,,;,;:;;;::
...........................
.:::,:
...... ..........
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::: : ,::::,,...:.,:,;,,
:::.::....=
.........
,:::._::
..............
:.............
_.,
va Vm..... (a,gl. 5TO........
io+g)
.........
:.$,,0 o< ooo
Fee
co o
O.....................................................
Dd_IdVo COt(O-g)
co$= a
Fro. 2. Refraction computationform for rapid determinationof vertical depth to the refractor from
observedphasevelocitiesand intercept times. Similar formshave beendesignedfor other depth ranges.
For an ordinary reversedrefraction profile, the classicalprocedureof plotting time

versusdistanceis followed. A pair of segmentsis selectedas a possiblematching pair,
i.e., normal and reversedcoveragefrom the same bed.
Apparent (phase) velocities and intercepts are read for each. Straight lines are
then plotted on the form with these intercepts and with slopesindicated by the
correspondingvelocities.The intersectionsof theselines with the chosentime-depth
curve define the vertical depths of the refractor at the immergent points correspond-
ing to the normal and reversedshots.
Figure 2 illustrates the computation for a casein which Toy--.862 sec, V = 15,600
ft/sec, Tod= .694 sec,Vd= 11,500 ft/sec. The distancebetweenshotpointsis 8,400 ft.
Spaceisprovidedontheformfor thecomputation
of dip [Dix, 1952,p. 255]. While
the notation of the form is different from that of this volume, many of the entries
are definedon the form. Those not defined and their equivalents are'
D =// Vmu ---- Vu
0 --= a Vma --= V a
a=--i
On a cross section, the two depth points are plotted on rays drawn at angles
(i-i-a) and (i--a) from the downdip and updip shotpoints.The downdip shot-
point is the one from which the updip shot is made. Connectingthe plotted points
producesa trace of the refracting horizon. Dip of this horizonmay be measured(or
calculated by finding the arctangent of the difference of depths divided by the
distance between immergent and emergent points) and this determination is in-
dependentof that made from the velocities alone. The degreeof correspondenceof
these dips is a measureof the validity of pairing of velocities and of the validity of
the basic geometric assumptions.
Empirically, criteria have been adopted that permit acceptanceof an interpreta-
tion if the agreementis within one-halfdegreeor 20 percent, whicheveris greater. If
the agreementis not sufficientlycloseto permit acceptance,other pairings are at-
tempted. If no reasonablepairingsare possible,it is probable that a fault or a change
of dip occursover the profile. Fault interpretations or two or more dip segmentsof
the samehorizonmay be computedif V is known or can be assumed,so that the dip
angle can be determined from V and the apparent velocity, and each refraction
segmentmay be plotted separately. If separate computations are made when there
is a simplechangeof dip, an additional error is committed. In most cases,the error is
negligible, especially as it is in the same direction for both profiles of a reversed
pair.
When small departuresfrom the averageline of the time-distanceplot suggestthat
the refractor has an irregular or undulant surface,that surfacemay be approximated
by first calculating and plotting the average straight-line for the surface and then
usingtheperturbation
methodof Dix [1952,p. 271].
Unreversed profiles shot in areas for which no seismic information other than
average velocity data is available may neverthelessyield some depth information.
Average velocity in the upper sectionmay, for example, be very crudely determin-
able from a knowledgeof the generalarea or possiblyonly from the age or lithology
of outcrops.A rough idea of the thicknessof sectionwill then be producedby going
through the computationprocedureusingthe observedrefractionvelocity and in-
tercept time. Surprisingly,often under such circumstancesit is possibleto make a
statement such as: The presenceof a refractorat a depthnot lessthan about10,000fi
suggestsa su2]cientlydeepsedimentarysectionto warrantfurther exploration.
CONCLUSIONS
A simple nomogramhas beenconstructedwhich permits speedydeterminationof

refractor depth from a knowledgeof averageoverburden,velocity, refractor veloc-
ity, and intercept time. The depth obtained is vertical at the point of immergence
if the refractor velocity is the observedphase velocity from an unreversedprofile.
A depth from the shotpointperpendicularto the refractor is producedif the refrac-
tor velocity is intrinsic.
Calculationsseparatelymade from eachof a pair of unreversedprofilesafford the
opportunityof verifyingsomeaspectsof refractioninterpretation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All of the analysis and design of the computation procedure was performed in
collaboration with John T. Brustad who was then a member of the Western Geo-
physicalCompanyof Americaresearchstaff. Without the resultsof his inspiredand
persistentefforts, the mathematicsof this paper would have been much lengthier.
My sincerethanks are expressedto Curtis Johnsonand Donald Blue for their helpful
suggestionsand careful checkingof the mathematics and the text.
REFERENCES
Dix, C. H., 1952, Seismicprospectingfor oil' New York, Harper & Brothers.
Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysicalprospectingfor oil' New York, McGraw-Hill.
Section 5C
The Delay-Time Method
"The Delay-Time Method" is a methodutilizing the amount of calculatedtime re-

quired for the overburdenbetweenthe surfaceand the refractor, and is the difference
between the hypothetical time measuredif the refractor were on the surface and
actual time measured.The two papers enclosedin this sectionof the volume cover
essentiallythe samesubject,but it is felt that they coverit from a sufficientlydiffer-
ent point of view as to be helpful to the readerwho wishesto usethis method.
The first paper, "Refraction SeismographProfile Interpretation," by Gardner,
utilizes the delay-time conceptfor general application in determining depth to an
undulatingmarker. A network of inline profilesmay be roughly integrated with arc
or broadsidecontrol for aerial mapping.
The secondpaper, "Delay Time and Its Application to Refraction Profile Inter-
pretation," is by Barry. Relatively accuratedepthsmay be determinedif the veloc-
ity is known, so that the properportioningof the intercept time into the two delay
times, at the shotpointand the receiver,can be accomplished.
337
REFRACTION SEISMOGRAPH PROFILE INTERPRETATION
L. W. GARDNER*
ABSTRACT
A refractionseismograph methodbasedon the delay-timeconceptis described. The methodis suitable

for generalapplicationin determiningdepthsto an undulatingmarker.Specialattentionis givento the
handlingof velocityvariationson a regionalbasis.Approximations
introducedin the theoryto facilitate
data handlinghaveprovento yield reliableresultsfor gently dipping(lessthan 10 degrees)markers.
Areal mappingmay be accomplished throughthe use of a networkof in-line profileswhich may be
readily integrated with arc or broadsidecontrol.
INTRODUCTION
Basic relationshipsfor seismicwaves refracted through a layered section and

following an undulating high-speedmarker horizon were published by Gardner
(1939). Theserelationshipshave governedthe methodsof carryingout refraction
shootingin the field and interpretation of the data obtained. The following pre-
sentation gives a very brief recapitulation of some of these relationships,covers
someapplicationsnot describedthere (notablyin-line profilework), and givessome
extensionsto the theory.
Referring to Figure 1, attention is directed to the wave trajectories and arrival
times of wavesfollowingthe marker horizon5. Delay time is shownto represent
the delay in refractiontime arrival by reasonof burial of the marker as compared
with the traveltime hypothetically taken if the marker were at datum level. The
conceptis applicablefor any dispositionof detectorswith respectto the source,
provided conditionsare met that the arrival times are properly determined and
associatedwith the marker in question.The sum of delay times at the two endsof a
trajectory is the intercept of T(X) throughsuchcorrectedarrival-time values,with
the parameter V,. the velocity of the marker. The delay times obviouslyare re-
lated to and are capableof furnishingquantitative informationas to the depth and
undulationsof the marker, dependingupon the velocity of the marker and the
velocitydistributionin the overlyingsection.
In refractionwork the objectiveis to determinethe delay times and depthsof
the marker as they apply for particular observationaldata and the conditionspre-
vailing in an area under investigation.
Relationshipsbetweendelay times and depths and also relationshipsbetween
delay times and offset distances(displacementsbetween emergencepoints and
surfaceelements)are dependentprimarily upon the vertical velocity distribution
for which any pertinent informationis useful--velocitylogs, well velocity deter-
minations,wide-anglereflections,inferencesfrom knowledgeof rock types and
properties, and refraction determinations on shallower markers. The last of these
is consideredto be relatively untrustworthy.
* Guff Research
& DevelopmentCompany,Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania.
338
RefractionSeismograph
ProfileInterpretation 339
2.5 3.0 TIME IN SECONDS '--3.5
,.u: :..,., .
DISTANCE
BETWEE m?m]:'z.:
REFRACTION
RECORD
ARRIVAL TIMES
CORRECTEDTO DATUM 1':,
I
I
I
, t+t'G
+: ,
TIME ASSUMING MARKER

AT DATUM LEVEL
'
JM
,HOT POINT DETECTOR POSITIONS

_...,_ ...__
Fro.1.Graph
oftraveltime
versus
distance
illustrating
dipanddelay-time
relationsin a typicalgeologicsection.
A considerablesimplificationof theproblemis achievedin usingthesecond-order

approximation accordingto Fermat's principle
that thetravelpathsof thetrajec-
toryendsaregoverned by Snell's Lawunderthepresumption that theinterfaces
areall levellocally.Thefact that thisapproximationis beingmademustbeborne
in mindand tested.Commonly,
for dipsunder10 degrees,
it is goodto withinthe
accuracylimitations of other factors.
340 The Delay-Time Method
FIELD DATA REQUIRED
The validity and accuracyof the method dependupon having a goodmeasureof

the velocity of the marker, generally over the area being surveyed, and also as-
surancethat the arrivals being used are in fact associatedwith waves which follow
the given marker. In-line reversedcontrol on the marker with a relatively long zone
on the marker having common emergenceis necessaryand sufficesto yield this
assurancein any given test zone. Such information in more than one test zone may
be desirableand/or necessary.Usually, to get gooddeterminationson absolutede-
lay times, it is necessaryto have control which will yield relative dip determinations
between incident and emergencepoints on the marker for at least one and prefer-
ably more refraction trajectories. A further condition is that shot-to-detectordis-
tances must be appropriate for the suitable recording of arrivals from a given
marker. Such distancesand often a determination of which marker may be satis-
factorily followed commonly must be determined by test shooting with different
distancesinitially and in the courseof a survey. Data must be continuouslyeval-
uated to maintain assurancethat the required conditionsare being satisfied.
For profile shooting it is effective and expedient for these purposes,as well as
for more accurate determinations of delay time, to acquire complete reversedcon-
trol along long profiles, using appropriate shot-to-detectordistancesfor following
the chosen marker.
A completesurvey may consistof a seriesor grid of suchprofiles.Alternatively,
it may consistof a limited number of such profileswith additional control consist-
ing of broadsideor arc shots tied to them.
The following discussiongives the technical aspectsand a procedurewhich may
be followed in carrying out interpretation of refraction data on an in-line profile,
including a formulation of relationships. Variations in delay time for broadside
or arc shooting govern variations in marker depth and offset with the same rela-
tionships.
PROCESSING OF DATA
Either first arrivals or later arrivals may be used and interpreted similarly but
independently. However, continuity of good dip control is a requisite for good re-
sults, and this meansthat eventsgenerallymust be identifiable and cotrelatable.
Arrival time readings,T,are made on leadingpeaksor troughschosenaccording
to typical character.In somecases,there may be questionas to which cycleto read
on a given set of arrivals. In these cases,chooseone and note question of cycle.
The dip indication will be correctregardlessof choice,and the questionof absolute
value can be deferred until the late stagesof interpretation when the relationship
to other data will be apparent, and choicecan be made in line therewith. The com-
mon time interval from beginningsof events to troughs or peaks read can be
accountedfor in the depth chart. Intercepts, To, are calculatedby'
To, = T,-
Ti = Observedarrival times;
X= Shot-to-detector distances;
Refraction Seismograph Profile Interpretation 341
V,,=Assignedmarker-horizonvelocity;
ERi--Receiver elevation above referenceplane;
Es=Shot elevation above referenceplane;
Vc= V/cos sin-(V/Vm.) ;
Vr= Near-surfacevelocity; and
Wc=Weatheringcorrections
as determinedfrom specialrefractionweathering
shotsor uphole time measurements.
This refersall data to the chosenreferenceplane. If it is chosennear the ground
surfacelevel, complicationis avoidedin computingoffsetdistancesand all correc-
tionsare kept relativelysmall.A featureof the techniqueis that an approximate
value for V,,, sufficessincecorrections
for error in this are easilyappliedsubse-
quently.Therefore,
muchdifficultyin handlingthe primarydataof interpretation
is avoided.
BASIC FORMULAS RELATING DELAY TIME TO OFFSET DISTANCE AND DEPTH
Offsetdistanceversusdelaytime and depthversusdelaytime relationsare given

by the parametric equation'
hi cossin-x (Vi/V,,n)
t'-a= , (2)
H, = hi, and (3)

X,n = hi tan sin- (Vi/V.,O, (4)
in which
t'-Observed delay time correctedto referenceplane,

a= onehalf of time intervalfrombeginnings of eventsto troughsor peaksread,
Xc= Offset distance for nth marker,
Vi= Assumedverticalvelocityassociated
with thicknessh of columnarsection,
and
H= Depth of nth marker below referenceplane.
The h may be expressed
in termsof H and parametersi asfollows:
hi = i'H, (5)
where
;i = 1. (6)
i is interpretedas the proportionof total thickness
overlyingthe markerhorizon
whichis assigned velocity,V, regardlessof whetherit occurs
in a relativelythick
uniformlayeror is distributedasthin layersthroughoutthe section.Similarrela-
tionswerereportedby Ambronn(1928)andJones(1932).
Unlessdetailed information is available from well velocity data, we believe best
resultsareobtainedin assuming
that all bedsmaintaintheirvelocities
laterallyand
thin or thicken in accordancewith relations (5) and (6). We therefore compute
depthsandoffsets
in accordance
with the followingrelations:
H= (t'-- a)/ tSi

cossin
-
Vi
(Vi/V=.,)
, (7)
Xn
= (t'--a)'y't5,
tansin
-(V,/V.,)
(8)
y,/5i
cossin
-
Vi
(Vi/V.,)
If more detailed information is available or may be reasonablyinferred, it is
possibleto express(7) and (8) in terms of variationsfrom conditionsat a reference
location Thus, H, hi, t', and Xcnmay be replacedby quantitiesrepresenting varia-
tionsfrom their referencevalues.The/5i may then be assignedto allow for different
rates of thickeningor thinningof variouslayers.If the referenceplaneis not chosen
near the surfaceof the ground,adjustmentfor this must be madein equation(8),
sinceH strictly shouldrepresentthe depth below the ground surfacerather than
below the referenceplane.
PLOTTING OF PROFILES AND DETERMINATION OF DELAY-TIME CURVES
Intercept times are plotted on crosssection paper under their respectivere-

ceiver locations, and associatedshotpoint positions are indicated as shown in
Figure 2. Line numbers and direction arrows assistidentification for further ref-
erence.Direction arrowslogicallyshouldalwaysshowthe directionof wave prop-
agation.
Inspectionof the plottedinterceptdata permitsan estimateof the dip alongthe
EA ST
Sl
/ Sk5
J---SHOT PO,NT
POSITIONS Sl4 31,..
'-,................{,..... INTERCEPTS
AT
'-"................-"-'2'................. ....... ._............
' ...........
_:............
RECEIVER POSITIONS
v m = 22,000 FT./SEC.
.75
15S.I'"-O
Fi:'$
ET
IPuINT SHOT--"
SI4
POSITIONS) j13 512

3\Tmo(3) am
.,_TO(13). To(2) _To(i)
(CORRECTED FOR
TRUE
MARKERVELOCITY).70
"-'-- --' --' I'-'"'.
- .__
(6's-6'R)
__ .X__!'
INTERCEPTS IN
OFFSET POSITION
.--....
.7,5
'ts
/--1--'"-----"-----'
AVERAGE
DELAYECU'__p_lR _
TiM -' RELATIVE
DELAY
TIME CURVES
.3O
--"8. t,5 .o-t,:TO(I)-T

2 tl4
b- t13 ABSOLUTE DELAY
TI ME CURVE
t3 t,3 -th2 t',:
To()+y 2
.4O
Fro. 2. Refractionprofileinterpretationprocedures
by the delay-timemethod.
profile, and approximatedelay-time values can be obtained from this estimated dip
and the intercept values. The offset distancesto be used are determinate from these
values and formula (8), subject to improved approximations.Intercepts are now
replotted in offsetpositions,shotpointlocationsalso beingoffset.In this replotting,
the data are smoothedfor irregularities repeated for shotsfrom oppositedirections,
which thus are indicated to be near-surface influence.
The next step is to constructrelative delay-time curves which have no absolute
fixed reference time but show a continuous dip relationship. One such curve is
drawn parallel to offset intercept values for shotsin one direction. A similar curve
is drawn for shots in the oppositedirection. The average dip of these two curves
representsthe true dip in terms of delay time regardlessof whether or not a true
value of the marker horizonvelocity, Vm,was chosen.The final absolutedelay-time
curve must be parallel to this averagerelative delay-time curve within the accuracy
of the data. The problem of establishingits level remains.
If the relative delay-time curvesfor oppositelydirected wave travel are parallel,
the originally chosenmarker horizon speedis correct. If they diverge it is in error,
and adjustments in intercept-time values and in the value of the marker horizon
speed are necessary.The interpreter must be alert to the possibility of a sharp
divergencein velocity representinga changefrom one marker to another. The ad-
justment to be applied to an intercept value is the divergenceof either one-way
relative delay-time curve from the average delay-time curve for the distancefrom
offsetshotpointposition to offsetreceiverposition. If, in order to achieveparallelism
of the two oppositely directed relative delay-time curves, it is necessaryto rela-
tively decreasethe time at the arrowhead end, the true velocity of the marker is
lessthan that assignedand the intercept values must be decreased.The method is
illustratedin Figure 2 for the S spread.The magnitudeof the correctionis/xs-/xR,
and it reducesthe value of the intercept. Note that the correctionis calculated only
over the length of the baseof the trajectory betweenoffsetshot and receiverposi-
tions. This is that part of the trajectory that is, in fact, affected.
The adjustedinterceptvalues,togetherwith the averagedip in delay time shown
by the average relative delay-time curve taken between offset shotpoint and de-
tector positions,sufficeto determine absolute delay-time values of these two posi-
tions for eachspread.Only one delay-time value per spreadneedbe computedsince
the othersare related through the dips shownby the averagedelay-time curve. The
method of computingdelay times is illustrated in Figure 2 for the $ spread.The
adjustedintercept, To,is split into delaysunder the shot and receiverpositionsin
accordancewith the dip, , indicated by the averagerelative delay-time curve.
The final delay-time curve is drawn through the set of absolutedelay times thus
determinedessentiallyparallel to the average delay-time curve. If incompatibility
in thesedata is found, adjustmentsconsistentwith tolerancesin data may be used.
Questionsof original readingsof eventsto a cycle may be reviewedand taken into
account.Possiblefaulting or changesof marker may showup. If there are crossing
profiles,delay-time values at tie points should match. Finally, these delay times
are convertedto depthsthroughformula (7).
The true marker velocity need not be known accurately to carry through this
interpretation. However, it is useful to know it for identification purposes,and it

is determinate from the divergenceof either one-way delay-time curve from the
averagedelay-time curve.
CORRECTING DEEP REFRACTION RESULTS FOR SHALLOW VELOCITY VARIATIONS
When refraction data are obtained on two markers, shallow and deep, it is evi-
dent that the lateral velocity variations representedby variable delay times to the
shallow marker must affect determinations on the deep marker in a manner analo-
gous to the influenceof weathering upon either reflection or refraction data. The
refraction data on a shallow marker yield a measure of delay times down to it,
without discrimination whether the variations are due to variations in vertical
velocity of the overlying sectionor to variations in its depth, with consequentlat-
eral velocity variation concentrated at the level of the interface. These two types
of variation are called Case I and Case II, respectively,in the following treatment
of the problem of applying corrections.
CASE I--SHALLOW VELOCITY VARIATION
The influenceof shallowvelocity variation is expressedin both shallowand deep

observedrefraction times. The essenceof this method is the application of a cor-
rection, C, to the total delay time to the deep marker, t',xc,., to yield a corrected
total delay time, t',xc,. coim, which would have been present had the shallow
velocities remained constant laterally and equal to those for a chosenreference
path havingdelay time to the shallowmarkerof
With referenceto Figure 3, we write
(8)
(9)
From (9) we obtain'
- !
C = t'Xa- l XC
=h
Ics
sin- cos
sin
-1(Vl/Vm,2).l
(V,/V,2) (10) V
where V8 is the averagevelocity through the shallow anomaly.

Let Zt' be the deviation of the shallowdelay time from the averageshallowdelay
time, then:
At' = t'xc --
= hi
[cOssin-l(Vls/Vm'l)
cssin-l(V/Vm')'
1Vls 1) --
V1
. (1
Taking V8= Vi--AV1,expanding(10) and (11) in Taylor's Series,and neglecting

second-order terms, we have'
Fro. 3. Variationsin deepmarker delay timesfor shallowvelocityanomalies.
c = - ....
V 2cossin- (V/Vm,2)
and
At'= - h
V cos
sin zXV . .
- iV/Vm,O
(13)
Combining(12) and (13) we obtain for the deepcorrection:

cossin- (V/Vm,O
C= at' = F. at'. (14)
cossin- (V/Vm,)
The value of F will be slightly less than, and generally may be taken as equal to,
unity.
CASE II--UNDULATION OF SHALLOW MARKER
A correction,C, is to be applied to the deep marker delay time, t'2xc2,to obtain

the value that would have been present had the shallow horizon been level. Pro-
ceedingin the samemanner as for CaseI, with referenceto Figure 4, we write'
t xc coaa t2 xc C
-- gu
t (XC2--Xa
) + tlXa
! -- C
: g2
t (XC2--Xa)
CORR
tl- tXa (15)
whereXa is the deepdelay in the first layer for a suitablereferencepath. From
(15) we have'
+, \\ h .,., . I
IXa Xy Vm,
I
2
Fro. 4. Variations in deepmarker delay times for undulating shallowmarker.
C = (tltXa- llXa) -- (t2I(XC2-Xa)CORR-

t2/(XC2--Xa)). (16)
Again let A#=txcx--t xc be the deviation of the final shallowdelay time curve
from a fixed value-' t xc chosento correspondto the conditionsfor t-'Xa. Then,
c =
cos
.
sin
-1
(g/gm,)
= F. zXt'.
cos
sin
-x
(g/Vm,)] V.
cossin- (V/V,,.)
A#
(7
Typical velocity assignmentslead to a value of F of the order of 0.5.
INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE FOR THE CORRECTION METHOD
In both CasesI and II the correctionto be appliedis of the sameform, C-F. zXt',
with the only differencesin procedurebeing the use of appropriateF values and
relative offsetdistances.For CaseI, F = 1.0 can generallybe used.For very shallow
velocity anomaliesthe shallowhorizon delay-time curveswill require little or no
offset,and there will be little or no differentialoffsetbetweenthe pointsat which the
correctionsderivedfrom the shallowhorizoncurvesare appliedto the deepdelay-
time curves.In CaseII, F-0.5 can generallybe used.The shallowmarker delay-
time curvesare offseta distanceXcl. The deep marker delay-time curvesare offset
a distanceX,; the correctionis applied, and they are then offsetto a distanceXc2.
The method is illustrated by the followingprocedures'
1. Plot a profile of shallowmarker interceptsunoffseton crosssectionpaper.
2. Draw one-way shallowrelative delay-time curvesoffset appropriateamount
as discussed above.
3. Draw averageshallowrelative delay-timecurveaveragingcurves(2).
The Refraction Seismograph Profile Interpretation 347
4. From divergencesof (2) determine and record true shallow marker velocity
and correct intercepts for marker velocity deviation from the assignedvalue.
5. Compute and plot shallowdelay times at each end of each trajectory.
6. Construct a final delay-time curve by making slight adjustments to dips and
delay times, if necessary,to bring about overall agreementalong the profile.
7. Post delay times on a map, adjust at crossingprofiles to effect ties, and con-
vert to depths.
8. Plot deep marker intercepts unoffset.
9. Draw one-way deep relative delay-time curves offset by an amount less than
or equal to Xa as discussedabove.
10. Subtract F times the final shallow delay-time curve from the deep relative
curves.
11. Offsetcurves(10) the remainderof the total deepoffsetdistance,average,and

apply velocity correctionas in (3) and (4) above.
12. From the deep intercept value at the center of each spread, adjusted for
marker velocity, subtract the correctionF. (zXt
SHOT-I-zXt DET)--zXt SHOT and
zXt'DET being the deviationsof the final shallowdelay-time curve from the chosen
referencevalue for the two endsof the trajectory at the offsetpositionsselectedfor
curves (9).
13. With interceptvalues(12) and averagedelay-timecurve (11) carry through
interpretation as outlinedin steps(5), (6), and (8).
It will usually be clear from the data whether Case I'or Case II shouldbe ap-
plied, but in some instancesboth types of variation may be present. Use of com-
promise values of the factor F and the relative offset distance can be effective in
such areas.
It is pertinent to note that the Case I correctionmethod using F-1.0 and no
differential offset between shallowand deep relative delay-time curvesis equivalent
to an interval method in which shallow arrival times are subtracted from deep
arrival times in commonpositions,and interval delay times are deducedfrom the
remainders.
The correction method describedhere offers a convenient interpretation proce-
dure for deep mapping by refraction profiling in areaswhere there are both shallow
and deep markers present. It is not necessaryto obtain both sets of arrivals on the
same recording, which is advantageouswhere it is not possible to obtain good
shallow marker arrivals at distancesnecessaryfor deep arrivals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to acknowledgethe material assistanceof Dr. E. K. Darby

in compilingthis paper in its presentform.
REFERENCES
Ambronn,R. (translatedby Cobb, Margaret C.), 1928, Elementsof geophysics: New York, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Gardner,L. W., 1939,Seismograph prospecting:U.S. Patent 2,153,920(application1936).
1939, An areal plan of mappingsubsurfacestructureby refractionshooting:Geophysics, v. 4,
p. 247-259.
Jones,J. H.,1932,The diffractionof elasticwavesat the boundariesof a solidlayer: Proc.Royal Soc.
A, v. 137,p. 325-343.
DELAY TIME AND ITS APPLICATION TO REFRACTION
PROFILE INTERPRETATION
K. M. BARRY*
ABSTRACT
Delay time is not an observablequantity, but is a functionof the depth to a refractinghorizonand of

the velocitiesof propagationalong the refractorand throughthe overlyingmedia. The intercept time
associatedwith a refractedwave is composedof two delay times, one at the energysourceand the other
at the detector.If the velocityof the overlyingsectionis known, then by properlypartitioningthe inter-
cepttimeinto its two delaytimes,it is possibleto obtainrelativelyaccuratedepthsto the refractor.
INTRODUCTION
The seismicrefraction profile consistsof a series of shotpoints and geophone

spreadslocated at progressivedistancesalong a line of desiredcontrol and in an
area where there is a persistent and relatively high-speed refracting layer. The
objectiveis to obtain depth valuesto this refractorby usingthe directly measurable
quantities of traveltime and horizontal distance.Gardner (1939) devisedthe idea
of delay time as an approach to this problem. A rough approximation of depth is
often made by taking half the intercept time as a delay time and assigningit at a
point midway betweenthe shot and detector.The limitations of such a technique
are manifold. The method of delay times, which is presented here, entails certain
restrictive assumptions,but will yield reasonably accurate depth determinations.
Much of the technique was initiated at the Gulf Research& Development Com-
pany and has been used for many years throughout the geophysicalindustry.
There are some similarities with the system of delay time differencespresentedby
Barthelmes (1946).
DELAY TIME
To approachthe conceptof delay time, considerthe simplerefraction configura-

tion of Figure 1. Supposethat material having any type of velocity distribution, V,
is underlain by a gently dipping, relatively higher speed,refracting horizon of veloc-
ity Vt. Let a spreadof detectorsbe arranged outward for some distancefrom an
energy sourcelocated at O. (All discussions will assumethat appropriate near-
surface correctionshave been applied to the raw times, so that detectors and shots
have been adjusted to a horizontal datum plane.) The primary wave, which is
totally refractedat B and returns to the detectorsat the datum, will yield a travel-
time curve as indicated.
A delay time is defined as the raypath time between datum and refractor minus
the time necessaryto travel the normal projection of the raypath on the refractor.
Thus, the delay time associatedwith the origin is:
* TeledyneIndustriesInc., GeotechDivision, Dallas, Texas.

Delay-Time Profile Interpretation 349
I- slope
= sin(ic-e)
= I/Vr
I
I
I !
I I
I x Ix DISTANCEX
i I I
i I i
I I I
I I i
i I I
O[ , ,, ,, ,, I ,, ^ ^ * zX . . . DATUM
',\', /
' ' Vr
Fro.1. Raypaths
andT-D curveassociated
witha homoclinal
refracting
horizon.
5oB= toB- AB/V,, (la)

and for a detector located at X distance it is'
Scx= tcx -- C D/Vr. (lb)

The total traveltime from 0 to X is'
T = to q- tc q- tcx. (2)
For a refractorof gentledip (i.e. 0<10), ADEX, so that in termsof the delay-
times (la) and (lb), the total traveltimemay be expressed as:
T = X/Vr d- lio d- licx. (3)
At zero distance,the interceptof the time axis will be'
r [=0= = o + ; (4)
thus
= r- X/V,. (5)
It shouldbe observedthat I is not the sameinterceptas Ia, the apparentintercept,
whichis produced
by the intersection
of the time axiswith a line throughthe
refractedarrivals. This is becauseI is basedon a slopeof 1/V, whereasthe slope
whichyieldsIa is a functionof both V andthe dip of the refractor.Thislatter
35O The Delay-Time Method
slope=sin(i,_+0)/Vrsinic.Fora horizontal
refractor
these
intercepts
willbeidenti-
cal,aswillboth/oB andcx.Theintercept I canbereadilycalculated
from(5),
but to determinethe depthto the refractor,it is necessary
to partitionthisinter-
ceptintoa delaytimeat thesource andanotherat thedetector.
PARTITION OF INTERCEPTS
Figure2 shows a geophone setuparranged outwardfroma shotat O andwhich

traversesa lithologicsectioncontaining a refractorthat is partly horizontaland
partly homoclinal.If the intercepts associatedwith eachdetectorare plottedat
theiroffsetpositions,that is, at locationscorresponding to the pointswherethe
raysemerge
fromtherefractor,
thentheplotwillshowthecorrect
direction
of dip
IX
I I
DISTANCE
I I
I II
I
I I
0.... ^iX, DATUM

Vr I
i
I i
I i
I i
i i DISTANCE X
I I
I i
Fro.2. Raypaths,
T-D curve,andintercept-distance
curveassociated
witha refractor
which
is partlyhorizontalandpartly homoclinal.
of the refractor.The actualamountof dip, however,will not necessarily

be shown.
Let the time differencebetweentwo of the intercepts,say Iox and
then, by meansof (4), it is seenthat:
/Xr = 15BXl
-- 15cx.. (6)
Let a secondshot be located at P, suchthat the ray which entersthe refractor at
the critical angleis at positionB. If it is againassumedthat the dip of the refractor
is lessthan 10 then ivB8x and
ZXr= iiv - iicx.. (7)
The intercept time at X2, from the shot at P, will be
Ivx2 = itv + itcx2. (8)

When (7) and (8) are taken simultaneously,it followsthat
Ow = (Ivx, + at)/2, (9a)
and
itcx.= (Ivx2- /Xr)/2. (9b)

Using theseexpressions it is possibleto computethe delay times associatedwith all
detectorsreceiving refracted energy as well as the delay times associatedwith the
two shotpoints.The interpretationof an entire refractionprofileis essentiallyan
extension of this basic method.
OFFSET DISTANCE
In the foregoingdiscussionthe amount by which the interceptswere offset was

assumedto be known. In actual practice,however,it is possibleonly to estimate
this offsetdistance(s)because
of itsdependence
on theunknownquantityof depth.
The approximationis madeby assumingthat a delay time is half the observedinter-
cept time and by makinguseof the parametricequationswhichrelatedelaytime
and offsetdistancewith depth. Theseequations,for someof the commonlyused
velocity distributions, are given as follows.
Constantvelocity(referto Figure 3)
$= - v?)TM, (0a)
= 5Z - V?)l/VVV. (0b)
The often used two-layer caseresultswhen n= 1. As n increases,the calculations

becomemore impracticaland, if possible,the geologicsectionshouldbe approxi-
mated by only several layers. Electronic data processing,if available, would cir-
cumvent this need.
The thicknessvalues, Zj, may be treated as remainingconstant,with the struc-
DATUM
Vl
I sj
Vn
Fro. 3. Geometryof the critical raypath througha layeredsection.

Vi=constant; j= 1,2, , n.
tural changesof the refractor being attributed to variationsin the thicknessof Zn.
It is alsopossibleto assumethat the thicknessesof severalor all of the layers vary
by someproportionalamount of the total depth.
Varying velocity(referto Figure 4)

1. Linear increaseof velocity with depth'
V=Vo+Z.
1
s= k
{(v - Vo.)
.- [v.- (Vo+ kZ).]-}, (11a)
/tos
=--{cosh
-(Vr/Vo)
--cosh
-x[Vr/(Vo
+ kZ)]
- (v.- Vo.)/Vv
+ [v?- (Vo+ kz).]/Vv}. (lib)
2. Linear increaseof velocity with time'
V = Vo+kt = (Vo'+2kZ)
1
s = -2k { Vo(V
.- Vo")'/- v, sin-x (Vo/VO
- [V2Vo"+ 2kZ) - (Vo.q- 2kZ)2/'
q- Vr2sin- [(Vo..nt-
2kZ)/./Vr]}, (12a)
Vr
/tos
= 2k{sin-
[(V2
nt-
2kZ)/'/V]
--sin-
(Vo/Vr)
- (Vo/V)(v.- Vo.)/.
q- [VrVo'q- 2kZ)- (Vo2q-2kZ)']l/'/Vr'}. (12b)
The equationsfor any continuousvelocity functionare derivedby an integration
of the generalrelationshipsof offsetdistance,
S=
f0VdZ/(V?- V TM, (13)
DATUM
Vo
Vr
Fro. 4. Geometryof the critical raypath througha sectionhaving a
continuouslyincreasingvelocity.
and traveltime
t=
fozVrdXf[V(Vr2-- V2)1/2]. (14)
V is the velocity distribution applicableto the area, and (-t-S/Vt. The resulting
expressionsfor offset and delay-time are cumbersome,even for the simple linear
velocity functions.Their application in the generationof curvesis simplifiedby the
use of a computer or by means of auxiliary functions such as used by Nettleton
(1940, p. 264), for equations(11a) and (lib).
SHOOTING PROCEDURE
In actual practice it is desirableto obtain control in both directionsrather than

only one direction. The principal advantage being that it is then possibleto observe
any variation in refractor velocity and to correctfor this variation. With two-way
control, it is also possibleto perform certain checkson the consistencyof the data.
The only portion of the time-distancecurve which is of particular interest in this
method is that containingthe arrivals from the refracting horizon to be mapped.
Before production shootingcan commence,it is necessaryto know the limiting dis-
tanceswithin which thesearrivals may be received.In Figure 5 theselimits are Xo
the critical distance beyond which the refracted wave from a shot at 1A is the first
energyto arrive at the detectors,and Xe, the distancebeyond which the first arrivals
FIG..5. Spreadlocationsrelative to the limiting distances,X, and

within which refractedenergymay be received.
are from a deeperand higherspeedrefractor. The detectorlayout or spreadshould

fall well within theselimits to allow for depth and velocity changes.Xc and X, may
be determined by preliminary shootingat one or several locations,dependingon
the size of the area to be exploredand the subsurfaceconditionsanticipated. This
preliminarystudy wouldconsistof shootingfrom a singlesurfacepositionto detec-
tor spreadslocatedat progressivelygreaterdistancesfrom the shot. A time-distance
plot constructedfrom thesedata will yield the requireddistancesas well as approxi-
mate valuesfor intercept time and refractor velocity and depth.
As noted in Figure 5, a detectorspreadshouldbe usedwhoselength L is greater
than the shotpointspacingM. An overlap of severaltraceswith the next spreadis
thus obtained, with the resulting advantage that it is possibleto make a better fit
of the data from spreadto spread.Data are recordedfrom shots1A and lB which
are located X8 distancebeyond each end of the spread.The spreadis then moved
along the profile by an amount equal to the shotpointspacing,and shotstaken at
2A and 2B. This procedureis continueduntil the desiredline of control has been
obtained.
INTERPRETATION
To facilitate an understanding of the interpretive techniques, a reduction of

arrival times and distancesto depth values, for a hypothetical refracting horizon,
is shownin Figure 6. A linear increaseof velocity with depth is used,with Vo-6,000
ft/sec and k-0.5. The other pertinent data are' Vr = 18,000 ft/sec; spreadlength
L=4,000 ft; shotpointspacingM--3,600 ft; and shot to first detector distanceX,
-26,000 ft. The computationsassociatedwith the particular points of shotpointlB
and the first detector in the spread of lB will be noted throughout the discussion.
The followingstepscorrespondto thoselisted in Figure 6.
A. The primary arrival times, when correctedto datum, are plotted on cross
sectionpaper at their horizontallocations.(The arrival time at the first detectorof
spreadlB is 3.589 sec.)To assurethat the sameevent of the wave train has been
picked throughoutthe profile, a reversetime checkshouldbe made whereveran
interchange of shots and detectorsoccurs.
The refractor velocity is determinedby averaging the reciprocalsof the slopes
from the first-arrival plots. For steepdip a simple averagewill not sufficeso use is
made of the familiar relation
Vr = 2VV,/(V q- Vb), (15)

where Va and Vb are the apparentvelocitiesfor spreadshaving reversibleraypaths.
B. Using equation (5), an intercepttime is computedfor each arrival time and
plotted at its correspondingdetectorposition.(The intercepttime at the detector
in spread lB is 3.589--26,000/18,000=2.145 sec.) Any irregularitiescommonto
both sets of intercepts should be checkedfor incorrect or inadequate near-surface
corrections.
C. The velocity distribution of the overlyingsectionmust be known from previ-
ousinformation (well velocity surveys,stepouttime analysis,etc.) or assumedfrom
whatever subsurfaceknowledgeis available. Offset versus depth and delay time

Delay-TimeProfileInterpretation
-,

i
O
0
0
0
(3)
0
i
0
'
0
0')
0
I
0
0
0
0
i
0
*-:
0
355
versusdepthcurvesare constructedusingthe appropriateequationsof (10) through

(12). (The curvesusedin the exampleare displayedin Figure 7. The offsetdistance
associatedwith a time of 2.145 secis seento be 5,440 ft.) In practice it is usually
sufficientto usean averageof the interceptsto obtain a mean offsetdistance.If the
rangeof the interceptvaluesis large it will be necessaryto vary the offsetdistances
rather than use a single mean value.
The intercept points for one direction of shootingare then offset in a direction
oppositeto the direction of wave travel, that is, toward their correspondingshot-
points. In a like manner, the interceptsfor the other direction of shootingare offset.
The interpretation can be facilitated by combiningan additional operationwith
the offsetting procedure. As the intercept points for each spread are offset they
shouldbe shifted up or down vertically, as a unit, so as to make a smoothfit with
the intercepts of the adjacent spread. This will result in two continuouscurves of
offset relative time values, one for each direction of shooting.
D. An averagerelative time curve is constructedmidway between the two rela-
tive time curves.The relative curveswill parallel each other if the assumedvalue
of the refractor velocity, Vr, is correct; otherwise,the amount by which they con-
verge (or diverge) is a measureof the error in Vt. If c is the amount of time con-
vergenceover a distance D, then the true refractor velocity is given by'
V = 1/(1/V, 4- c/D). (16)
4000 5000 6000 7000 OFFSET DISTANCE' S (FEET)

I I I I
O9O 0.95 1.00 1.05 DELAY TIME' 6 (SECONDS)
I I I I I
8000

9000
DEPTH
(FEET)
.._..._..1.072
=I/2 I
I0000 --
10420'
k'
I000 m
FIO. 7. Curvesof delaytime versusdepthand offsetdistanceversusdepth.

The sign associatedwith cid is negative if the relative curvesrise with respectto
the average curve when consideredin the direction of wave travel, otherwise, the
sign is positive. The delay times are sensitiveto a changein Vr so it is necessaryto
recomputethe intercept values if the refractor velocity requires correction.If the
correction does not produce a significant change in the offset distances,then the
averagerelative curve will still show the proper attitude of the refractor.
It is possiblethat the refractor may not maintain a constant velocity but will
exhibit lateral variations in Vt. In this case the interpretation is accomplishedin
discretesegmentsor graded accordinglyas V changes.
E. The intercepts are then partitioned into their delay times. The horizontal
positionsof the point of entry and point of emergencefor a particular raypath are
located on the average relative time curve. The time difference,/Xr, between the two
pointsis then read and the delay timesare computedby meansof (9a) and (9b). (In
the example, the /Xr, on the average relative time curve, between the offset posi-
tions of shotpoint lB and the first detector of spread lB is 0.059 sec. The delay
times are (2.145+0.059)/2= 1.102secand (2.145-0.059)/2= 1.043 sec).The larger
of the two delay times is plotted at a position which correspondswith the greater
time on the average relative curve, the other at the position of lesstime.
This procedureshould be carried out for at least two intercepts of each spread
and for all the spreadsin both directionsof shooting.(For clarity, only a few critical
delay-time points are indicated in the example.) The resulting delay-timepoints
shouldparallel the averagerelative curve, and the intervening values are obtained
from a fit with the average curve.
Where two adjacent spreadsoverlap there will be several common detector posi-
tions. The waves arriving in the same direction from the two associatedshotpoints
will yield different intercept times at a commondetector.The amount by which these
intercepts differ will be the time differencebetween the offset locations of the shot-
points on the average relative curve. It is thus possibleto determine the relative
time of those shotpointswhoseoffset position falls beyond the ends of the average
relative curve, that is, beyond the limits of two-way control. This is valid, how-
ever, only if the refractor velocity remains constant between the points of entry of
the rays.
The completionof the final step is accomplishedby assigninga depth scaleto the
delay-time scale,utilizing the previouslyderived delay time versusdepth function.
(From the curvesof Figure 7, the delay time of 1.102 secgivesa deptlxof 10,420ft,
and that of 1.043 sec,a depth of 9,600 ft.)
REFERENCES
Barthelmes,A. J., 1946,Applicationof continuousprofilingto refractionshooting:Geophysics,

v. 11,
p. 24-42.
Butler, Mark D., 1949, Elementsof seismicinterpretation:Unpublishednotesusedin interpretation
lecturesat Gulf Research& DevelopmentCompany.
Gardner,L. W., 1939, An areal plan of mappingsubsurfacestructureby refractionshooting:Geophys-
ics, v. 4, p. 247-259.
Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysicalprospectingfor oil: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.
Peirce, B. O., 1929, A short table of integrals:Boston, Ginn and Co.
APPENDIX
The derivations of the equationsfor offset distanceand delay-time in the con-

stant velocity and varying velocity casesare as follows.
Constantvelocity
Referringto Figure 3, it is seenthat the geologicsectionis presumedto consistof
n layers,eachof which hasa constantvelocity V and a thicknessZi. j-- 1, 2, ., n.
It is apparent that for the jth layer,
tan 0.
From Snell's law
sin 0 = V.//Vr.
Thus,
tan 0 = V.//(Vr 2-- Vj2)TM,
and
Sj -- ZjVj/(Vr 2-- Vj2)TM.
The total offset distance, S, is the sum of the S/s.

n
S --' E ZjVj/(Vr2-- Wj2)

1[2, (10a)
./=1
By definition, the delay time associatedwith the segmentA C of the jth layer is
.4c = A C/V./ - S.//Vr.
Then,
cos0 - Z./tan O/Vr = Zi(1 -- V./sin O/Vr)/V./cos O,
but
V./ = Vr sin O,
so
SAc= Z./(1 -- sin20)/Vi cos0 = Z./cos

Now,
COS0-'- (Vr2-- Vj2)l[2/Vr,

hence,
AC = Zj(Vr 2-- Vj2)I[2/VjVr,
and the delay time associatedwith the over-all path OB is

n
= - (10b)
Delay-TimeProfileInterpretation 359
Varying velocity
In orderto derivethedelaytimepertaining
to a geologic
section
thatisapproxi-
mated
byanycontinuously
varying
velocity,
V, it isnecessary
toobtain
anexpres-
sionfor thetraveltime,
t. Thegeneral
equations
for traveltime
andoffsetdistance
follow from a considerationof Figure 4. Thus,
AS = AZtan0, and VAt = AZ/cos0,
or, by usingexpressions
involvingSnell'slaw,
AS= VaZ/(Vr
2-- V2)/, and at = VrAZ/[V(V
'- V)/].
Makinga summation
overthetotalpathresults
in thegeneral
equations
S----
0ZVdZ/(Vr2__V2)l/2 (13)
and
= vz/[v(v- )/]. (14)
1. Linear increaseof velocity with depth;

V= V+kZ.
By usingthe transformation
u = v/v = (Vo + kZ)/V,
such that
du = kdZ/V,,
then the offsetdistanceof equation(13) becomes'
s = (wJk)
f0Wu/[V(- v/v)'l,
or
S
v,foUaU/(
k _u)
'
Integrationresultsin
Vr Vr 0
k{-(- u),}
0 =- 1[- (Vo
+kZ)/V]'},
Vr
S
{(- Vo/V,)/
- [- (Vo
+kz)/v,]'},
S {(v,- Vo)
/- [v,- (Vo+ kz)q/}. (11a)
Using
becomes'
thesame
transformation
asbefore,
thenthetraveltime
equation,
(14)
t = VrfoZ
a/[v(- vVv?),q
or
t = --k du/[u(1- u2)/2]

'
Application
offormula
(129)fromA Short
Table
ofIntegrals
(Peirce,
1929),
yields-
1 0
t =--{sech
k
-u}z
or
1 1
t = --k {cosh
- (1/U)}z
o= --k {cosh-
[Vr/(Vo
q-kZ)]},
1
t = --k {cosh
- (Vr/Vo)
- cosh
- [V/(Vo
q-kZ)]}'
Fromthe definitionof delaytime'
o = t - SIVa,
so
/oB
=--{cosh
- (V/Vo)
- cosh
- [V/(Vo
q-kZ)]}
1
kV,{(v?-Vo),
- Iv?-(Vo
+
or
1
oB= --k {cosh
- (VrfVo)
- cosh
-x[Vf(Vo
q-kZ)]
-- (Vr2- Vo2)l/2ffVr
+ [Vr9'- (Vo+ kZ)2]I/2/Vr}. (11b)
2. Linearincrease
of velocitywith time'
V = Voq- kt = (V? q- 2kZ)/.
From the given relation it followsthat'
VdV- kdZ,
sotheoffsetdistance
of equation(13) becomes'
s=T v'.av/(v'.
- v)
Formula (151) of Peircepermitsintegrationinto'
S { (V/2)(Vr
2 V2)
/2+ (V?/2)sin
- (V/VO}

Then,
1
S= 2k
{[Vo + 2kZ]/2[Vr
2- (Vo + 2kZ)]TM
o
-- V?sin- [(Vo q- 2kZ)/2/V,.]}z,

1
S= 2k
{Vo(V,?--Vo2)
/-- V,. sin- (VolVo)
- [V(Vo + 2kZ)- (Vo + 2kZ)2]TM
+ V,2sin-X[(Vo
+ 2kZ)t2/V]}. (12a)
Equation
(14),thetraveltime,
forthelinear-increase-with-time
casemaybewrit-
ten as:
t=
V
kfoZ
dV/(V - V) TM.
Integrationby meansof Peirce'sformula(127)gives'

Vr Vr 0
t --- {sin
k--(V/Vr)}o
z=- {sin
- [(Vo
2q-2kZ)/2/Vr]}Z,
or
Vr
t = {sin
-[(Vo
q-2kZ)I/2/V,
.]--sin
-1(Vo/Vr)}.
Since
tio = t - S/V,
it follows that
oB
=- {Vsin
-[(Vo
q-2kZ)I/2/V,
.]- V,.
sin-1(Vo//Vr)
-- (Vo/2V,.)(V,.
- Vo.)
/'q- (V/2) sin- (Vo/V,.)
+ + 2z) - (Vo + TM
-- (V/2)sin
- [(Vo
2q-2kZ)/2/V,.]},
or
/ioa
= {sin
-1[(Vo
'q-2kZ)ll:/Vr]
- sin-X
(Vo/V,.)
--(Vo/V,.2)(V,
.--Vo)
TM
+ [V?(Vo
q-2kZ)-- (Vo
+ 2kZ)2]t2/V'}. (12b)
Section 5D
Wavefront Methods
"Wavefront Methods" utilize the intersection of wavefronts drawn from the shot-
point and wavefrontsdrawn from the receivingpoint or points to form a loci of solu-
tions, which can be interpreted from multi-raypaths and multi-wavefronts.
The first paper, "A General Wavefront Method," by Rockwell, discussesthe
broad picture utilizing wavefront methods and includes some novel and special
applications.
The secondpaper, "Refraction Solutionsand Wavefront Targeting" by Schenck,
demonstratesa special wavefront technique which is unusual in its approach to
solving a refraction problem independent of refractor velocity for the reversed
profile.
The third paper, "Outlining of Salt and Shale Massesby Refraction Methods," by
Musgrave et al., describesthe mapping technique for nonconformableor diapiric
type intrusive masses.
362
A GENERAL WAVEFRONT METHOD
DONALD W. ROCKWELL*
ABSTRACT
Wavefrontsystemsmay be dividedinto two broad classes, radiating(point source)and directed(line

source).Radiating systemsmay be constructedfor any point on the sectionwhen velocity distributionis
known; directedwavefront systemsare reconstructedfrom observedtime-distancedata and a knowl-
edgeof overburdenvelocities.
The GeneralWavefront Method re-examineshitherto separatelypresentedand time-testedclassical
techniques,togetherwith certain novel and specialapplications,and showsthat all are related by a single
basicconcept:an observedor deducedtraveltime may be distributedbetweentwo appropriatewave-
front systems,A and B, yieldinga locusof generalsolutionsand/or specificsolutions.Dependingon the
particularproblemvariouscombinationsof radiatingand/or directedwavefrontsare employed.The
resultingeasilyconstructedloci are related to curvesof the simplesttypes; straight lines,circles,parab-
olas,hyperbolas,ellipses,and ovals,which in turn have a simplerelationshipto the desiredinterfaces
(i.e., intersecton interface or are tangential to it).
Complexproblemsof the kind encountered in the field are readilyresolvedby progressive
reductionto
simplestterms.Thus field cases,includingmultiple layers,high-reliefstructuresinvolvingpenetration,
faulting with attendant diffraction, and unusualtravel paths, acceleratingoverburden velocities,etc.,
may all be handled on a routine basis.
The usualsourcesof overburdenvelocityinformationare evaluatedfrom the point of view of usefulness
for the refractionmethod and particularly for wavefront interpretation.
In addition, recordingtechniquesincorporatingexistingwells into refractionsurveysare presented
as part of usefulwavefrontrefractionlore.
INTRODUCTION
Over the years a number of very competent papers have been publishedon the
subject of the interpretation of refraction data. The approachesto the problem
have ranged from highly analytical mathematical methods through combinations
involving a certain amount of straightforward arithmetic, combined with simple
graphicalrepresentation,to methodswhich are nearly completelygraphical. Among
these latter are found the so-called wavefront methods. Whatever the merits of the
other approaches,it has been the author's experiencethat the wavefront methods
are peculiarlysuitedto the interpretation of actual field data, especiallywhen several
nonplane layers are involved.
The objective of this article is to present a general wavefront-interpretation
method. Many of the various techniqueswhich together make up the method are
quite frankly borrowedand adapted as neededfrom all pre-existingmethodsknown
to the author, and the attempt is made to showhow thesemay be weldedinto a prac-
tical, highly fieldworthy set of toolsfor the practicingrefraction interpreter.
Certain writers must be cited at the outset for their original contributions to
wavefront technologyas applied to refraction problems.Among the early writers,
Thornburgh (1930), Ansel(1930), and Gardner (1949), may be mentioned,and more
recently,Baumgarte(1955), and Hagedoorn(1954 and 1959). There is a considerable
* GeophysicalServiceInc., Dallas, Texas.

363
364 Wavefront Methods
2.25
/
/
1.75
xd2
.25 --
LEGEND
.75
FIRST ARRIVALS
LATER ARRIVALS
PROJECTIONS
.5O
; ; ; ; ; REFLECTIONS
.25
DISTANCE X ----
/
/
/
/
/
Fro. 1. Basicreflection-refraction
travel paths and t-x relationships.
amountof overlapin the techniques described by theseseismologists.

The physical
reality of the wavefrontis an integralpart of eachof their methodsand it is this
fact whichaccountsfor the commongroundand permits the formulationof a Gen-
eral Wavefront Method.
In the followingdiscussion,the usualassumptionis madethat we are dealingwith
two-dimensionaldata recordedat right anglesto the direction of maximum dip.
Certain comments will be made below concerningthree-dimensionalaspectsof
refractionas well as complicationsintroducedby weatheringand elevationcorrec-
tions. Initially the simplestsituationsare envisionedin order to establishcertain
relationshipsand describetechniques.
Figure1 is includedto recallto the mind of the readerthe basicelementsof re-
flectionand refractiontime-distancerelationshipsand raypaths.Wavefrontswill be
of particularconcernin this article. It is important to rememberthat they are at
right anglesto the raypaths andcanhavea realexistence, whereasthe raypathis a
theoreticalnarrowbeamshowingpropagationdirectionandminimum or other time
paths.Thoseseismologists
accustomed
to raypathandanalyticalmethodswill soon
Exceptions
to thisstatementmayappearin the caseof truly anisotropic
media.
General Wavefront Method 365
cometo appreciate
the visualadvantages
of wavefrontmethods
andthe flexibility
which they offer.
Two basictypesof wa,efronts

At the risk of introducingnew termsand concepts
into a sciencewhichalready
hasmany, we shouldlike to proposetwo broadclassesof wavefronts:radiating
wavefronts and directedwavefronts. As our discussiondevelops,it should become
clearthat particularcombinationsof thesetypesof wavefronts
formthebasisfor the
variouswavefrontmethods,not onlyin refractionwork,but alsoin reflectionwork.
The best solutionof specificinterpretationalproblems,or of portionsof specific
problems,
will dependon the useof oneor morewavefrontconfigurations
in com-
bination. These combinations will be described below.
Radiating wa,efronts
Radiatingwavefrontsystemsare nothingmorethan setsof wavefrontsemanat-
ing from a point source.The bestexampleis the roughlysphericaldisturbance
spreading downwards andoutwards froma typicalseismic surface
shot(seeFigure
2). Seenin two dimensions,
theseare the familiarplottingchartsusedfor reflection
--TOTAL
, TIME I S
? . .2 .\ 4 . .2 ., ,
x'--. "-- x x .... ..-- , I
...
....,.-. ._,..,:--,.... ..... 5, 5"-X'=" ' -%"/2 ''
FIGURE
2a(AROUND
CIRCULAR
WAVE FNTS,REAL
ST) IMAGINARy-,
(ARND CEIVER),IN CANT
1 L E FIGURE
2b RADIATING
W-FM IN E
TOTAL REFLECTION TI. VERITY LAYE
6o. R.P.
' v 7v, .....
FIGURE
2, HI-VECITY
DIFFCTI
FIGURE 2c EXPANDING ENDI CIU
WAVE F IN A
Fro. 2. Commonlyencountered
radiatingwavefrontsystems.
dip work.Their shapesrangefrom sphericalin a homogeneous isotropicmediumto

irregularin a layeredmediumcharacterizedby randomdiscretevelocity changes,to
sphericalwith a descending apparentcenterin a mediumof linear velocityincrease
with depth (seeFigures2a, b, c). Generallyspeaking,theseare the "overburden
wavefront charts" of refraction work or the "plotting charts" of reflectionwork.
The really important characteristic,however,is that thesewavefrontsrepresent
the loci of all possiblepoints attained by a seismicdisturbancefrom a point source
at a given time interval after initiation of the wave by the shot. If we know or can
measurethe velocityfield, we can depictas much as we needof the wavefrontsys-
tem which will resultfrom an explosionat any givenpoint within the medium.
Figures2d and 2e showhow simplediffractedwavefrontpatterns may approxi-
mate radiatingsystemsin part, if the diffractingsourceis localized.
Even when no actual explosiontakes place, the radiating wavefront conceptis
useful.By imaginingthe systemof wavefrontswhichwouldsurrounda givenpoint,
we have at oncethe traveltimesfrom that point to all other points in the velocity
field. Thus, it is often as usefulto imaginethe potential wavefront systemwhich
surroundsthe detectoras it is to picture the actual one whichsurroundsthe point
sourceof the disturbance.Both are radiating systems.Figure 2a showstwo such
systemsin a constantvelocity medium, one centeredon the source,one on the
receiver.The third system(dottedlines),givingthe sumsof the intersectingsystems,
representsthe possibleloci of any reflectedeventreachingR from S. It alsogives
the maximum depth of a possiblereflector.
Directedwavefronts
Directed-wavefrontsystemsare characterizedby an actual or apparent line
sourceof energyand are typically plane or near-planeparallel systemsin contrast
to the nearly concentricaspectof radiating systems.
The typical "bow wave" or "refractedwave" (Mintrop wave) is the commonest
exampleof sucha system(seeFigure 3a). Theseare almostexclusivelyassociated
with the recordingend of a refraction survey, where they really exist, while the
real existenceof the radiating system is at the shot end.
The ultimate sourceof energy in a bow-waveor directedwavefront system is
usually a radiating wavefront traveling in an overlyinglower velocity medium.
When the latter encountersan underlying high-velocitymedium at a certain in-
cident angle (the critical angle), it suffersthe maximum possiblerefraction and
propagatespractically along the interface separatingthe two media. The wave-
front moving in the high-velocity"refractor" acts as a line source.Through the ac-
tion of Huygens'principle,whichholdsthat eachpoint on the wavefrontof a wave-
propagateddisturbanceacts as a sourceof minute sphericalwavelets,the directed
wavefront or bow wave is awakenedin the upper medium. This is accomplished
through the coalescence of successivelyinitiated sphericalwavelets originatingat
the interface as the wave in the high-velocitymediumprogresses alongthe bound-
ary. This phenomenonis depictedschematicallyin Figure 3a.
An interesting discussionof the "volume" involved in a minimum traveltime
path in simplerefractionis givenby Hagedoorn(1959).
FIG. 3a. Generationand reconstructionof a directedsystem(top).

FiG. 3b. Parabolicmethod,a combinationof radiatingand directedwavefrontsystems.
The angle which the coalescedwavefront (the refracted or bow wave) makes
locally with the interface is a function of the velocitiesin the two media. It is known
as the critical angle, ic, and is given by'
arc sin -arc sin of Figure 3a ,

V. OP
where V is the lower velocity and V. the highervelocity. This is clearfrom a study
of Figure 3a. For example, the particular wavelet emerging from a center at time
1.0, at 0, has progressedas far as the 1.2 secwavefront position at P in 0.2 secat
velocity V, while the disturbancein the refractorhas progressed
to P at velocity
V. over the same time period.
The directedwavefrontstravel obliquelyupward from the refractor,undergoing
in all but the simplesttwo-layer casessomechangesin directionor inclinationof the
wavefronts,but arriving at the surfaceas a systemof essentiallyparallel and nearly
plane wavefronts which sweepacrossthe detector array set to record their arrival.
If the velocity in the near-surfacemedium is known, it is clear that the attitude
of this directedwavefront systemcan be reconstructedquite approximatelyfrom
the arrival times associatedwith the wave's passagedown the line of detectors.Two
useful piecesof information are provided:
(1) The total traveltime from the shot sourceto any given detector(and by inter-
polationto any surfacepoint).
(2) The approximateconfigurationof the wavefront in the plane of the sectionat
any given time after the explosion,i.e., the particular "directed" wavefront
systemcreatedby the geologicalconditions.
CONSTRUCTION OF WAVEFRONTS
Radiating wavefronts
Radiating wavefrontsfor any given observedor inferred vertical velocity dis-
tribution can be constructedaccordingto already well-known methodsdescribedin
the literature. For constant velocity media, they are, of course,mere setsof circles
(Figure2a). For a linearincreaseof instantaneous
velocitywith depth,described
by
the relation
V, = Vd + aZ,
one can describethe wavefront for any given traveltime by utilizing the parameters
(seeFigure 2c)
h = Va/a(Cosh at - 1),
r = Vd/a(Sinh at),
where h equals vertical distance of the apparent center of a circular wavefront

belowdatum; r is radiusof circularwavefront; Vd is datum velocity; a is velocity
accelerationwith depth and t is traveltime (one-way for refraction paths).
Certain other velocity distributionsare best approximatedby using average
velocitiesas functionsof time or of depth although thesemay depart considerably

from the true situation. Quite frequently, the overburden velocity is not well
enoughknown to justify anything more elaboratethan the useof an averagevertical
velocity. Commonly, if control of the principal velocity zones is afforded by the
refractiondata, by reflectiondata or by well velocity data, a generalvelocity zoning
can be worked out which will be quite simple and at the sametime reasonablyclose
to reality.
In the examplegiven below, severalof thesepossibilitieswill be illustrated. Only
rarely, suchas in salt-domeshootingor for the solutionof somevery detailed and
localizedstructural problem, will it be worthwhile to constructa detailed radiating
wavefront for an irregular velocity distribution rather than using an approximate
and simplified version. In such cases,by careful drawing of successivewavefronts
(Figure 2b) usingthe local velocities(a sort of graphicalapplicationof Huygens'
principle),it is still possibleto reconstructquite closelyany given radiating wave-
front. The judgement of the interpreter will decide whether it is worth the labor
involved. If an increasingor varying average velocity is used to draw wavefronts,
they will coincidequite closely with the deeper portions of wavefronts drawn on
the basisof the exact velocities(seedotted circlesof Figures2b and 2c), but will
deviate laterally.
Directedwavefronts
The individual directed-wavefront system is constructed from observed time-
distance data applying a knowledge of the overlying velocity field. In contrast to
the radiating systems which generally remain or are considered constant for the
prospect, the directed-wavefrontsystem is unique and individual and must be
at least partially reconstructedfor each new portion of the recorded data. The
attitude of the wavefrontsis directly related to structure, i.e., to the dip of the re-
fractor and to the dispositionof the overlying layers.
The first interpretational task is always to construct this directed system im-
mediately below the surface (in the first layer).2 Figure 3a illustrates how this is
done. Assumethat along a given recording profile a given set of time-distancedata
are recorded and that these are known or believed to be refractions from a single
subsurfacehorizon. Also, the average velocity in the first layer is known to be
V= 5,000 ft/sec.
Supposethat for the particular problem we are trying to resolveit is sufficientto
show a particular wavefront system at intervals of .100 sec. Let us begin with the
wavefront correspondingto the time 1.400 sec. This may be an observedvalue or
one interpolatedbetweennearby observedtimes.It is convenientin this caseto keep
the wavefronts in even multiples of .100 sec or some other regularly increasing
time interval and to let the surfacepositionsat which these times are observedfall
where they may.
Now, at the surfaceposition correspondingto t= 1.500, obviously the 1.4 wave-
front positionis displaceddownwardand to the left towardsthe shot by a distance
' It is not necessaryto reconstructthe completesystem,as Mr. Frederick Schenckshowselsewherein
this volume.(SeeRefractionSolutionsby WavefrontTargeting,by FrederickL. Schenck,p. 416.)
correspondingto .100 sec times V or 500 ft. Similarly, at the surfaceposition for
observedtime 1.600, the 1.4 wavefront is .200 times 5,000 ft/sec or 1,000 ft away.
We need only draw small circlets at each of these surface positions with radii
proportional to the correspondingincreasein time or At, expressedas a distancein
order to locate quite closelythe positionof the wavefront 1.400 which we set out to
construct. For more or less detail, we use greater or smaller time increments. Of
course,when the t-x curve is a straight line, as in this example, and the velocity is
constant,the resultingwavefront will be plane and the set or systemof wavefronts
will be parallel, so very little drawing will sufficefor the constructions.If the t-x
curve is not straight, the wavefront must not be plane, so enough points are se-
lected to show its essentialconfiguration.
After drawing the 1.4 wavefront, the others may be drawn in, each intersecting
the surface at the observedtime correspondingto the wavefront time value. This
is all there is to drawing an emerging wavefront system. A little practice and the
systemfor an entire long t-x curve can be drawn quite rapidly with as much or as
little detail as is desired.
How much of the system should be drawn in will depend on the problem to be
solved, the approximate expecteddepth of the refracting interface, the validity of
the time-picksand corrections(i.e., whetherminor time variations are significant),
whether one or more velocity layers are involved, etc., but this will becomeapparent
from later examplesand from practice.
The coincidenttime surfaceand theparabolicmethod

To illustrate severalpoints, let us carry out the constructionfor the one-way data
of Figure 3a to an extreme and show the entire possiblewavefront system (Figure
3b). As we continueto draw in and label wavefronts,we finally get to a point where
one wavefront is labelledzerotime. This is the apparentline sourceof the disturbance
creating the entire directed system of bow waves. We know that this wavefront
system (Figure 3b) was actually created by a disturbancemoving along a high-
speedbed and we wish to find the depth and attitude of this bed.
This is where the total traveltime enters the interpretation. The seismicdisturb-
ance was created by a shot at &. For a while, at least, the disturbancemoved out
from &, creatinga radiatingsystemof wavefrontsin this same5,000-ft/secmedium.
A systemof .100 secwavefrontscan be centeredaroundS to simulatethis outgoing
wave (Figure 3b).
To proceedfurther, without additional data, one of two things must now be
assumed'Either (1) the directedsystemcan be projectedto the left for a reasonable
distancewithout seriouschangein inclinationof the wavefrontsor, (2) we have
already extendedthe t-x data to the left of xa by picking secondaryarrivals within
the "blind zone" (zone of secondaryarrivals from V. inside "knee" or xa), or by
shootingthis "blind" portion of the line from an offset shotpoint which will permit
the same refraction from the same interface to be observed as a first arrival. In this
case, since the attitude of the bed and the velocities determine the slope and de-
tail of the t-x curve, any overlappingportion of the t-x curve from the offset shot-
point S.will parallel the data from shotpointS and the new/Xtscan be usedto ex-
tend the t-x curve from S back towards S without projection. These new data will
permit us to completethe directed-wavefrontsystemon the basisof observed(At's)
rather than on the risky basis of extrapolation of the last observedslope of the
t-x curve correspondingto "first-arrival" data from S.
Having done either of these, we now have two overlapping wavefront systems,
one radiating and one directed. Since the wave initiated in one system and con-
tinued in the other and the transition took place at the refractor, the possibleposi-
tions of the refractor must lie along a locuswhere traveltime values in the two sys-
tems are equal, i.e., where equal time wavefronts intersect.This curve is drawn in
Figure 3b and appearsto be a parabola. If we considerthe shotpoint as focus and
the zero-time line of the refracted-wave system as directrix, it is obvious that the
curve is a parabola, i.e., the locusof points lying equidistant from a straight line
and a point.
The fact was first pointedout by Thornburgh(1930), whoreferredto the parabola
as a "coincident time curve" along which any point is at equal times from the shot-
point along two different travel paths. He pointed out that these coincidenttime
curvesweretangent to the refractor and intersectedthe surfaceat the "breakover"
or critical distance, xa (a changein velocities signalling a changein first-arriving
wavefront systems).
For plane refractors, the Thornburgh system was ultimately simplified into the
"parabolicmethod" in which only a singleray was constructedand the positionof
the zero-time wavefront determined along this ray to serve as a directrix for the
direct determination of the parabola, whose focus was at the shot. See the ray
r- on Figure 3b. For the simple plane two-layer case,it is evident that with V
passingthrough the origin of the t-x plot, the distanceto the breakoverpoint or knee,
being V.txa, is also the distancefrom this point along an emergingray to the zero-
time line or directrix. This will only be so for a constant overburdenvelocity, with
no shinglingor lossof legsin the overburdent-x curve.
Another ray of interest is the ray r- VX T0, drawn back from the shot position;
this ray, together with any other ray (the xa ray, for example),convenientlylocates
the directrix.
Thornburgh made his depth interpretations by determining the loci of these
parabolasand near parabolas(in deeperlayers) at each shotpoint.Presumably,he
had techniquesfor adjusting nonplane interfaces to fit deviations from straight-
line t-x data between these control points but these are not elaboratedin his classic
AAPG paper.
Severalother commentsabout the wave systems(Figure 3b) are in order:
(a) A flat refractor will, of course,be tangent to the parabolaat its lowestpoint,
where the ray from the shot impinges on the refractor, and refraction along the
interface begins.The observedvelocity V2 will be true refractor velocity in this case.
(b) Exactly the samerecordedtime-distancepointscouldbe causedby refractors
of a wide range of velocitiesdipping up or down but thesewould still lie tangent to
the parabola. If dip is known, true velocity can be calculated or vice versa from
relationshipr = it___
a wherer is emergingangle,a is dip, and ic is the critical angle.In
terms of velocity,
r I r 1
+ a = sin -x -- sin -
-- V (apparent) V (true)'
and the signof a indicatesdip awayfrom the shotpoint(-k) or towardshotpoint(--).
(c) If dip changesinside of the knee, then the t-x curve lying immediately ad-
jacent to and just outside of the point where the first critically refracted ray, the
critical ray, reachesthe surface,must be used to construct the parabola or intersect-
ing wavefront systems.This must be extendedby phantomingfrom first-arrival data
using auxiliary or second-arrivaldata. See Figure 3b, line marked 13,000 ft/sec
velocity. If not, the parabola will not give the true locus of possiblerefracting sur-
facesbut only what it would have been had there been no dip changein the "blind
zone." The differenceis shown by the additional directrix and parabola dashedin
lightly on Figure 3b.
Applyingthe dip formulas,assumingV true to be known at 10,000ft/sec,
5000 5000
4-a- sin- - sin -
13,000 10,000
- sin - .384 - sin - .5
= 22.6 -- 30.0
a = - 7.4 (toward the shot).
Thus, instead of a flat refractor at --2,000 ft, the true refractor position is shown
by dotted line tangent to dotted parabola. The importance of constructingfrom
data pertaining to actual subsurfacecoverage(within "blind zone") and not
projecting is thus clearly shown.
The principal utility of the parabolic method is in representingall possibleposi-
tions of the refractor leaving the way openfor later selectionof dips and/or true
velocities.
We shall review later the extensionof the parabolic method to more than two
layers and analogousmethodsfor other velocity distributions.
Locating a reflectorfrom intersectingwavefrontsystems

It is interestingto note the analogy betweenthe parabolic method for all possible
positionsof a refractor with a given apparent velocity and arrival time at distancex
andthe methoddescribed
by Hagedoorn(1954),for all possible
positionsof a reflec-
tor with given arrival time at distance x.
The reflection loci are tangent to a set of curves representingtotal traveltimes
from S to R constructedby finding appropriate intersectionsof two radiating wave-
front systemsaround the shot, S, and the receiver, R, as shown in Figure 2a. Only
the time at x is needed.
In the parabolicmethod,the apparentvelocity (Ax/At) is alsoneededto position
the directed wavefront system beneath the line of receivers.
THE BASIC TRAVELTIME, RAYPATH, AND WAVEFRONT RELATIONSHIPS OF

REVERSED REFRACTION PROFILING
Considerfor a momentthe typical two-layerreversedt-x curvesshownin Figure4.

Let us examine certain traveltime relationshipsof the minimum traveltime paths
for refractedwavesfor the samerefractoras generatedat two differentshotpoints,
A and B.
The simplesttime-distancecurve is representedat the top of Figure 4 and below
it two basicclassesof travel paths. These travel-path assumptionsform the point
of departure for most of the raypath and wavefront interpretation methods cur-
rently in use which employ combinationsof data shot from in-line reversedprofiles.
Perhapsit is not going too far to say that these various methods could be classified
on the basisof which travel-path arrangementis used.
Group I (Figure 4a) visualizescritically refracted rays convergingon a common
surfaceposition,C; Group II (Figure 4b) visualizescritical rays emergingfrom a
common point on the refractor, O. Both systemsmake use of the total reversed
traveltime TAB= TBA, known as the reciprocal time, R.T.
30
RT
'
20
I I
i
CRITIC DELAY
A(S) RI RAY C(R) .TIME R
40 COMMON SURFACE POSITION (GRIP I)

CRITIL ANGLE
e o
/
b
4b COMMON SUBSURFACE POINT (GROUPS)
Bs[ctrove]time,mypt, d wvcfot relationships

o reversed
Classificationof systemsaccordingto travelpaths assumed

Systemsbasedon the paths of Group I include the so-calledABC System (Hei-
land, 1940), certain variations of the intercept-delay-timemethods (Nettleton,
1940), weathering "summation" methods,and the "plus" part of the "plus and
minus" method (Hagedoorn,1959). All thesemethodshave in commona summing
of the refraction arrival time via a common refractor recorded at C from shot-
points A and B and a subtractionof the reciprocaltime, R.T. The resultant time
is the sum of the delay times associatedwith the two upcoming critical rays con-
verging on C.
A variation makes further use of the principle of reciprocity to plot any time on
one curve, for exampleI, from shotpointA, above shotpointA at F and the law of
parallelismto project this value back to an intercepttime at F . This methodgives
a valid intercept time which will yield the average depth at I, if the refractor re-
mains plane under I. It is in fact, a graphical solutionof the ABC or Summation
Method.
GroupII (Figure 4b) methodsincludethoseof Thornburgh(1930), Ansel (1930),
and Baumgarte(1955), as true wavefrontmethodsand also an ingeniousraypath
method developedby F. W. Hales (1958).
Hales' method utilizes the equivalent of the critical-angle reflection. From the
BbOD path time plus the AaOE path time, the full reciprocaltime is subtractedto
yield the time for the theoretical path DOE, equivalent to the critical reflection
time, which would be obtained shooting at D and recording at E or vice-versa.
Hales' method for locating E for an arbitrarily chosenD is quite ingenious,but, since
it is not a wavefront method,lies outside the scopeof this paper. Having located
D and E and the equivalent critical reflection time, he might have treated the data
as a reflection and migrated it as shown in Figure 2a by finding the locus of all
points satisfying the intersectionof two radiating wavefront systems totalling the
time along path DOE. One wavefront system would be centered around D, the
hypotheticalsource(or receiver)and the other aroundE, the hypotheticalreceiver
(or source).However, Hales actually usesin his method somesimplegeometryto
draw a circle to which the refractor is practically tangent.
The General Wavefront Method which we wish to foster, based on the work of
Thornburgh and Ansel, and more recently Baumgarte, utilizes the same travel-path
relationships(Figure 4b) as doesHales, and we feel that both these methodsare
generally more valid than thoseexpressedin commonsurfacepoint (Group I or
Figure 4a) methods.This is certainly so when the refractor surfacedepartssignif-
icantly from a plane.
The wavefronts, which correspondto Hales' critical rays, intersect at 0 on the
refractor and total the reversedor reciprocal time, R.T. Thus, in Figure 4b near-
simultaneousshots at shotpointsA and B can be thought of as initiating comple-
mentary systems of refracted or bow waves from a common refractor. These
refracted waves will meet at somepoint 0 on the refractor and traveltimes to that
point will total the reciprocaltime from A to B. The bow waves associatedwith
thesetraveltimes will have reachedpoints R and R on the surface,corresponding
to times TARand TBRon the t-x graph. The t-x data beyondR1 and R.permit us to
draw these two directed wavefront systems to which the pair of complementary
wavefronts with time TAR and TB 2 belong, utilizing the simple construction
method given on the right-hand side of Figure 3a. These wavefronts intersect at
depth and fix the position of O on the refractor. As a matter of fact, each O is fixed
only by the real portions of the wavefronts immediately above a particular O and
image portionsimmediately below. The remainderof the wavefrontsare superfluous
and need not be constructed, except as they may assist in keeping track of the
wavefront time values.
so.vxIO or xYVIC. ris.o csss
Classicor reversedrefractionprofiles
The basic understanding of wavefront interpretation of the typical in-line
reversedrefraction profile can best be obtained by studying the solutionof a simple
example of a three-layer casewith dipping but essentiallyplane refractors having
discrete velocities.
Figure 5a showsthe type of data which is usually recorded in the field. After
correctionfor weathering and, if necessary,to a referenceinterface,a the plotted
t-x curves are studied, refractor changesmarked, and general velocities drawn in.
The velocity lines need not be straight and are primarily for preliminary refractor
identification and assessmentof velocity magnitudes. If reversed traveltimes,
R.T., do not agree, some adjustment of data plots may be required, taking into
a The term "referenceinterface"is perhapsbetter than "referenceplane." It may be usefulto clarify
a few pointswith respectto the useof weatheringand elevationcorrectionsand correctedtime-distance
plots when the interpretationis to be accomplishedby wavefrontmethods.
The essentialquantity usedin the wavefront techniqueis the arrival time (i.e., observedwavefront
value) at a specificlocationin space.This may be at the surfaceor on someother arbitrary plane or
velocity interface.
Becauseof the scaleinvolvedin mostfield work, it will be foundmostconvenientto subtractweather-
ing delay timesfrom observeddata prior to commencing the graphicalinterpretation.Weatheredlayers
are frequentlytoo thin to be convenientlyhandledgraphicallyon the samesmall-scalesectionrequired
for most refraction depth sections.The sameis sometimestrue of other thin near-surfacelow-velocity
layers. Therefore it is usually better to remove arithmetically those rather large near-surfacetime
delays.This may sometimesbe donegraphicallyby makingspeciallarge-scalenear-surfacesectionsbut
in the caseof simpleweathering,sinceraypaths are nearly vertical, the subtractionof delay times is
usually sufficientand introducesno significantdistortionof the horizontalpositionof the wavefront
arrival.
It is not necessary to havea horizontalor evena planesurfaceor referenceplanewhenmakinga wave-
front interpretation.Thus, the base of true weathering(or of the near-surfacelow-velocitycomplex)
may usually be used,howeverirregular it may be. "Elevation corrections"are thereforenot only non-
essentialbut shouldgenerallynot be made. If eachsignificantdiscretevelocity interfaceis viewed as a
reference"plane," the interpreterknowsat oncewhich onesmay be besthandledby removal of delay
times abovean interfaceand which onesleft for interpretationusingwavefronts.The criteria to apply
are whether correctionshifts the data significantlywith respectto the subsurfaceand whether the
remaininglayersare thick enough,at the scaleused,to allow accurateconstructionof wavefronts.
The writer feelsthat it is generallypreferableto plot arrival-timedata, correctedas required, on
conventionaltime-distanceplots,eventhoughthe usualusesof suchplots,suchas calculationof appar-
ent velocities,intercepttimes, delay times,critical distances,etc., do not enter directlyinto wavefront
methods.A time-distanceplot is still a usefulway to visualizethe data as a whole, identify refractors,
checkparallelismand penetration,checkand ascertainreciprocaltimes,and, mostimportant,selectand
combinesegments of t-x data into thecomposite
arrival-timeplotswhichare thebasisof a wavefrontinterpre-
tation.
For thisreason,t-x plotshavebeenincludedin the illustrationsin thispaper.The readershouldrecog-
nize that apparentvelocitiesmarkedthereon,exceptpossiblyoverburdencurves,are of no particular
significance
in the interpretationby wavefronts.
RP. S2
,.., . . . -' - .. :.,,i: .' " ) '-... -'-...,,'
\ At ml V.103(2</ -- -- TWO-WAY
COVERAG
\, -n- -- NE-WAYCOV....
FIGURE
S(O) FIRST
ARRIVALS
(S
CTA
(s3sAwnj x
Fro. 5a. t-x curvefor threelayersand depthsectionof first layer.

Fro. 5b. Wavefront interpretationof secondrefractor,H.
account probable causes(shotholelocation changes,variations in shotdepths,

time-break errors, phase changes,etc.).
Each separaterefractor or pair of refractorsmust be assigneda specificR.T. It is
preferablethat this be an observedvalue, but, lacking this, an extrapolated,pro-
jected, paralleled, or phantomedvalue will have to be determined.
Since in this casethere are two refractors, it is obvious that R.T. for V. will not
be directly observedfrom S or S.. It may be determinedfrom extrapolationbut
preferably from auxiliary shotstaken within the profile. Rarely, clear secondary
arrivals are pickable and may be used to guide extrapolation. Figure 5a showsthe
location of typical auxiliary data obtained at some added shotpointsbetween S
and S..
A shotin the middle (S3)practicallycompletescoverageon V.", but thereis a gap
in the first-arrival coverageof V. (downdip), becauseof its greater depth to the
right. This may be filled if desired, by an additional shot from S4, etc. Unless the
approximate depths and attitudes of the refractors are known in advance and
"shootingon paper" has allowed the seismologistto preplan his coverage,it will
often be necessaryto add additional shotsto avoid or reduce the use of projections.
Thus, the data pertaining to the same refractor are all consolidatedinto a pair
of reversedadjusted time-distancegraphs for each refractor with at least an R.T.
at one end as preciselydeterminedas time and the objectivesof the survey permit.
It is helpful to identify the various portions of this combined t-x curve as being
based on actual reliable first breaks, secondaryevents, values paralleled or phan-
tomed from first or later events,or outright projections,supportedor not by recipro-
cal time or common intercept time data, since these criteria will, in turn, determine
the relative reliability of the various portions of the depth interpretation and of the
true velocity determinations.
The first layer

Assumenow that the t-x curves are in condition for the actual interpretation.
The x positions correspondingto regular incrementsof arrival time at some con-
venient/xt, say .250 sec,or better .100 sec, are marked off on the t-x curve by short
vertical lines (at 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75 sec,etc.). Thesemay or may not coincidewith
the actual arrival times. If minor irregularities are believed to be due to random
scatter of data points (picking,timing, or weatheringcorrectionerrors) a smoothed-
out (but not necessarilystraight!) averagedt-x curve may be acceptedas the best
t-x curve. Deviations of severalconsecutiveplotted points from a generally uniform
line which exceed probable random errors may indicate structure and had better
be honored by departing from a straight segment. Excessivesmoothingis to be
avoidedsincethe wavefrontmethodeasily accommodates fairly sizableflexures in the
refractor(i.e., fairly large deviationsfrom linearity of the t-x curve).
The reversed curve is marked off in similar increments of time. However, these
are at values of R.T. minus the even (integral) time values. In the present case,
since R.T. is exactly 2.5 sec, values of 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, etc., were also marked on
the reversed t-x curve.
The x positionsof these arrival times are transferredto the surfaceline (or to
Reference Plane if used) of the depth section under the t-x graphs and clearly
identified as to direction of shootingto avoid confusion.
Using the method outlined in Figure 3a, and pertinent text, arcs of small circles
of radii equal to/xt. V, 2/xt.V, 3/xt. V, etc., are drawn from the surfacepositionof
the arriving wavefrontsback toward the shot (seeFigure 3a and wavefrontfor 1.50
secfrom shotpointS.in Figure 5a). Tangentsto thesesetsof waveletsrepresentthe
directed wavefront or refracted bow-wave system.
Initially, it is perhaps preferable to draw complete wavefront systems.As the
interpreter gains experiencein the method or familiarity with the prospectarea,

the amount of construction can be greatly reduced. A wavefront, however, is not
consideredto be well establishedunlessit is basedon points of tangencywith wave-
lets at each end of the required segment. Extending the wavefront past the last
point of tangencyis equivalentto projectingit and shouldbe avoidedwhenpossible.
Since the time values of one set of the wavefronts were chosenat regular or in-
tegral values of n./Xt and of the other set at R.T. --n./xt, the systemswill be found
to intersect at somedepth in such a fashion that the sum of the intersectingwave-
fronts representa total time of R.T. Suchan intersection, C" of Figure 5a, for ex-
ample, is a point on the refractor.
From this, it is obvious that the reciprocal time, R.T., is of utmost importance
and determinesthe depth of the refractor. If it is changed,the depth of intersection
will change.4 If all the points of intersectionof the two directed wavefront systems
totaling R.T. are joined, the refracting surfacecan be drawn in (i.e., the line C,
C", C'", C"" of Figure 5a).
The horizontal diagonal of the diamond formed by the intersectingwavefrontsis
proportional to the true velocityof the refractor. Since the wave moved from C"
to C"' (and vice versa) in the time/xt(-.250 sec) the measuredlength of this seg-
ment C"C'" divided by .250 secyieldsdirectly the local true velocity, 10,600ft/sec,
discountingminor drafting errors. A longer segment of reversed coverageshould
give a more accuratevalue, provided controlling data are good and the intersection
was formed by wavefronts controlled by points of tangency immediately above
and below the intersection (i.e., not projected). Even a horizontal changein re-
fractor velocity could be detected by the method if large enough so that other
errors could be discounted as the cause.
The near-vertical diagonalis proportional to apparent velocity of the refracted
wave in a direction normal to the refractor given by
AZn V1
/xt cos i,
an obviousrelationshipto the standard refraction depth-intercepttime formula.

One other interesting point is that the angle between the wavefront and the re-
fractor is a measureof i, and the easily measuredangle between sets of wavefronts
bisectedby the refractor is, of course,2i,.
One-way data
Certain portionsof the reversedwavefront systemswill be found not to overlap.
However, usinga radius proportionedto the At multiplied by true refractor velocity
(At. V. or in this case .250X10,530 ft/sec plus or minus) and starting from the
extremeintersectionpoints of reverseddata (C' and C"") the refractor coverage
can be extendedby intersectingthe one-way wavefronts to the left and right of the
portion of the refractor already establishedfrom reversedor two-way data.
a Paradoxically,it seems,an arbitrary or erroneousincreasein R. T. raisesthe refractor positionin
the middleof the spreadand vice versa.There can only be oneR. T. exactlycompatiblewith a complete
set of data.
The limiting rays relating the subsurfaceand surface coverageshould be drawn

in normal to the wavefront systemsand subsurfacecoverageidentified as to the
type' two-way data, one-way,projected,etc., as a meansof "grading" the reliability
of the depth and configuration.
It is clear from an examination of Figure 5a that without employing auxiliary
data from shotpointsSa and & only a very small portion of the refractor would be
mappedand of this only about 3,500 ft would be reversedcoverage,a small segment,
from which to determine a reliable V. velocity. Furthermore, the R.T. value of 2.5
secwould be basedonly on projection, not on actual data.
The secondrefractor
Figure 5b illustrates the wavefront constructionused to map the third layer or
second refractor. Horizon // is transferred to a new section below the same t-x
curve to avoid congestionand confusion.As before, the compositet-x curves have
been adjusted and extended with auxiliary data from auxiliary shotpoints offset
beyond the endsof the profile.
The R.T.a is observedto be 2.225 sec. A systemof wavefront arrivals at integral
times of 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, etc. secis marked on the t-x curve from S and the comple-
mentary systemof R.T. minus n./Xt or n..100 secfrom S., using the extendedpor-
tion of the V3' curve basedon parallel phantomingfrom S data inside the point
xc.3.The complementarywavefrontswill have values1.625, 1.725sec,etc.
Emerging wavefronts are drawn as before, this time with circlets proportional to
n..100 sec 5,000 ft/sec with centersat the ground positionsof the selectedarrival
times. Note that the emergingwaveis travelingin the mediumof velocityV, so5,000
fi/sec is still usedto drawtheemergingwavefronts.
These wavefronts are extended only deep enough to obtain a good intersection
(without projection) with horizon//. These intersectionsnow mark the positions
on // where the correspondingarrival times would have been observedwith the
detectors(but not the shot) locatedon//. (// is thereforea referenceinterface as
discussedabove.)
Now usingradii proportionalto n./xt. V. (assumedto be not greaterthan 10,530
ft/sec, if no more valid vertical velocity is known), "arclets" are drawn around
centersat the intersectionsof the wavefronts with //. Tangents to the "arclets"
are connectedup and joined to their respectivewavefrontsat the interface.If this
systemis extendeddeepenough,somepair of wavefrontsshouldbe found to inter-
sect with a total time of RTa= 2.225. The intersectionwill be a point on the second
refractor//. (seepoint 0', Figure5b). If severalsuchpointsare located,the refractor
attitude is fixed and the true velocity determinedas beforeby dividing the length of
diagonal0'0'"' by the time differencesfor 3./xt. This turns out to be 5,160ft/.300
sec- 17,200 ft/sec- Va true.
Note that if the auxiliary data from S5 had not been available, the wavefront
systemsbasedon first-arrival data from S andS.wouldjust barely haveintersected
at a total time of 2.225 (near 0') and, although the approximate depth to the
refractor would be known, neither its true velocity nor attitude would be deter-
minable from observeddata. Either the velocity or dip of the V3 layer would have
to be assumedto completethe interpretation.
The usual procedurefor nonoverlappingreversedsegments,if no other data are
available, is to project the wavefronts the least amount possibleto effect intersec-
tion (or project the t-x curve and construct the wavefronts, which is the same
thing) and then assumethe refractor is plane in the vicinity of the intersections.
Somevalue of horizontal V can be found by trial and error (or basedon the angle
2icbetweenwavefronts)which will yield a plane refractoror geologicallyreasonable
dips on the two one-way segmentsof data.
This emphasizesthe importance of securingadequate reversedcoverageon the
principal refractorsif a reliable interpretation is to be obtained.
In the present case,a reliable velocity and attitude of V3 can be obtained using
the auxiliary data and the one-way coverageutilized to extend the //2 horizon to
completion,in the samemanner as was done for//.
Advantages
of thewavefrontmethod
for reversed
refractionprofiles
The advantagesof this techniqueare many but the following stand out'
1. The t-x data are useddirectly and need not be smoothed,convertedto straight-
line velocity segments,or projected over long distances,especially acrossthe blind
zone, to obtain intercept times.
2. The R.T., an observed quantity, is used to fix the depth rather than the in-
tercept time, which is usually a projected value (although it need not be and can
be establishedby phantomingif data are available).
3. The true refractor velocityis determinedby the depth interpretationrather than
assumedin order to make the depth interpretation. (On the other hand, as in all
refractionmethods,the accuracyof the solutiondependsdirectly on the accuracy
of the V or other overburden velocities used.)
4. One-way and incomplete data are handled in a routine manner related to the
interpretation as a whole.
5. The physical reality of the wavefronts helps the interpreter to visualize the
geophysical-geological aspectsof the problem and remain aware of the location,
quality, and sourceof his data, hence,of its relative reliability.
6. The systemdovetailsneatly with other interpretation systemswhich may be
used from time to time, such as the aplanatic and parabolic methods, and even
with delay-time and intercept-time methods. Especially in the solution of com-
plex field examples involving faulting, diffraction, unusual velocity distributions,
incomplete data, etc., some of which will be describedbelow, the method will be
found to be both flexible and compatiblewith other specialtechniques.
,Depth interpretationwhere overburdenvelocityconformsto Vz-Vo+aZ

The caseof an acceleratingoverburdenis frequently difficult to handle by or-
dinary methodsbut is renderedvery simpleby application of wavefront techniques.
The subsidiary"wavefrontlets," to coin a phrase, are drawn with the aid of a wave-
front chart expressingthe velocity law applying in the medium. If it happensto be
a caseof linear accelerationwith depth, a commondeviceis to use h and r formulas
to depictthe requiredwavefronts.
A table of h and r valuesfor successive
.100-
secintervalsis usuallydetailedenough.A simplecompasscan be usedto draw
the wavefront circle for successivelydeeper-centeredwavefrontletsat depths h
belowdatum (seeFigure6b). If muchworkneedsto be done,a simpleplasticdevice
suchas is shownin Figure6a canbe madeof two-mmthick vinyl-plasticsheeting.
The calibration of the h and r arms is outward from the pivot and is marked in time,
proportionalto distance
(or depth)givenby the standardh andr formulas. Ordi-
narily,an extendible
compass will do aswellasa draftingarmfor drawingcirclesof
radiusr, whenonlya smallamountof datais to behandled.
REFERENCE PLANE
t= .247
PIVOT
WAVEFRONT . 247
PENCIL HOLE
SPRI
SLIDER'
Fro. 6a. A simplewavefrontplottersuitablefor refraction

work.
382
I
Wavefront
I
Methods
Figure 6b showsthe caseof a nonplanerefractor below a linearly increasingover-

burden handled by wavefront techniques,a fairly formidable case for conventional
methods,which is rendereda simple routine by the techniqueillustrated.
Time-distance curves obtained from S and S. would not have been complete
even if secondaryarrivals had been obtained. Therefore, auxiliary shotpoints,0'
and 0", left of S and right of S.,were usedto extend first-arrival controlover the
area of interest. For penetration to the same massive refractor, these (t-x) curves
shouldapproximatelyparallel the (t-x) curvesfor the nearershotpoints.Therefore,
by offsettingthe curvesfrom 0' and 0" so as to coincidewith the observeddata
from shotpoints1 and 2, respectively,one can dash in "phantom" refraction arrival
curvesextendingfrom actual observationsall the way into the shot.5
At the left of Figure 6b, the constructionof one set of intersectingwavefronts
for t=.350 and t.= 1.090 (total time, R.T.= 1.440) is shown in detail. The wave-
frontlets are drawn usingh and r valuesand an ordinary compass.The plasticplotter
of Figure 6a could have been usedwere the number of profilesto be processedwith
the same overburden function sufficiently large to justify calibration of such a
device. The common tangents to these wavelets intersect at C..
C through C0 were all constructedin like manner, yielding a near-perfectin-
terpretation of a continuouslycurvedrefractor under an acceleratingoverburden--
no mean feat to be accomplishedso simply.
Only the intersectingportionsof the wavefrontsare shownfor points other than
C..Also, only wavelets (not shown) in the vicinity of the intersectionwere usedin
constructionsinceparts remotefrom intersectionpoint are superfluous.As experience
is gained by the interpreter, needlesswork can be kept to a minimum and control
points spacedwhere needed.
One sourceof error, at least, remains in methods of this type (Thornburgh's
method, Ansel's, Baumgarte's, Hagedoorn's, Hales', the ABC method) which
utilize pairs of time from oppositeshotpoints.They assumethat the sums of such
partial paths in the high-velocityrefractor exactly equal the total path in the re-
fractor of an end-to-end observedminimum time, R.T. When relief is high, this is
not so. Penetration through the anticline or fold occurs,and an error, increasing
with increasingrelief, is introduced. (Hagedoorn, 1959, discussesthis point at
length with detailedillustrations.)This may be adjustedout by useof "aplanatic-
curve" techniquesif it becomesserious.Essentially this adjustment consistsof se-
lectinga point (as C4in Figure 6b) off the flank of the structurewherea minimum
of suchpenetration is indicated for use as a take-off point (T.O.P.) from which the
one-waydata on the far sideof the fold is then interpretedin depth by aplanatic-
curve techniques.The method is describedbelow.
Complexoverburdens
Without going into detail, it shouldbe clear that complex overburdenswhich do
5 This phantomtechniquecan only be correctlyemployedif the parallel and phantomeddata corre-
spondto the samepath in the subsurface. If the long-shotminimumtime path "penetrates"morethan
the near-shotpath, they cannot, strictly speaking,be combinedinto one t-x curve.
0 Elsewherein this volume,Mr. FrederickL. Schenck,in his article entitled "Refraction Solutionsby
WavefrontTargeting,"givesa technique for interpretingone-waydata to eliminatethe effectof pene-
tration. The "intersectionmethod" is equally applicable.
not neatly fit any particular analytic expressionfor increasing velocity can be
handled by wavefronts if the required precisionand available detailed velocity in-
formation justify the effort involved. For example, an unconformablelayer of con-
stant velocity underlain by an acceleratingvelocity could be handled with ease. An
example would be a thick water layer in marine work, deep glacial drift, or simply
an unconformity, such as low-velocity Tertiary section over older rocks. The re-
verse situation is occasionallyencounteredof an acceleratingoverburden (a Gulf
Coasttype section)aboveseveralmassiveolderlayersof near constanthighvelocity
and is alsowithin the practical applicationof the method. The wavefront method, in
other words, readily permits the stripping of the first layer by lowering the wave-
front intersectionsto any desired referenceinterface.
SEVERAL SPECIAL WAVEFRONT TECHNIQUES
The aplanatic method

This method is based on the use of two radiating-wavefront systems, one cor-
responding
to the actualsystem(or the completepotentialsystem)generatedaround
the shot in one medium, and the other consistingof the radiating system which
would have been generatedif a shot had been detonated at the detectorpositionin a
secondvelocity medium. Thus, the caseis similar to the situation depictedin Figure
2a, except that the shot and detector are located in two distinct media, not both in
the same one.
The principal use of this method, which was first describedby L. W. Gardner
(1949), hasbeenin the delineationof salt domes,but the method works equally well
in a number of situations and deserveswider application. Indeed, it is the only
method7 which will adequately handle diffracted energy and casesof severepene-
tration through high-relief structures (i.e., near vertical interfaces). The only re-
quirementis that the entire travel path from S to R be confinedto two media with S
in one medium and R in the other. Either $ or R may alsolie on the interface between
the two media.
Figure 7 showsthe constructionof an aplanatic curve for a typical salt dome
problem, the determinationof "overhang." Traveltimes have beenrecordedfrom S
to a well seismometerpositionedsuccessivelyat R, R2, Rs, etc., in a boreholedrilled
into a salt plug. The overburdenwavefront chart (one-way times!) is centered
around the shot and a circular wavefront chart for the best value of salt velocity
(here taken at 14,000 ft/sec for simplicity) arounda receiver,R4. Wavefrontsare
drawn every .025 sec(.010 secwould be better for an actual detailedinterpretation).
The intersectionsof wavefronts of the two systemswhich total the traveltime from $
to R4, equal to 1.200 sec, may be joined together to form an oval or ellipselike
curve known as an aplanatic curve, which is tangent to all of the possiblepositionsof
an interface which would satisfy the traveltime.
7 The half-refractionor intersectiontechniques(seepage 395 and Figure 12) and the related "one-
way targeting"describedby FrederickL. Schenckin this volume,(seepage416) work well for moderate
relief, but the generalsolutionfor any relief is given by the "aplanatic" method alone.The advantages
of the aplanatic approachare that complexoverburdenvelocity fieldscan be utilized and that each
aplanaticcurve dependson but a singleobservedtime, whereasthe other methodsrequireenoughdata
to constructa directed wavefront system.
W.F. FOR 1.0 SECOND

USING AVERAGE VELOCITY
TO SAME MAXIMUM DEPTH
SI .5 1.0 ! 14
/,
? ,000
Fro. 7. Aplanatic-curve
methodappliedto salt-domedelineation.
A number of such curves are drawn for traveltimes to various positions in the
well and the simplest geologicallyacceptablecommon tangential surface to these
aplanaticcurvesis a solutionfor the interface.In Figure 7, only the salt wavefronts
used to draw the curve for a time value observed at R4 are shown to avoid confusion.
Curves for two other values, at R and R6, are shown without full construction lines.
If the shot location remainsfixed, only the salt-velocity wavefront need be moved.
For a different shot, the overburden wavefront is recentered on the new shot. As
many shotsas neededto give the desireddetail may be taken. To demonstrate over-
hang, the shotpoint shouldbe relatively far from the well and the well seismometer
positionedat numerousplacesnear the top of the salt plug. Severe overhang may
require placing the shotpoint far enoughaway to employ minimum time raypaths
which curve down into the overburdenand actuallyrise up undertheoverhangbefore
entering the salt.
Excellent velocity control, both in the overburden and in the salt, is necessaryfor
closedetailing of very severeoverhang. Curved-path or detailed-overburdenwave-

fronts shouldbe used; the error resulting from use of averagevelocity can be seen
by the dotted "wavefront" for 1.0 secwhich deviatesseriouslyfrom the true circular
wavefront in a lateral direction. The salt interface would be seriouslymislocated
using average velocities. A critical determination should even take into account
anisotropyand work with detailed wavefront chartsdeterminedlocally and employ-
ing numerousoffsetshotsto evaluate anisotropyand the effectof the salt plug itself
on the velocity field.
Further examplesof the use of aplanatic curves in determining horizontal beds,
high-reliefstructures,fault positions,etc., are given below, but the classicsalt dome
useis the simplestdemonstrationof the principleinvolved.
The "equivalentparabolicmethod"for linear overburden

Vz- Vdq-aZ
In the discussionof Figure 3b, we reviewed the parabolic method and showed
how it wasrelated to the wavefront solutionof one-waydata, utilizing radiating and
directed-wavefront systemsyielding "coincident time curves." Any short cut using
a directrix is a specialcasecorrespondingto a constant overburdenvelocity and a
plane refractor. The general method, however, holds for any velocity distribution,
although the resulting "coincidenttime curve" or locusof all possiblerefractorswill
not be, strictly speaking,a parabola.
Figure 8 showsa solution for a velocity field Vz=6,000q-.6Z and arrival times
from a refractorcorresponding to V apparent= 10,000ft/sec. The radiating and di-
rected-wavefront systemsare drawn as before (Figures 6b and 7) using h and r
values. The intersectionsof equal-time valued wavefrontsare points on the locusof
all possiblerefractors,and this locusis a parabola-shapedcurve.In time spacethe
curve may be considereda parabola and the zero-time line for the directed system
(not shown) is a curved "directrix."
In Figure 8, the refracted critical raypaths are shown for a flat refractor of
10,000 ft/sec. Note that theseintersectthe refractor at the point of tangencywith
the equivalent parabola. The minimum traveltime raypath for the ray emerging
at xd is also shown. This showsthe overburden penetration obtainable using first
arrivals. Beyond that point, xd, overburdenarrivals are, of course,secondariesand
would generally not be pickable.
The "penetration" in the overburdenis the h value for half the breakovertime,
tx (seediscussionof overburdenbelow), and is easily calculatedor drawn in graph-
ically.
The parabolicmethodfor secondor deeperrefractors

The "parabolic solution" cannot be applied to more than two layers, i.e., to de-
termine a secondor deeperrefractor, unlessthe attitude of the first refractor is fixed.
As pointed out, the first refractor is a general solution. If only one parabola can be
constructed,the dip or true velocity of the refractor must be known, or assumed,to
specify a particular tangent plane as the refractor.
The method yields but one parabola per profile (one shotpoint and recording
spread).The methodalsoexhibitsthe weaknessof the intercept-timemethodin that
z
o

'h' SCALE
General
I
o.
o
o
b
IIII I I I-----
Wavefront
Z9' +O9=Z
Method
o
o
-o

o
o
b
387
the t-x curve within the "blind zone" must be fixed either by pickable secondary
arrivals or by parallel phantomingfrom a more distant shot which will permit the
t-x curve to be reconstructed. Lacking this, the first arrivals beyond the knee,
xd23,
mustbe projected.
Parabolasmay be convenientlyusedfor one-waydata shot in tandem, for "semi-
reversed"data, as describedby Dix (1952), or for one-waydata shotboth waysfrom
the same shotpoint. In this way, the common tangent to two adjacent parabolas
drawn for the samerefractor may be consideredto be the interface and the dip and
true velocityapproximatelyestablishedwithout the necessityof reversedshooting.
This method would work best where parabolaswere not too distantly separatedand
structureis simple.
If the data are suchas to permit the first interface to be established,then an ap-
proach similar to the parabolic method can be used in establishingthe second
interface. No exampleof this is given. The proceduremay be summarizedas follows.
A radiating wavefront system for two discrete layers, (analogousto top two
layers of Figure 2b) is drawn in; of course,only half the wavefront need be drawn.
After drawing circlesin the first medium, Huygen's wavelets may by used in the
second, or a number of refracted rays are drawn in for incident angles less than
ic(sin-V/V2) for the first layer and equal traveltime segmentsmarked off on these,
which are then joined by a smoothcurve. The directedsystemfor Va is drawn in as
before for the two layers as was the casein Figure 5b. The intersectionsof equal
valued wavefronts will yield a parabolalike curve to which the secondrefractor is
tangent.
Interpretationsusingcombined
reflectionand refractiondata
Many refraction surveysare carried out in an area where reflection data already
exist. Sometimesthe existing reflection data are inadequate or inconclusivebecause
they are not goodor continuousenough,correlationsacrossfaults are not clear,posi-
tions of unconformitiesare in doubt, multiple reflectionsare suspected,or "base-
ment" is not clearly established.In such cases,certain lines may be reshot by the
refraction method.
Also, it is commonpractice to follow up a reconnaissance refraction survey with
detailed reflection shooting, often making use of the same recording lines.
Reflection data are often recordedduring the refraction survey itself on the near
spreads.In particular, wheneverrecordingproceduresare employedwhich are de-
signedto obtaingoodsecondaryinformation(and they alwaysshouldbe sodesigned
if there is any chance of obtaining such data) much useful reflection and late-
arriving refraction data may be obtained. The advent of the newer techniques
of magneticrecording,variable densityrepresentations,etc., coupledwith the useof
AGC and reflection filters, practically insuresthat such data may be obtained in
most areas.
The incorporation of these reflection data, from whatever source,in making a

refraction interpretation immensely improves the reliability and usefulnessof the
final interpretation and may actually permit a substantialreduction in the refrac-
tion coveragerequiredfor solvingparticularproblems.The author has seenmany
caseswhere otherwiseinadequate or incompleterefraction data have been success-

fully interpreted by combiningit with existing reflection data.
In some instances, the reflectors correspondexactly with major refractors; in
others, they may originate from velocity inversions(henceno refraction), or from
minor interfacesnot presenton the refraction t-x curves as first arrivals or pickable
secondaries. There doesnot necessarilyhave to be an actual identity of the reflecting
and refracting interface in every casein order to make use of the reflection data in
interpreting refractions.
Four important ways in which reflectionsmay be utilized are the following'
1. Reflectionscan provide useful dip information at or near the refracting inter-
face which will allow the true velocity of the refractor to be determined or at least
estimated within close limits.
2. Reflections can provide overburden velocity information, or support conclu-
sionsdeducedfrom the refraction data about velocity in overlying layers. (This
point is discussed morefully belowunder OverburdenVelocity Determinations.)
3. Reflections can furnish significant correlationsbetween reflecting and refract-
ing horizonsin the sameor adjacent areas.
4. Reflections may simply have to be recognized,analyzed, and correctly inter-
preted as reflection data to avoid their misinterpretation as secondary arrival
refractions.(In areas of thin-bedded overburdenlayers, such as limestonesand
basalts, where overburden arrivals are strongly attenuated, it is not uncommon to
record wide-angle events or even true reflections as the first really discernable or
pickable events on a refraction record!)
Figure 9 is drawn to illustrate two of the commonlyuseful types of reflectiondata
and the techniquesfor incorporating them in a refraction interpretation.
Data obtained from the refraction shot itself, shootingfrom Rx&, for example, in
Figure 9, takes the form of a long end-over or end-on reflection profile with exag-
gerated normal moveout resulting from the long spread length. If V above the V.
event is known within reasonablelimits, or can be guessed,or if a general wavefront
chart applies,this event can be plotted by combiningtwo (x=0) wavefront charts,
one around the shot RxS, and one around any receiver position at distance x. In
the example, the time t equals.950 was chosen.The event should still exhibit reflec-
tion normal moveout at the point where the time is chosen,otherwise the time
may actually fall on the wide-angle reflection or refraction portion of the curve.
(SeeFigure ! and 9 for the time and moveoutrelationshipof reflectionto refraction
arrivals.) Figure 2a showsin detail how the combination curves for varioustotal
reflectiontimes for a particular recordingdistance,x, are drawn by joining intersec-
tions of the two systems,which have the same total time. The resulting sum curves,
2:t, are ellipseswhen the velocity is constant and ellipselike for other velocity fields.
In Figure 9, the total-reflection-timecurve labelled2:to(for the critical ray time)
equals .950 sec is shown. The locusfor all possiblereflectionsfrom RS to Xc is
this curve. The correspondinglocus for x-0, the normally reflected ray return-
ing to the shotpoint,is, of course,merely a two-way time wavefront centeredaround
the shot or, in this case,a circleof radius V1/2. T. The commontangent to the two
curvesis the reflection interface. Several offset reflection times may be plotted to
checkon the positionor planenessof the interface,or conversely,and, assuminga

plane reflector,to checkon the accuracyof the velocity assumedor wavefront charts
employed.
Plotting the second,deeper reflector below an abrupt velocity changeis some-
what more complexbecauseof refraction of the wavefront and involvesdrawing
emergingwavefrontsback to the first interface as for multilayer refraction. Reflec-
tion timesmust be accurateand normal moveoutlarge to accomplishthis in practice.
One may note the similarity between this construction and the construction of
paraboliccurveswith a singleobservedtime. As soonasthe critical angleis exceeded,
pickable recordeddata is apt to be a refraction or combination"wide-angle" event.
Beyond xcthe directed wavefront systembasedon the straight line t-x data is sub-
situted for the radiating system around the single receiver position and the locusof
the refractor becomesa parabola. The progressionof the locus of the interface, with
increasingx, from circle to ellipseto parabola is interesting.
The second,and more useful,type of reflectiondata is continuouscorrelationdata
from a separatereflectionsurvey as shownon the right side of Figure 9. The first
down-break of these events is rarely picked but may be phantomed back from the
first troughs. A time phantom may often be used if reflections are discontinuous.
The reflectionhorizon is plotted as the tangent to arcs or wavefront segmentscor-
respondingto the various center or shotpoint time values (see Figure 9). Refrac-
tion arrivals from the same subsurfacecoverageare drawn in as a wavefront system
using the same velocity. The intersectionof the dipping reflectionhorizonwith the
bow-wave systemwill givethetrue refractorvelocity,for example, by dividing C'C'" by
.5 secin Figure 9. Using the true refractorvelocity, the remainingone-waybow-wave
systemcan be interpreted in both directionsbeyond reflectioncoverageto give the
horizon H, which,in our example,correspondsto the sameinterfaceasplotted from
the RS shot reflection data. A depth adjustment may be required to achieve con-
formity with total refraction traveltime, since filter and other phase shifts rarely
allow exact matching of refraction and reflectionpicks.
A two-layer case with discretevelocitiesis best handled by the "ray stretching
technique"describedby Baumgarte(1955). After constructingthe first layer from
reflection and refraction data, reflections below this layer may be constructed as
follows:
Using the sameV, an imageof the deeperreflection,H_',is constructedby draw-
ing arcswith radii proportionalto V/2. T.,V/2. T.2,etc., whereT. T. are
reflection times at shotpoints 1 through n. An image interface is drawn as common
tangentsto thesearcs.Normals from points of tangencyto the shotpointsare drawn
such a,sRltS1, R7tS7,etc., of Figure 9.8
The segmentof the normal ray below the interface H is then "stretched" by
multiplying it by the ratio V./V (in this case, 10,000/5,000) and a new arc is
drawn, using this distance as radius, from the points of intersectionwith the Hx
interfaces,I 17, etc. The commontangent to thesearcsis the interface H. or a
planeparallelto it if a later phaseof the reflectionwasused.(The sameconstruction
8 The normalsneednot be drawn to SP'sbut only normal to imageinterfaceand back to intersection
with appropriateoverlyinginterfaces.
UGHS
IFLECTION DATA
OTAINED WHILE
$HOOTING REFRACTION
REFLECTION
HI
175 2.0
! i i
1.75
VI 5,000'S /

-
.20' 5,000'/$
Fro. 9. Wavefront interpretation combiningreflectionand unreversedrefraction data.
can also be carried out usingwavefrontsbut rays are frequently easier.The analogy
to multilayer refraction constructionis obvious.)
The Va refractor unreversed bow-wave system is then drawn in, using multi-
layer techniquesas shown in Figure 5b, and pertinent text. As before, the intersec-
tion of the reflection dip segmentwith the wavefront system permits a reasonably
reliable true velocity to be calculatedand the refractioninterfacett2(Rx) is extended
as far as one-way data will allow and adjusted up or down for correcttotal refraction
traveltime.
In the example of Figure 9, it was assumedthat additional data allowing the

phantoming of the Va t-x curve were obtained by a shot from a distancex to left of
shotpointRxS. The reader will note that the limit of one-way coverageof tt2(Rx)
extendsbeyond the refraction depth point (origin of upcomingcritical ray) for//2.

The construction is still valid, however.
The correspondencebetween prominent reflectionsand refractions is frequently
very closethoughrarely exact. The differencesmay often be accountedfor by instru-
mental or filter delays,picking different phases,etc., or the "reflection" may simply
be from above or below the interface or representthe summation of several reflec-
tions with consequentphaseshifts.Even if the true traveltimeswere exactly known,
it is likely that exact depth correspondence would be pure chancesincethe refrac-
tion paths are so obliquethat slightly higher velocitiesapply alongtheseslant paths
than do along the near-vertical (normal-to-stratification)reflectionpaths. In other
words,there is someanisotropy,either true or false.
SHOOTING TO, IN, ACROSS, OR BETWEEN WELLS
When shootingrefractionin areaswhere drilled wells exist, it is often possibleto

make use of thesewells in the planning and interpretation of the survey. Instead of
merely tying the wells in depth with the final "independent" refraction survey, one
can make them contribute towards the ultimate precisionand successof the survey
and at the same time reducethe amount of shootingrequired.
Since,where wells exist, the usual aim of additional exploration is to find a higher
or somehowbetter location, inclusionof the existingwellsin the refraction profile in a
planned manner is advantageous.
Shootingbetweentwo wells
Figure 10 showstwo wells, a mile apart, one of which has a velocity log. The log
and previousexperiencein the area indicate that two goodrefractors exist with con-
trasting and easily distinguishablevelocitiesand consistentcharacter. The problem
is to determinewhetherfaulting existsbetweenthe wellsor near either of them which
would affect the choiceof a third well site. Two shotpoints,estimated to be properly
placed to securefirst arrivals from the two refractors, V and V3, are selectedand
one-way data only are obtained from spreadsplaced to yield the desiredsubsurface
coverage.Using the apparentvelocity (V2 data), the wavefront system(solid lines of
Figure 10) is drawn in employingan averagevertical velocity given by the well logs
(or from refraction overburdendata if no log exists) of 5000 ft/sec. This systemis
extended to below the first horizon H as identified in the two wells "A" and "B".
The wavefronts bracket the well calls HA and HB. The interpolated times T and
TB of the wavefrontsat thesedepthsare calculatedgraphically. Vm true velocity is
then given by the distanceHxA-- Hz, divided by the time difference, Tx-Tx,. This
velocity is applied as before through intersection of the bow-wave system at ap-
propriate time (and distance)intervalsfrom Hz or/-/x to detail the interfaceH.
This done,the sameprocedureis appliedto V3' data, refractingthesewavefronts
as they pass through H. The horizontal refractor velocity for H turned out to be
12,200 ft/sec. The velocity log indicatesthat a truer vertical averagefor the entire
lower sectionwould be 10,000ft/sec, so this was usedin spacingV3' wavefrontsin
the lower section.
Accordingto the data, the Va refractor velocity is 16,700 ft/sec. A shift of the
I.S
Fro. 10. Wavefrontinterpretationof unreversed

data throughtwo wellsin line of profile.
t-x curvefrom S2,with indicationsof diffraction, is interpreted as upfaulting to the

left of wellA. A goodestimateof the positionand throwof the fault is afforded.
This wouldbe a relatively small amountof shootingto map two interfaceswith
precision.
The advantage
liesin theratherreliabledetermination
of localtruerefrac-
tor velocitiesand the precisewell ties. To work this system,one must be certain
that recognizable discreterefractorsexist and that they cannotbe confusedwith
otherrefractinghorizons.This conditionis usuallynot hard to establish,especially
if other local refraction work and well logs are available.
Usingonewell to establish
reversed
timesfor longoffsetshots
Many times,a singlewildcatwell existsaroundwhichmoreshootingis planned.
When great depthsand unfavorablylow-velocitycontrastsare involved,very long
offsetsmay beneededto registerfirstarrivalson the refractoror refractorsof interest.
This is the casein southwestTexas, for example,where the attenuation of arrivals
from high-velocity thin overburdenlayers, in order to register a Devonian event,

requiresa very long offset. At times, leasing,permitting, safety, or communications
requirements may restrict recording and shooting operations to specificlocalities.
Under these conditions, to obtain continuous t-x curves and observed reverse times
is impractical, impossiblyexpensive,or simply impossible.Figure 11 illustrates such
a case. Control is desired on the subsurface from S to S2. If the refractor is discrete
and readily identifiable and cut by the well at B, it can be mapped more cheaply and
effectively by selectinglong-offsetshotpoints,S3 and &, and recording V2 in order
to give overlapping coverageacrossthe well at depth B.
Portions of the two systemsof wavefronts are drawn in which bracket point B,
the refractor "call" in the well. By graphical interpolation, the times from S3 to B
and & to B (seevalues on Figure 11) are determined.Their sum is very approxi-
mately the reversedtime which would have been observedif the shootinghad been
complete from Sa to S4.
One or the other set of wavefronts is then redrawn so that the odd value of reverse
o ,o
i i i [ i i i' i
, ,.... (' 1
/ '
(900 OOOOl (IlgOI
" iii/ _
0 S4TO
B14.
7.I SEC.
. S3I .
SEC. Vt'
Fro. 11. Use of a singlewell to establishR. T. for incompletelyreversedlongoffsetshots.

time can be accommodated,i.e., so that the intersectionsof the systemstotal re-

verse time. In this case,the set from So was drawn giving wavefronts at times 7.9,
8.9, and 9.9, instead of 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0 sec,sincereverse time was 14.9 sec.As be-
fore, the diagonalsacrossreversecoveragegive true V2 velocity and the unreversed
portion of the data are interpreted by intersectionto define the horizon.
All of the key V2 data would be obtainedfrom only two shotpointsand laying the
cablesonly once,an efficientway to conducta survey.
Again, it shouldbe emphasizedthat refractor identification must be definite with
no possibilityof confusingor mismatchingtime-distancesegments.An evaluation of
all the factorsinvolvedand data at handwill usuallyreassurethe geophysicist on this
requirement. Experiencein the area, the results of a study of well logs of every
kind, the geologicalsetting with respectto neighboringwells,if any, plus the aspect
of the recordsthemselvesshouldall be consideredin establishingthat this condition
exists.The value of true refractorvelocity, the characterand frequencyand energy
levelsof the seismograms, plus overall arrival timesshouldall, of course,supportthe
refractoridentification.Usually, wherebasementor a massiverefractor is involved,
there exists less doubt as to refractor identification.
Half-refraction surveys--Shootingin or to a well or acrossa well

The term "half-refraction" hasbeenusedto describea type of surveyin which one
of the overburdensegmentsof the total critical angle refraction trajectory is elimi-
nated by shootingor recordingat the high-velocityinterface. Commonly a well is in-
volved in this type of survey with the refractor position in the well anchoringone
end of the travel path, usually the receiver (but occasionallythe shot) end (see
Figure 12). A surfacepoint is usually the shot (or receiver) end. The salt-dome
shootingof Figure 7 is similar exceptthat travel paths are directly through the salt
and refraction is rarely at 90 degreesor the critical angie, ic. When the data are ob-
tained on several profiles through the well (see plan view, upper right corner of
Figure 12) the half-refractionsurvevis termeda "radial half-refractionsurvey."
In Figure 12, assumea well exists as shown cutting a good refractor of known
velocity 16,000 ft/sec at point A (or T.O.P. A of Figure 12). A well seismometeris
positionedat A and a seriesof shotstaken along a line of shotpointsacrossthe well,
usually at regular intervals of 500 or 1,000 ft. At short offset distancesonly direct
travel paths are involved but at the offset distance for the critical ray, refractions
from V2 are recorded and the t-x curve becomesnearly straight. If detailed over-
burden data are needed,more closelyspacedshotpointsmay be usedinsidethe criti-
cal offsetdistance,and the seismometermay be positionedat other depthsin the well
(R, R R5 of Figure 12). These data will permit the direct constructionof an
overburdenchart and checkon anisotropyand ray curvature in the overburden.
The data from a half-refraction survey are usually of very high quality and the
method has severalimportant advantages:
1. They are shot below weathering and recorded by a well seismometer,hence
times are unusually precise.
2. Positionsof each end of the travel path are known very exactly. The end in
the refractor is termed the take off point, T.O.P.
FIG.12.Half-refraction
surveys
to, from,or througha well,showing
equivalence
of aplanatic
and intersection
techniques
from take-offpoints(T.O.P.'s)
3. Only small chargesare requiredsincea very much smallerportionof the

trajectoryis used,with only onetrip in the overburden.
4. Good time breaksare easilyobtained.
The singletracerecordsfrom theseindividualshotsmay be playedbackor dis-
played in a form equivalent to a multitrace recordshot from T.O.P. A and recorded
at S, S2 So,etc. This facilitatesstudiesof waveform,multitracecorrelation,
examination of secondaries,etc.
A vastlypreferable
methodis to shootat T.O.P. A but thisis impractical
except
at shallowdepthswhenusingconventional explosives.
Gunperforatorshavebeen
used as the energy sourcewith some successin "sensitive" areas. The author has
detonatedseismic
gelatinsat depthsover3,500ft but specialloadingequipmentis
necessary.
The advantagein shootingin the well is that a full spreadof 24 detectors
canbe usedgivingmuchmoredetailon therefractorandmoreinformation pershot.
If a wellis abandoned
andpluggedor is not availablefor entry,a shotpoint
canbe
placedat a distancebeyondthe proposed surveysite,for example,to the right of
Figure 12. This shouldyield the samerefraction data as obtainablefrom'the well.
Thus, the sameT.O.P. A in the well may be used, even if the data were not actually
recordedat or shotfrom this point. The wavefrontsare drawn back from the surface
as was the casein Figures 10 and 11, to establish the time of a wavefront passing
through the well call on the refractor at T.O.P.A.
An alternative method, if no well exists,is to establishthe refractor depth at some
point nearT.O.P. A or in lieu of T.O.P.A. This couldbe doneby shootinga reversed
refraction line in a plane normal to the half-refraction profile. If reflections are
recordable,an expandingspreador velocity profile may be recordedat someplace
along the half-refraction profile where subsurfacerefraction coverage is planned.
The increasein interval velocity obtainedfrom a plot of interval velocitiescalculated
from the velocity profile often will indicate which reflection correspondsto the re-
fracting interface, and will permit a fair estimate of depth to the refractor. In addi-
tion, the V.P. will furnish overburdenvelocity data for usein interpreting the refrac-
tion data; the reflection dips will permit confirmation of true refractor velocity or
confirm the identity of the refractor-reflector.This method was successfullyusedby
the author in Mexico (1958) in connectionwith half-refraction surveysacrossthe
Golden Lane Reef. Of course,there must be at least one good reflection below the
reflector-refractorin order to calculate the interval velocity by means of a velocity
profilesotrue basementcouldnot be identifiedin this way.
InterpretationsA lternativemethods
By whatever means the t-x curves of Figure 12 are finally obtained, and the
T.O.P. A fixed, the interpretation may proceedby either of two good methods' the
aplanatic-curvesor the intersectiontechnique. They are both very practical and
equally reliable.
Where the t-x data are obtained at short detector intervals, for example by
shooting 24 traces at a time from a long-offsetshotpoint, the emerging directed
wavefront system is constructed as heretofore. A radiating wavefront system is
centeredaroundthe T.O.P. (or a compassmay be usedto draw smallarcsof circles)
and the appropriate intersectionswith the bow-wave system made. Thus, for a
particular wavefront 1.6 sec, Figure 12, since the wavefront for t-1.4 sec passes
throughthe T.O.P., an arc of radius .2 sec(1.6--1.4 sec)times 16,000ftfsec is drawn
around T.O.P. A to intersect the directed wavefront 1.6. Other arcs cut successive
wavefronts1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, etc. It soonbecomesapparent that the refractor is
concaveupward which violates the straight-line travel-path assumptionin medium
V2. In this case, each successiveintersection is made from the next previously
establishedboundary wavefront position in short stepsapproximating travel at V2
along the curved interface.
Further drawing of the V horizon showsthat it becomesconcavedownward to-
wards the left as could have been anticipated from the t-x curve. Now the shortest
time path must cut throughor "penetrate" the structure. If this effect is marked, the
9 A third usefulmethodwouldbe "one-waytargeting" (seepage416, this volume)whichis equivalent

to intersectionexcept that a single complete wavefront is used to establishthe intersectionpoints
insteadof small segmentsof the directedwavefront system.In either casea high velocity wavefront is
centered around the T.O.P.
intersections should be redrawn using radii from a more distant T.O.P. such as
T.O.P. A or B so that the path in the refractor approximatesthe minimum time
"penetrating" path.
The second method which may be used is the aplanatic-curve method. Three
aplanatic curvesare shownon Figure 12, onefor the top of the structureand onefor
each flank. A radiating overburden wavefront is drawn or centered around the
surfacepositionof the recorded(or interpolated) time; segmentsof arcs are drawn
in, or a radiating refractionwavefront chart of the refractor velocity is usedas be-
fore to intersect several of these overburden wavefronts to give the locus of all
possiblesolutions totaling the observed time, t. In this case, it is convenient to
label the overburden curves backward from the origin instead of outward from it
and the refractor arcsoutward from the T.O.P. (seeconstructionfor curve t equals
3.2 of Figure 12). At the intersectionsforming the aplanatic curve, the two sets
have the same time value. The same limitations on the choice of T.O.P. locations
apply with respectto a stronglyupcurvedrefractor and/or penetratingrays as do
for the "intersectionmethod" (i.e., the minimum traveltime path shouldfollow the
interface for concaveupward refractor horizonsand "penetrate" when this is indi-
cated; therefore, T.O.P.'s should be selectedaccordingly). Thus, curve t-2.5 sec
shouldbe constructedfrom T.O.P. B as also curve t-3.2 sec, but t-2.7 sec should
employ T.O.P.C.
Notice that, in this application,only the recumbentlower limb of the aplanatic
curve is drawn, sincethe refractor lies beneathit, whereasin the salt domeof Figure
7, the apexor upper branchis the significantpart.
Notice also the overburden wavefronts are tangent to the full directed bow
waves usedin the other constructionand that the point of common tangency will
coincidealmost exactly with the point given by the intersectionmethod. Thus, the
two systemsare equivalent. For isolated data and widely separatedshotpoints,the
aplanatic method is better as data would be insufficient to establisha reliable bow-
wave system. In this case, the actual values of the times at the shotpoints are
used instead of interpolated times from a curve. For more closelycontrolled or de-
tailed t-x data, interpolatedpoints will be accurateenough.
Isolated aplanatic curvesunder offsetshotpoints
Many times data are recordedfrom isolatedoffsetshotpointswell beyond the area
of immediate interest or where the continuoussubsurfacecoverageis obtained. For
example,the V.'data of Figure 10 do not afford coverageback to the shotpoint
In Figure 5b, without the auxiliary coverageaffordedby data from S3and S4,the V.
refractor would not have beenmappedat eachend of the line
A very good single-depthdetermination, however,can be made under these out-
lying points by drawing an aplanatic curve from the last controlled point on the
refractor or from some other position where a timed wavefront is established.For
example,in Figure 10, the wavefront .820 secpassesthrough// in the well. Using
this time and the true V velocity an aplanatic curve can be constructedunder
showingthat the interface dips down to the left and should not be projected far
from the last controlpoints of the refractiondata.
In Figure 5a, an aplanatic curve could be drawn in using a wavefront time of 1.0
secfrom C or of .750 secfrom C to provide a depth under &. In Figure 11, depths
under the long-offsetshotsS3and S4couldbe estimatedquite closely.This otherwise
wasted data can be utilized by the aplanatic method and might be the clue to another
structure or a better interpretation. The depths at long-offset shotpoints, for ex-
ample,might or might not agreewith previouslymappeddata, nearby well data, etc.
Is there an unsuspectedhigh in the area or is somethingwrong with the interpreta-
tion? Isolated depth points may answerthesequestionsor at least suggestthem for
investigation.
Relationshipof aplanaticcurvesto parabolas

Figure 13 clarifiesthe relationshipbetweenparabolasand aplanatic curves.These
have a superficialresemblance,the parabola being the envelopeof a family of apla-
natic curves correspondingto specificdips and velocities of the refractor. The t-x
data of Figure 13 are interpreted by the parabolicmethod yielding a curve to which
all possiblerefractorsare tangent (providingrefractionis at critical angle). If the
refractoris flat, the velocityis 9,000 ft/sec, proportionalto the horizontalseparation
of emerging wavefronts. If any intersection of a wavefront along the refractor is
selected,for exampleT.O.P. B, and an aplanatic curve constructedfor this time,
1.4 sec,the aplanaticcurveshownis the result.It is tangentat the samepoint0', as
is the parabola, but deviates elsewherefrom the other curve. If the refractor is
dippingsuchthat it is tangentat point0", thenits true velocitymustbe 6,530ft/sec,
as given by the spacingof wavefrontsalong this dipping plane. If a point T.O.P. A,
with time 1.5 sec,is selectedand an aplanatic curve constructed,it will be tangent
at 0". Using a different T.O.P. along either refractor will give the same point of
tangencybut a differentlocationand slightly differentshapeto the aplanaticcurve.
The completeaplanatic curve is an egg-shapedcurve known as a CartesianOval and
is uniquefor givenconstantvelocities(V and V.),positionof shotand receiver,and
traveltime. For nonconstant velocity fields, similar equivalent but distorted loci
may be drawn, which are not exactly ovalsor parabolas.
A few minutes' study of the intersectionsof the three wavefront systems,shownon
Figure 13, shouldprove instructive' These systemsare radiating around S at V,
radiating around T.O.P. (any point on refractor) at true V, and the directedbow-
wavesystem,a functionof both V and
Targeting
A methodfor rapid constructionof the refractorfrom reversedand/or one-way
data is describedby Schenckelsewherein this volume. This technique is logi-
cally related to and can be incorporatedin the generalwavefront method wherever
its application appearsadvantageous.
The method consistsin reproducingtwo completecomplementarydirectedwave-
front systemsfor a given refractor,includingimageportionsbelow the refractor or
imaginaryportionsabovethe surface.Thesesystems,of course,intersectat a point
on the refractor. The remainder of the interface is constructedby use of a radiating
wavefront pattern, not necessarilyof any specific/xtvaluesbetweenwavefronts.A
Fro. 13. Comparisonof aplanaticcurvesto parabolasfor samet-x data.
convenientcircle of the pattern is made simultaneouslytangent to the two "guide"

(complementary)directedwavefrontsand the centerof the "target" is then another
point on the refractor interface.
The method is analogousto Baumgarte's 1955 normal parallel displacementof
complementarywavefrontsbut is certainly more convenientfor nonplanerefractors
(curvedwavefronts).The advantageis that a gooddeal of the labor of constructing
wavefront systemsis avoided especiallyfor simple overburdens.
One-way targeting can be usedto checkhigh-relief structuresfor distortion due to

penetration(i.e., whencomplementarywavefrontstotalling R.T. intersectbelowthe
interface). By usinga high-velocitywavefront system within the high-relief por-
tion of the structure(equivalentto a radiating wavefront arounda T.O.P., "take-off
point") one-waysolutionsmay be obtainedwhichare the equivalentto thosegiven
by the "one-way intersection"method.
To sum up, the differencein the "targeting" method is that the entire "guide"
wavefront is constructed and the refractor delineation carried on by moving a
distanceback from or forward from this wavefront whereasthe present-day use of
the Thornburgh-Ansel-Baumgartetreatment is to constructonly small portions of
emerging wavefronts at about the depth zone of the refractor and delineate the
refractorby intersection.
Whether the "targeting" technique representsa substantial saving in labor for
complexoverburdens,stronglyacceleratingoverburdens,velocity inversions,multi-
layer casesor near-vertical interfaces, and other hard-to-handle situations has not
been amply demonstrated.Also it appearsthat for highly convergentor divergent
wavefronts the "guide" wavefront could not be effectively used. However, where
applicable,it is certainly a worthwhile techniqueconsistentwith strict wavefront
theory and enjoying the same advantagesas the basicwavefront method.
HIGH-RELIEF STRUCTURES AND LARGE SCALE FAULTING INVOLVING PENETRATION

AND DIFFRACTION
Figure 12 showswhat can happen when structural relief is sufficientlyhigh so that

the shortesttraveltime path is not along the interface' there is penetration through
the structure or through part of it. This effect may becometoo large to be ignored.
Certainly in casesinvolving strongfolding or large-scalefaulting, it must be taken
into account.Also, diffraction--the fanning out of energyfrom a point sourcewhere
there is a suddeninflectionin or abrupt changeor termination of the refractor--is a
related phenomenonassociatedwith high-relief structures,especiallywith faulting.
Figure 14 is included to illustrate an extreme caseof block faulting. This shows
clearly what also occursin lessseverecaseswhere the effectsmay be lessnoticeable
but still presentand thereforea sourceof error and inconsistencyin interpretation.
Figure 14a assumesshotpointsat & and S2located off either side of a high-relief
up-faultedblock or horst.A very strongfold, an overthrustfold, a reef, or a salt dome
are analogouscasesbut lack the sharpoutlinesof the fault block. The behavior of
the wavefrontsis similar in all of those casesbut less easy to demonstrateand
analyze.
The mostimportant (but not all possible)wavefrontsfrom shotsat & and & are
drawn in on Figure 14a. From S we note, in order (dashedwavefronts)normal bow
wavesstarting at A, bow wavesfrom a steep fault plane BC (with a hade greater
than the 30 degreescritical angle),diffractionsfrom the sharptop of the block, point
C, penetratingwavesthrough the block, diffractionsfrom the far edgeD, and a re-
turn to critical angle refractionsfrom the downfaulted interface on the far right of
the drawing, EF. Severalwaveshave been omitted, notably the direct-penetration
wave beyond the right-hand fault, and certain minor diffraction patterns, in order
not to complicate excessivelyan already complex diagram.
The shotfrom S2generatessimilar waves(solidwavefrontsof Figure 14a). In this
case,sincethe bow wave strikes the sheernear-vertical fault plane, DE, outside the
critical angle, total reflection takes place along this plane giving a reflectedrefrac-
tion in contrastto the 90-degree(critical-angle)refractionobtainedwhen shooting
from S into fault BC. Alsoshownis the directly penetratingwave leavingthe far side
of the horst beyond BC, which, however, does not reach the surface before it is
overtaken by the bow wavesfrom AB and diffractions from the left-hand upper
corner of the fault block, C. The bow waves from A B are, strictly speaking,not
bow waves (i.e., at critical angleic) becausea minor amount of penetrationtakes
place,but they gradually approachcritical-anglerefractionwith increasingdistance.
The overburdenarrivals V would precludethe picking of many of thesearriving
wavessincethey are not first arrivals. However, by usingoffset shotpointssuch as
SPs, much of the t-x curve could be observed as first arrivals. The reflected-
refraction can often be picked out of the secondariesin actual practice, since it
moves out in the opposite direction. The diffractions start strongly but weaken
with horizontal distancefrom the point sources.The amplitude of the penetrating
wave from shotpoint S may be expectedto be greater than that from shotpointS.
where total reflection from fault DE means that the remaining energy sourceis
largely reducedto diffracted wavesrounding the cornerat/.
We shall assumethat through the use of offset shots and secondaries,the curves
from & and S.can be reconstructed.We may note that near-side diffractions above
C and D indicate the location of thesepoints, which fall directly below the minimum
arrival time. A different combination of dips, depths, and velocities, might show
more or lessdiffraction data but never the complete curve, which in all probability
could not be picked with confidenceexcept where it was a first arrival.
ShotpointsSa and S4,locatedabove the horst,would yield traveltime curves as
shown with very little V. data, too little for reliable interpretation, and without
overlapping reversed coverage.If these shotpoints are moved apart, they "drop
off the block," and penetrationoccurs.The maximum separationof Saand &, with-
out penetration,would be in shootingfrom Sa' and &' whichwouldonly increase
first arrival coverageslightly. Though probably not useablein practice, unlessex-
traordinarily good secondarieswere obtained, these Sa and S4 t-x curvesillustrate
the true updip and downdip apparent velocities acrossthe upthrown block. These
velocitiesof about 10,800ft/sec and 13,800ft/sec are projectedup to the "penetrat-
ing-wave" curves to illustrate that both of these show higher apparent velocities.
If a fault block is too narrow for its depth to allow a goodpenetration-freesegment
of high velocity to be observed,it is often possibleto shoot another profile aligned
alongthe long directionof the block, obtainingin this way t-x curvesfree of pene-
tration effectsfrom which true depth and true velocity may be calculated.
Figure 14b showsthe resultsof a standard wavefront interpretation of the prob-
ably pickableeventsfrom Figure 14a. Note that the coveragefrom downblocksis
limited by a shadowzone of diffractions.If those are weak or attenuate rapidly,
somedownfaultedblock refractionsmay be pickable after the diffractionarrivals,
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allowing one-way coverageto be extended as shown on Figure 14b. It is doubtful

whetherpoints B and E couldbe located,however.
On the horst,the penetrating waveswill yield a slightly convexupward refractor
surfaceplotting too deep becausethe reversetime of 3.045 secis less,due to pene-
tration, than is the sum of the refractedwavesintersectingat the refractingsurface
by nearly .100 sec.This can also be seenon Figure 14a, where the 1.640 W.F. from
S intersects the 1.500 W.F. at/-/on the refractor; these total 3.140 versusan R. T.
of 3.045. Likewise, the averagerefractor velocity (13,800 ft/sec) is too high by 15
percent.
The "true" refractor velocities in the downblocks should be nearly correct but
slightlyhigheralongIB because
of a slightpenetration
shooting
fromS2.
Several possibilitiesexist for improving this interpretation. The interpreter will
understandthe causeand nature of the errors and can proceedto reducethese in
magnitudeif not eliminate them entirely.
Depending on how much or how little diffraction and secondaryinformation is
pickable it may be possiblein many casesto refine considerablythe interpretation
of Figure 14b. We may assumethat offsetinformation(SPs)is availablegiving the
form of the diffraction curve above D. Similar information, not shown, could have
been obtained by a shot to the left of &.
The first thing we may note is that points C and D fall vertically belowthe mini-
mum traveltime for the near-sidediffracted portion of the t-x curves from SP's S
and S2, respectively.
Any portion of the curveswhichis a true point-sourcediffraction may alsoyield a
locusalongwhich the diffractionsource(edgeof fault block) must lie. Thus in Figure
14c, we note times t and t. (2.245 and 2.445) on the & t-x curve differing by
zxt=.200 sec.The sourcemust lie along a locuswhere the distanceto xt2is .200 sec
V greater than to xt. In other words, the locusis part of an hyperbolawith x,
and xi2 as foci. This is easily constructedusing identical radiating W.F. charts
(based on V) around xt and xt and marking off a curve passingthrough W.F.
intersectionswhere t values differ by .200 sec. Since the diffractive source is ob-
viously towards the lessertime only the left half of the hyperbolaneed be drawn.
(See zxt=.200 sec curve on Figure 14c at D.) If V is quite preciselyknown, this
curve shouldintersect the vertical line under the V-m portion of the t-x curve
from S at D. If theseS2data are missingor inconclusivea secondhyperbola using a
different set of diffraction times and distances,for example,t and t3may be drawn
(see/xt= .300, Figure 14c) to intersectthe first hyperbolaat D. A test of accuracyof
V would be the degreeto which several hyperbolasintersectedat the same point,
assuminga true point-sourcediffraction. The error triangles of more than three
hyperbolasmight suggestwhether V was too high or too low. Naturally, true or
false anistropy will influencethe results.
The curve is only an hyperbola,strictly speaking,for constantisotropicvelocity
and then only in the real portion of the locusabovethe diffractire source;below this
sourcethe raypaths divergeand the locusbendsthe other way.
Assumethat after this type of analysisthe interpretation has progressedto the
stageof 14c,with V, V2and segmentsCD, C9Cn,C6C8quite accuratelyknown.The
faults may be locatedmore accuratelyby one of severalmethods.
The emergingwavefrontsalready drawn from the full t-x data (Figure 14b) now
intersect the adjusted horizonCD at points I, 12,Ia, etc. of Figure 14d.
Since these are high-velocity diffracted arrivals with a sourceat the toe of the
fault block points B and E, a similar treatment to that of the low-velocity diffrac-
tionsmay l:e used,only in this case,radiating W.F.'s basedon V2-12,000 ft/sec are
used.One suchhyperbolais drawn for W.F.'s from S2. It is a branchof an hyperbola
with focus at I and 12. Others could be drawn.
On the other hand, the time from C0 to 12, for example, is quite well known since
the W.F. value and position on the refractor is establishedat these points. This
time, alongminimum time path CoEI2,includesE. Therefore,the locusof all possible
positionsof E must be an ellipsewhere the sum of the distancesCoEand EI2 is equal
to t(Co to 12). V2. This ellipseis easily drawn by usingradiating W.F.'s around 12
(sameoneas usedfor hyperbola)and C0and joining the pointsof intersectionwhere
W.F. times total this traveltime. The figuresin parenthesismark time back from I.
so equal-valuedwavefrontsintersecton the ellipse.Note that the ellipseand hyper-
bola both intersect at E. Other ellipsessuchasfor the time from C0to I could be con-
structed, which should give a corroborationof the location of E. The entire lower
portion of ellipseis drawn with constructionlines to show its relationship to C0 and
12 asfoci. In actual practice, only a short segment,such as the solid portion, is re-
quired and a few intersectionsof circular arcsestablishthis.
On the left side of Figure 14d, the ellipse for time Coto Ia is shown without con-
struction lines. B must lie along this curve.
If reflectedrefractionsor 90-degreerefractions(critical-anglerefractions)originat-
ing from the fault plane itself are observed,they will appearas straight-linesegments
with high or negativevelocitiesdependingon the hade of the fault (see t-x curve,
Figure 14a).
The reflected refraction wavefronts are drawn as any other with values labelled in
decreasingtime and the intersectionwith the direct-arriving refracted wave system
previously establishedis noted. Both these are directed W.F. systems of nearly
plane wavesso they intersectin a line. The intersectiontakes place at the fault plane
where both systemsof coursehave the same time value. The line of intersections,
DE givesthe trace of the fault. If a later phaseof the reflectedevent (a secondary)
is picked,the dip of fault will be correct(D'E ) but it will be displacedtowardsthe
shotpoint(S.).Usingthis dip and point D, E can be established.
Possibly secondarydirect refractions in the shadow zone can be used to extend
CoC8or C9Cn towards E and B. Since diffractions weaken with distance, identifica-
tion of the secondarydirect refraction is quite often feasibleespeciallywhen faults
are large. As a last resort CoCs,etc., may be projected to locate E, etc.
When the fault hade is large the refraction is not reflectedbut is produced,as a
bow wave, from the fault plane itself. If the event is identifiable thesecorresponding
wavefrontsmay be reconstructedat the approximate depth of B and intersectionat
common times with the direct bow wave from & established. If the equivalent
first arrival time is used, the line of intersectionswill pass through B and the dip
of the fault plane may be establishedat the angleic to the W.F. system(seeleft side
of Figure 14d). Only a small portion of a reflectedor fault-plane refraction event,
therefore,may be quite significantif recognizedand used.
Finally, with B and/or E established the aplanaticor intersection

techniquecan
be usedto detail the shapeof the fault block beyondthesepointsleadingperhaps
to successivelybetter approximationsof E and/or B, until traveltime data are
satisfied.
In actual field practice when relief becomesvery high, the probability of com-
plications from three-dimensionaleffectsincreases.Refraction minimum traveltime
planesare no longerthe plane of the sectionand lateral offsidewavescan be impor-
tant. If this is suspected
the problemcan be investigatedin the field by shooting
small crosslines at critical locations to see if the resolved wavefronts are indeed
normal to the profileor if a crosscomponentexists.While outsidethe scopeof the
presentpaper, solutionof three-dimensionalproblemsby wavefrontand other meth-
odsis possible.It is important to know, first of all, if this problemis serious.
Admittedly,thesefault planedata are difficultto recordandpick sincethey must
be secondaryevents.However,they are not sorare as might be supposed and,when
they do show up, shouldbe recognizedfor what they are and used as much as
possiblein the interpretation. Model studiesof an area based on the known or ex-
pected geologywill often reveal the possibilityof observingrather unusualwaves
which couldfurnishthe key to the properinterpretationof difficult or complex
structures.Thesemodel studiescan readily be carriedout on paper and yield sec-
tionsandt-x curvessimilarto Figure14a. Oncethe seismologistrecognizesarriving
wavesfor what they are, variouscombinations
of differenteventsmay then suggest
themselvesfor usein interpretation.
SELECTION OF OVERBURDEN VELOCITIES
In order to approachthe precisionin interpretation of refraction data which is

theoreticallypossible,one must pay carefulattention to the selectionof overburden
velocities.
Five principalsourcesexistfor overburdenvelocitydata'
(1) Well surveys--conventional
andcontinuous
velocitylogs.
(2) Refraction arrivals
(3) Diffractions
(4) Wide-anglereflections
(5) Reflectionvelocity profiles
Well surveys
Well velocitysurveys,in particular calibratedCVL or Soniclogs,provideus the
mostprecisevelocitydeterminations, butthesemaynotnecessarily beidealfor refrac-
tionwork.The typicalrefractionpath is obliquewhereasmostwellsurveysare normal
to the bedding.For this reason,the refractionpath overburdenvelocityis invariably
fasterthan the short-spreadreflection-overburden path velocityto the samehorizon.
In order to simplify the velocity "picture," we naturally attempt to averagethe
velocities to given horizonsor at least to arrive at the fewest number of "discrete"
layersconsistentwith the data. This often workswell for reflectionsinceraypath
0 Thesecrosslines
shouldbe from exactly the sameSPsas usedfor in-line data.
curvatureis slightto nonexistent for normalincidentreflectionrays. The refracted

ray, however,leavesa givenhorizonat an angle,ic, whichmay be very largefor
smallvelocitycontrastsand is rarelylessthan 20 degrees. The effectiveoverburden
velocityoverthisobliquepathin anybut a perfectlyisotropichomogeneous medium
is slightlyto markedlyhigherthanverticalvelocityto the samedepth.
If an overburdensectionconsistedof 5,000 ft of 6,000 ft/sec material and 5,000
ft of 10,000ft/sec material, we wouldbe apt to recorda refractedevent from the
10,000ft/sec layer and to treat the overburdenfor interpretinga deeperrefractorof,
say, 15,000ft/sec, as two distinctlayers.
However, if the samematerial were distributedas five l000-ft thick layers of
6,000ft/secrockinterleaved with five 1,000-ftthicklayersof 10,000-ft/secrock,we
wouldprobablyusethe "overall"averageverticalvelocityof about7,500ft/sec in
computingthe depthto the 15,000ft/sec layer. We wouldbe in errorby approxi-
mately2 percentin the depthof and 14 percentin the offsetof the refractingpoint.
Theseerrorswouldincreasewith decreasingrefractorvelocity (i.e., increasingic).
In Figure15, the fastestpath from R to S is, of course,the refractedpath.If the
sectionis divided into thinner and thinner layers which may well be isotropicper se,
the appearance of anisotropy,or a highervelocityalongmoreslantingpaths,will
result.The zig-zagpath from R to S is a fair approximationof a straightpath, but
the time is .020 secfaster than for the equivalent straight path RS.
Whether this differencecan be tolerateddependson the problemto be solved.In a
reconnaissancesurvey,a depth error of two percentis, of course,unimportant.An
attemptto locatean offsetwellsiteat a higherstructurallevel,usinghalf-refraction
andaplanaticsolutions couldnot toleratea 200-fterrorin 10,000ft, especially
since
it wouldalwaysbe towardsthe high side.The offseterror wouldagainnot be im-
portantunlessthe problemwereto locatea fault crossing or pinch-outprecisely--
then it could be.
Figures2b and 2c showa few dottedwavefrontscorresponding
to the useof an
averageF insteadof the closestpossibleapproximation
of an actualwavefront.
These track well with the true wavefronts near the bottoms of wavefronts but di-
vergeseriouslyfor very obliquerays.
It is a goodideato comparethe detailedwavefrontswith "modified-curved-path"
or averagevelocitywavefronts beforechoosing
to useoneoverthe otherin refraction
interpretation.
Generally,the difference
will benegligible
or unimportantwherethe
ratio of refractorto overburdenvelocityislarge(i.e., i is small)andratherimportant
wherethere is strongacceleration in the overburdenvelocityand large i, (small
contrastsin terminal overburdenvelocity and the refractor velocity).
Problemsinvolvingthe useof very obliquetravel pathssuchasdefiningsalt-dome
profiles(Figure7) and the interpretationof diffractions, or caseswherehorizontal
offsetsare critical, will usuallyrequirethe mostrealisticwavefrontconfigurations it
is possibleto reconstruct.
It will oftenproveusefulto shootwellsat varyingdepthsand offsetsin orderto
constructdirectly the overburden-wavefront patterns,if existenceof falseor true
anisotropy is importantto an interpretation.Lackingthis directlyobservedwave-
front, carefulreconstruction of detailedmultilayer wavefrontsfrom vertical well
TRUE TOTAL DELAY TIME

1.137
I--' OFFSET6600' + ---$ S
6,000s CALCULATION
OFDEPTHPOINT
..........
/f/ / , /?/ 7500's TIME =1.600 //
0
COS
SIN-I
/-I.l.t
x
tVV 7500=9820
////X
7 ' ' TIME- 640
-0'-I./'
I
./
I0,000DEPTH
ERROR
=180'=
ERROR
2'/.
INOFFSET
//
= 920'=14%
// / / ./
,ooo /7' I -
o.ooo // / ,.s,.o=)='V
//
..'
/ /
,'!7 .....
.......//Z ....... . ----.
F....
o
o
5000'
'' ," / / I
_SJ /' /' ./ / I
,o _, ,",C, Z-
o
,000 o
6v /. ,c..... ,ooo, / .... I

i:"' /H
,
ii / ,/,//
/
-X.
>.
z--x i
o,ooo'
R R
Fro. 15. Demonstration of effect of using average overburdenvelocity instead of smaller

interval velocitiesand refractedraypath.
data, which can subsequentlybe smoothed out for field use, is the best procedure.
(For delay-time methods, the equivalent procedureis to calculate layer by layer
delay-time versusdepth curves to use instead of time-depth curves or carry out a
microintegration of CVL's for variously slanted raypaths in order to construct true
overburdenwavefront charts from the integrated offsetand depth increments.)
Refractionarrivals
Refraction arrivals, since their path is largely horizontal, have the seriousdis-
advantage for overburden-velocitydeterminations of selective travel along the
higher speedbeds. Also, velocity inversionsdo not show on the first-arrival curves
but do contribute delay time which is misinterpreted as excessdepth to the next
lower refractor. Where velocities increase,the penetration of the overburden ray-
paths is not sufficientto samplethe entire overburdenvelocity field before the bow
waves from the higher velocity refractor or refractors take over as first arrivals.
For this reason, overburden functions should be computed on off-structure lines
where a deeperpenetration is possible.Even then, they will be incorrectwhen used
on structure. Figure 8 showsthe maximum depth of penetration for the last pickable
overburdenarrival (at xa) for a linear-with-depthvelocity field. The analogouscase
for discretevelocity layering is the so-called "hidden-layer" case where a deeper

refractor is too thin for its depth to show as a first arrival on the t-x curve. There is
a certain tendencyfor compensationin these"high-speedbed selectivity" and "lack
of penetration" aspectsof overburden refraction arrivals so that gross errors in
depth are not usual.A carefulconsiderationof regionalstratigraphy,well logs (even
if not CVL logs),and well surveyswill help the interpreterto avoid seriousmistakes
from a too literal relianceon refraction overburdent-x curvesfor velocity purposes.
Di.17ractions
Diffractions serve more to check overburden velocities than to furnish them. If the
overburden function in use is correct, diffractions of good quality will often con-
verge on a point sourcewhen interpreted by the wavefront method. If the source
can be localized,throughother means(well data, for example),or if shot-enddelay
time and the proper horizontal traveltime can be removed from total observeddif-
fraction times, then the residualtimes constitutethe same type of data as a velocity
profile and an x2-t2plot shouldyield averagevelocity and depth. This may require a
successive approximationapproach.
Wide anglereflections
Wide angle reflections,if observed,can often furnish a grossestimate of average
overburdenvelocity. It is sometimespossible,usingdata from severalshotpoints,to
determine quite closely the traveltime of the critical ray, to, where the wide-angle
reflectionbegins(seeFigure 1 and 16) and its distancexc. At this point, the reflec-
tion and refraction t-x curves are tangent. These data, togetherwith the intercept
time, to,permit an averagevelocityto the refractorto be computedwhichis probably
more accurate than can be obtained from refraction data alone. The formula is
simpleand similar in form to the velocity profile formula:
' Xc2 t -- t' to
Figure 16 showshow x, and t, may be located.In caseswhereoverburdenarrivals

attenuate rapidly due to presenceof thin-beddedhigh-speedlayers (which are
preciselythe caseswhereoverburdenrefractionarrivalsare hardestto usefor veloc-
ity), the wide-anglereflectioncan be identifiedby its lack of parallelismwith first-
arrival refractions from the same massive refractor when the same spread is shot
from more distant shotpoints.The point whereparallelismbeginsor ends,xc,usually
can be determined closely.
Velocity profiles
Velocity profiles or expandingreflection spreadsare excellent sourcesof over-
burden data for refraction use when reflections can be obtained in the area. Besides
providingoverburdenvelocity data, they often assistin identifying refractorsand
checkingtrue horizontal refractor velocity values by providing independent dip
information, as was discussedabove under "Combined Reflection-Refraction Inter-
- =ll-Xc?'-
V c;_tc.
to
PARALLEL
PHANTOM
to REFLECTION
Xc
SHOT POINT SHOT POINT
B A
Fro. 16. Determination of averageoverburdenvelocity usingwide-anglereflection.
pretations." As sourcesof overburdenvelocity information for refraction use, they

are possiblysuperiorin reliability to well-velocitydata. Careful multilayer interpre-
tation must be usedin their analysisexceptin the simplestcases,otherwisetoo high
a velocity will result due to uncorrectedraypath curvature or the ray-refraction
effect. They could provide a closerapproximation to obliquevelocitiesthan do well
data since,for long offsets,part of the path usedin the calculationsis oblique and
more nearly approximatesrefraction travel paths.
Mr. Frederick Schenck elsewherein this volume gives a simple useful set of
criteria for testingthe correctnessof overburdenvelocity assumptionsby examining
the behaviorof two one-wayinterpretationsof reverseddata.
SUMMARY
The aim of this paper has beento presentwavefront methodsin sufficientdetail to

familiarize the reader with their great potential utility, versatility, and practicality.
All of the constructionsshown can be carried out with a simple compass,pair of
triangles,and sectionpaper. A simple slide rule is alsousefulbut not indispensable.
For certain applications,a light-table is also useful, but again,not a "must," and
French and ships'curvesare handy for drawing loci and curved interfaces.
While some of the figures appear complicated, they really involve the repetition
of the simplestof constructions--drawingcirclesand tangents to circles.In actual
practice, a great deal lessconstructionis required than is shownon the figures,since
it is only the intersecting portions of the wavefront systems that are needed to
establish loci and only the tangential segmentsor specificportions of the possible
loci are neededto establishthe refractor position.
A reviewof the various,methods describedshowsthat all have certainelementsin
common.However, the basicpoint is that a measuredtraveltimeor differencein travel-
time is distributedbetweentwo wavefrontsystemsby meansof determiningtheintersec-
tion pointsof thesystemstotalingthegiventime.
The systemsmay be directedor radiating and may involve the same or different
velocity fields,but there are nearly always two and never more than two systems,
one centeredaround an actual (or fictitioussource)and the other arounda receiver,
or receivers(or a fictitious line of receiversin the form of wavefront arrival times at
positionsalonga knownsurfaceor interface).
While our aim hasbeento instruct in the useof thesewavefront techniques,more
than to attempt a formal classification of them, it appearsthat, viewedin this light,
they do fall naturally into a generaland logical system.This system,which we may
call the General Wavefront Method, is summarizedin Plate I and may assistthe
reader in recalling the essentialpoints and areas of application of each separate
technique.
It may be of more than academicinterest to note that the various end results
achievedby the methodsare curvesof familiar types--points,lines,circles,ellipses,
parabolas,hyperbolas;theseare summarizeddiagrammaticallyon Plate I.
Any problemwhich would requirethe useof more than two wavefront systems,or
of two velocitymedia,is first reducedto the simplercasebeforea solutionis possible.
These multilayer problemsare easily handledby drawing the wavefront systemsin
the first layer to intersection with the first interface, (which must be known or
previouslyestablished),
thento intersection
with the next established
interface,and
so on, until the conditionthat all remainingtraveltime can be divided betweenonly
two wavefront systemsis fulfilled. The analogybetween"layer stripping" or reduc-
tion of wavefronts to a lower interface and establishingof a take-off-point,T.O.P.,
lies in the fact that both are to reducethe problem to its simplestelementsinvolv-
ing traveltimes expressableby only two wavefront systems.
The flexibility offered by the ability to combinefreely any or all of these tech-
niquesin handling a singleinterpretation problemis truly remarkable and will be
appreciatedby thosewho have tried to handlenonstandard,nontextbookfield data
by many of the other refractionmethods.The essenceof this flexibility is the fact
that all the pointson the depth sectionare locatedin bothtimeand spacemakingit
possibleto changesmoothlyfrom one techniqueto another as the conditionsor
type of data require.
REFERENCES
Ansel, E. A., !930, Das Impulsfeld der praktischenSeismik in graphischerBehandlung:Gerlands

Erganzungshefteftir angewandteGeophysik,v. 1, p. 117-136.
Baumgarte,J., 1955, Konstruktive Darstellungyon seismischenHorizonten unter Berticksichtigung
der Strahlenbrechung im Raum: Geophys.Prosp.,v. 3, p. 126-162.
Dix, C. H., 1952,Seismicprospecting for oil: New York, Harper, p. 260-265 et seq.
Gardner, L. W., 1949, Seismograph determinationof salt domeboundaryusingwell detectordeep on
domeflank: Geophysics,v. 14, p. 29-38.
Hagedoorn,J. G., 1959, The plus-minusmethodof interpretingseismicrefractionsections:Geophys.
Prosp.,v. 7, p. 158-182.
!954, A process of seismicreflectioninterpretation:Geophys.Prosp.,v. 2, p. 85-127.
Hales, F. W., 1958, An accurategraphicalmethodfor interpretingseismicrefractionlines: Geophys.
Prosp., v. 6, p. 285-294.
Heiland, C. A., 1940,Geophysicalexploration,New York, Prentice-Hall,p. 548-549.
Nettleton,L. L., 1940,Geophysical prospecting for oil: New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 297.
Rockwell, D. W., 1958, Techniquesemployedin a refractionsurvey of the northeastportion of the
Golden Lane: CongresoGeologicoInternational, XX Sesi6n,SeccionIX, v. 2, p. 261-283.
Schenck,FrederickL., 1967,Refractionsolutionsand wavefronttargeting:This volume,p. 416-425.
Thornburgh,H. R., 1930, Wavefront diagramsin seismicinterpretation:Bull. A.A.P.G., v. 14, p. 185-
200.
o
o
o
REFRACTION SOLUTIONS AND WAVEFRONT TARGETING
FREDERICK L. SCHENCK*
ABSTRACT
Emergentwavefrontscan be developedfrom traveltimedata when the velocityis knownby applying

Huygens'principle in reverse.Targeting betweencomplementarywavefrontsprovidesa solutionto a
reversedprofilethat is independentof the refractorvelocity.The agreementbetweentwo one-waysolu-
tionsimposedthereonprovescorrectness. Reversedrefractionprofilingis the only geophysical
method
affordingan interpretationwhichcanbe provedcorrecton the data alone.However,applicationof this
fact is limited by recordingconditionsand velocitycomplexities.
INTRODUCTION
This article illustrateshow two principlesof refractioninterpretation are applied

to recordeddata for achieving a solution which is demonstratedto be correct. This
solution is best achieved with wavefront methods, and we describe at the same
time a labor-savingtechniqueknown as wavefront targeting.
We are concernedwith reversedrefraction profiles, and, for brevity and for
eliminatingextraneousmaterial which would tend to obscurethe main issues,we
restrict this article to two-dimensionalsolutionsof singlerefractinglayersinvolving
isotropicvelocity conditions.In actual practice the principlesand the technique
describedherein are readily applied to multilayer problemsand to curved travel
path or anisotropicvelocity conditions.
THORNBURGH'S METHOD
Thornburgh (1930) became the father of wavefront methodswhen he showed

that emergentwavefrontscouldbe constructedfrom arrival time data at geophones
by applying Huygens' principle in reverse.He also illustrated a principle for re-
versedrefraction profiles:Emergent wavefrontsfor oppositedirectionsof energy
travel intersect on or slightly beneath the refracting interface when the sum of their
times is equal to the end-to-endtime of energy travel.
The top of Figure 1 showsa wavefront diagram of the central portion of a
reversedprofile where the refraction data for the two oppositedirectionsof energy
travel overlap. The total traveltime for this problem between the shotpointsat each
end of the profile (not shown) is 7.000 sec. Thus, in accord with Thornburgh's
principle,refracted wavefrontsfor oppositedirectionsof energytravel intersecton
or, when extrapolated,would intersectjust below the refractinginterfacewhen their
times total 7.000 sec.Such pairs of wavefrontsare said to be "complementary."
The top of Figure 1 illustrates the processof constructingwavefrontsby applying
Huygens' principle in reversefor the emergentwavefront oenergyfrom the right
shotpoint 3.500 sec after detonation. The distance at any given time between a
Presentedbeforethe PetroleumExplorationSocietyof Libya, Tripoli, Libya, March 15, 1961.
* Diablo, California.
415
4.500
00'
4.000
Wavefront Targeting

>"
../.o o
// #ii
417
geophoneand a wavefront is equal to the product of the overburdenvelocity multi-

plied by the differencebetween the geophonetime and the wavefront time. A circle
centeredat the geophonewith a radius equal to that distanceis tangent to the wave-
front. Then the wavefront is the smoothcurve tangent to the family of locator arcs,
one for each geophone.In wavefront work we extrapolate the emergentwavefronts
beneath the refractor or above the surfaceof the ground with impunity.
COMPLEMENTARY TARGETING
Thornburgh visualized his solution as showing a complete wavefront diagram

as at the top of Figure 1. This is laborious,and complementarytargeting was de-
signed to eliminate this labor.
A wavefront target, shown in Figure 2, is a wavefront diagram drawn with equal
/XT time increments on a transparent plastic sheet. A small hole is punched in the
center to accommodatea sharp pencil point. If a circle is properly tangent to both
wavefrontsof a complementarypair, the center of the circle is on a point definedby
Thornburgh's principle, for an equal traveltime is subtracted from one wavefront
FI(. 2. Wavefront target for isotropicvelocity function. Distance betweencirclesis 50 m

on scale ocross section.
Wavefront Targeting 41g
and added to the other. Thus, the centersof the circlesat the bottom of Figure 1,
representingthe fourteenth and eighteenthtarget circles,determinepoints defined
by Thornburgh's principle. The centersof a whole seriesof such circles gives the
complementarysolution.
The target is maneuveredsothat eachsuccessive circleis properlytangentto both
wavefronts, and the location of the center of the target is marked on the cross
sectioneachtime. The resultis a seriesof pointsspacedat equal traveltime intervals
alongthe refractinginterface.The processis both rapid and accurate.The comple-
mentary targeting solutiongivesan approximatepicture of the local relief on the
refractor. The complementarysolutionis independentof the refractor velocity: No
refractor velocity evaluation is required for achieving the solution.
REFRACTOR VELOCITIES
The top of Figure 1 shows that three different velocity zones make up the re-
fractor. These zonesare recognizedin the complementarytargeting solution at the
bottom of Figure 1 by the spacingof the targeted points at equal time intervals.
Simple algebra,applied to time and distancemeasurementsalong the shortestend-
to-end travel path (the minimum trajectory), determinesthe boundariesof the
velocity zonesand the velocitieswhich obtain.
THE COMPLEMENTARY PRINCIPLE
Now can be stated the first principlementionedin the introductionof this paper'
The refractorvelocityvalues,determinedfrom time and distancemeasurements alongthe
minimum trajectoryof the complementary solution,are always correctregardlessof
erroneous valuesusedfor the overburdenvelocity.This important statement is readily
verified from complementary solutions achieved by deliberately applying incor-
rect overburden velocities.
The principle can be deducedby simplelogic. For example,if we selectan over-
burden velocity that is too slow, the two complementary wavefronts will be shifted
away from their respectiveshotpoints.This resultsin the complementarysolution
being stretchedout proportionately to the velocity error. The AT of the target is
alsoincreasedin like proportion, and the number of AT intervals along the minimum
trajectory is unchanged.Similarly, if the overburdenvelocity is too fast, the wave-
fronts will be shifted toward their shotpoints,and the minimum trajectory of the
complementarysolution will be compressedin proportion to the velocity error.
Since the AT of the target also is proportionately decreased,the velocity measure-
ment along the minimum trajectory is constant.
In casesinvolving severe relief, erroneousrefractor-velocity determinations can
be made through incorrect interpretation of the route of the minimum trajectory
on the complementarysolution. Fortunately, as will presently be seen,such errors
are readily detectedand corrected.
The complementarysolutionis erroneouswhen achievedby using an incorrect
overburdenvelocity. The criteria and a method for establishingthe correct over-
burden velocity will now be developed.
ONE-WAY TARGETING
After the refractor-velocity scheme is determined from the complementary

solution,we impose the wavefront diagram within the refractor upon the comple-
mentary solution. This is shownat the top of Figure 3. The time interval between
successive wavefrontsis equal to the time interval of the target. The complementary
wavefrontsare normal to the minimum trajectory, and they are mutually tangent
alongthe minimum trajectory. For the problemillustrated, the minimum trajectory
is alongstraight lineAB and along the refracting interface to the left of A and to the
right of B. The numbers on the refractor wavefronts correspond to the target
circles. For the anticlinal portion of the refractor above AB, the wavefronts for
energytraveling from the left are circulararcscenteredat A. Similarly, wavefronts
for energy traveling from the right are circular arcs centered at B.
When a target circleis properly tangent to the overburdenwavefront and when
the target center is on the correspondingrefractor wavefront, the center of the
target marks a point on the refracting interface. Thus, at the bottom of Figure 3,
when the eleventh target circle is tangent to the emergent wavefront for energy
from the left at M and when the center of the target is at N on the eleventh refractor
wavefront, the black dot at N is a point on the refractinginterface. When the target
is shifted slightly to the right so that the eleventh target circle is tangent to the
emergent wavefront for energy from the right at P and so that the center of the
target circle is on the eleventh refractor wavefront for energy from the right at Q,
the white dot at Q is a point on the refracting interface.
By repeating this processfor each target circle, the data give two separate,one-
way solutions.This is shown at the bottom of Figure 3, where the black dots are
target points for energy traveling from the left, the white dots for energyfrom the
right. This processis called one-way targeting.
The simplicity of the one-way targeting techniqueis somewhatobscuredby the
massof detail at the bottom of Figure 3. Figure 4 separatesthe two solutions,one
for each direction of energy travel, to achieve clarity of explanation. The top dia-
gram in Figure 4 shows the solution achieved on energy traveling from the left
shotpoint toward the right acrossthe spread. The time intervals between wave-
fronts comprising the wavefront system within the refractor are equal to the
of the target. Sincewavefrontsare continuousin spaceand in time, the intersection
of the refractor wavefront and the emergent overburden wavefront, both con-
structedfor the same traveltime, locatesa point on the refracting interface. Thus,
point J is on the refractinginterface,for it is at the intersectionof the refractorand
overburden wavefronts drawn for a time 3.500 sec after detonation at the left
shotpoint. Similarly, when the center of the target is at H on the fifth refractor
wavefront, the fifth target circle(representedon the diagramby an arc) is tangent
to the overburdenwavefront at G. Point H is then on the refracting interface,for
the traveltime from F to C within the refractor is equal to the traveltime from H to
G within the overburden.
This processis valid when the overburdenwavefront falls in an imaginaryposi-
tion within the refractor. For example,when the centerof the target is on the tenth
refractorwavefrontat D, the tenth target circle(representedby an arc) is tangent
WavefrontTargeting
421
xxx
.oo
FIG. 4. Details of one-waytargetingtechniqueshowinghow targetingagreeswith travel paths of

energy.Above:One-waytargetingsolutionon energytravelingfrom left to right. Below:One-waysolu-
tion on energy traveling from right to left.
to the overburdenwavefront at E. Point D is then on the refracting interface, for

the traveltime within the refractor along route CD is equal to the traveltime at the
overburden velocity along the route ED.
Figure 4 indicatesthe target positionsfor every fifth target circle. In practice, a
targeted point is determined by each target circle. One-way targeting not only
establishespoints along the refracting interface, but it also establishesthe travel
paths of the energy,as indicatedon the diagram.
The lower diagram of Figure 4 illustrates in a similar fashion the processof one-
way targetingon energyfrom the right shotpointrecordedas it traveled from the
right to the left. In actual practice the two one-waysolutionsare not separated,as
in Figure 4, but they are imposedon top of eachother and upon the complementary
targetingsolution,as at the bottom of Figure 3. To avoid confusion,different colors
shouldbe usedfor the three superimposedsolutions.
One-way targeting correctlyestablishesthosepoints wherethe angle of refraction
is not the critical angle, suchas points along the anticline in the illustrative problem.
Thus, one-way targeting eliminates the error in the complementarysolution when
the refracting interface lies above the minimum trajectory. The one-way targeting
techniquecan delineate correctly the severeststructural relief. It accomplishesthe
same results as the more laborious aplanatic locus method.
THE COINCIDENCE PRINCIPLE
The secondprinciple mentionedin the introduction to this paper involves the

matching of the two solutionsachieved by one-way targeting on the wavefrontsfor
423
Wavefront Targeting
SHIFT AWAY FROM SHOT

ROTATION AWAY FROM SHOT
V; TOO SLOW
Vz TOO SLOW
/
/
SHIFT TOWARDSHOT ROTATION

TOWARD
SHOT
Vl TOO FAST
Vz TOO FAST
FIO.5.Criteria
fordiagnosing
velocity
errors
frommismatch
ofthetwoone-way
solutions.
eachof thetwodirections
of energytravel'If correct
velocity
values
areused,the
twoone-way
solutions
coincide,
andthisproves
thecorrectness
ofthesolution.
Con-
versely,
if anincorrect
velocity
isused,
thetwoone-way
solutions
willnotcoincide,
and error is established.
Figure
5sketches
thecriteria
fordiagnosing
velocity
error
asestablished
byfailure
ofthetwoone-waysolutions
to coincide.
Refractor
velocity
errorcauses
thetwo
minimumtrajectories
torotateoutofcoincidence.
Overburden
velocity
errorcauses
thetwosolutions
to shiftlaterallyoutof coincidence.
Thedirection
of rotationor
shiftindicatesthe natureof the error,as shownin Figure5.
CORRECTING VELOCITY ERRORS
Whenanerroneous
refractor
velocity
is used,theminimum
trajectories
of the
twoone-way
solutions
arerotated
awayfromeach
otherassketched
ontheleftof
Figure
6.Letebethevertical
angle
included
between
thetwominimumtrajectories,
andletthesense
ofebenegative
when
therefractor
velocity
V.'used
insolving
the
-- GEOPHONE
ARRAY
i'= sm-, v;/v V:FAP

v, = L'+BP]
v;
sin
Fro.6.Left:Diagram
illustrating
formula
fordetermining
thecorrect
refractor
velocity
fromtwo
rotated
one-waysolutions.
Inpractice,
notravel
path
construction
isrequired,
andonly
angle
eneedbe
measured.
Byconvention,
eisillustrated
here
asanegative
number.
Right:
Construction
fordetermining
thecorrect
overburden
velocityfromtwoshiftedone-way
solutions.
problemis too low. Let V' be the overburdenvelocityusedin solvingthe problem.

Then the incorrectcriticalangleimpliedby the velocitiesusedis i'- sin- (V'/V2').
By applicationof Snell'slaw, the correctrefractorvelocity is
V t
sin (i t + e/2)
This equationis correctevenwhenthe value of Vx' is incorrect.

Correctingthe overburdenvelocityis somewhatmore complicatedthan correcting
the refractor velocity. It is best accomplishedby geometricalconstruction.Figure 6
showsnoncoincidentsegmentsof the two one-way solutions.The segmentthrough
P' was determinedby one-way targeting on energy from the left shotpoint,Pt t
from the right. We estimatethat P' and P" both representunknownpoint P on the
correct solution. We will determine the position of P and the correct overburden
velocity.
Construct the travel paths from P' and P" to the surfaceto determinepoints
A and B, respectively.ThroughpointsA and B draw linesAC and BD, both parallel
to the minimum trajectory in the regionin question.The circulararc throughA and
P' centeredon line A C is the locuso P' for all possibleoverburdenvelocities.Sim-
ilarly, the circulararc throughB and Pt t centeredon BD is the locusof Pt t for all
velocities.SinceP' and P" both representthe samepoint P, P is at the intersection
of the two arcs.
Let Vx be the correct overburdenvelocity and V' the erroneousvelocity used
in obtainingthe two noncoincidentsolutions.Then it is seenthat
This equationexpresses an averageof two values,and it tendsto removethe com-

pensatingerrorsinvolvedin estimatingthat P' and P" actually representthe same
point.
When velocity error is diagnosedand the correctvelocitiesdetermined,necessary
portions of the problem are reworked to achieve coincidenceof the two one-way
solutions.We then have an interpretation which has been proved to be correct.
CONCLUSIONS
The complementarysolution of a reversedrefraction profile in the zone of over-

lapping two-way data establishesthe correct refractor velocity. Coincidenceof the
two one-way solutionsestablishesthe overburden velocity and the correctnessof
the solution. Reversedrefraction profiling is the only geophysicalmethod with the
practicablepotential of achievinga solution which can be proved to be correct
(in two dimensions)on the data alone.
Not infrequently, poor records,the complexityof layering and velocity conditions
in the overburden,and migrationsin the third dimensionmake preciseresolutionof
the refraction profile impossible.But in such casesnoncoincidenceof the two one-
way solutionsshowsus where the error is.
Wavefront Targeting 425
Neitherone-waydata nor combinedtwo-waymethodsof interpretationprovide

the meansof achievinga definitivesolution.Bothshouldbe avoided.Profilesshould
beoverlapped to gaintwo-waycoverage alongthezonesof one-waydataat theends
of each profile.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Appreciation isexpressedto theRay Geophysical

Divisionof MandrelIndustries,
Inc., for permission
to disclosethe complementary
and coincidence
principles
and
the targeting technique.
REFERENCE
Thornburgh,
H. R., 1930,Wavefrontdiagrams
in seismic
interpretation:
Bull. A.A.P.G.,v. 14,p. 185-
200.
OUTLINING OF SALT AND SHALE MASSES
BY REFRACTION METHODS
A. W. MUSGRAVE*, W.C. WOOLLEY*,

AN) HELEN GRAY*
ABSTRACT
Surface-to-surfacerefractionlinesdefinethe top of a shallowdomalmasspreviouslylocatedby reflec-

tion methods.A normal line off the flank is neededfor comparison.If salt is identified,a map is made
from the results of a number of refraction lines radiating from the center of the dome. The increased
accuracyof this systemis primarily dependentupon the accuratedeterminationof velocitiesand dis-
tances.
Flank wells are used for further refraction shootingwhich yield more accuratevelocity information
and more detailedprofilesof the domalmass.A map from this integratedinformationpermitsexploita-
tion at a minimum risk, even thoughevery locationis essentiallya wildcat.
INTRODUCTION
Earlier papers by McCollurn and LaRue (1931) and Gardner (1949) have de-
scribed various methods for delineating salt domes. The method described here
utilizes many of the ideas developedin those papers as well as new techniquesto
give an integratedmappingprogram.The salt and shalemassesusedare hypothetical
examples encompassingmany of the special features that the authors have en-
counteredwhile interpreting numerousanomalousfeatures. The examplesinclude
specialproblemsinherent to water-coveredareas.
This paper developsmethodsfor mapping massesconsistingof five steps,three in
phaseone, and two in phasetwo. The massesmay be definedas high or low velocity
material existingat an angle with the normal depositionalsection.
In phaseone, called the Exploration Phase,the first step is to locate domal masses
by reconnaissance reflection shooting. The secondstep is to shoot two refraction
lines to determinethe depth to, and the location of, the top of the massif it is salt. In
the third step, longer and more detailed surface-to-surfacerefraction lines are shot,
and locationsfor at least three flank wells are made on the map drawn from these
profiles.
In phasetwo, called the Development Phase,the first step is to shootsalt proxim-
ity profiles to determine the distance between the flank wells and the salt-sediment
interface if salt is present.For the secondstep, profilesof the sideoppositethe flank
well are obtained which give more detail and yield greater depth control where the
anomalousmassis salt. Where salt-shalemassesare present,flank wellsmay be used
to obtain someinformation about the amount of shale on the oppositeside of the
dome.If a flank well encountersshale,it may be deepenedto allow a locally detailed
outline of the shale.In the caseof the shalemassalone,deepperiferal wellsmay be of
An updatedcombinationof "Outliningof Salt Massesby RefractionMethods,"Musgrave,Woolley,

Gray (1959)and an unpublishedreporton ShaleMasses,Musgrave(1963).
* Mobil Oil Corporation,Dallas, Texas.
426
Outlining of Salt and Shale Masses 427
usein mappingthe shalemass.The amountof success

in this casedependson the size
of the massand the depth of the wells.
EXPLORATION
Reflection
Salt or shalemassesare originally located by reconnaissance
geophysicalmethods.
The reflectionseismicmethod is best for this purpose.Figure 1 showsthe massde-
noted by an absenceor cutout of reflections.Even though a detailed reflectionpro-
gram couldbe used,this negativeindicationwouldstill not be asaccurateasthe map
obtained from the refraction seismic method.
Fro. 1. Salt or shalecutout on reconnaissance

reflectionmap.
Refraction
In addition to good instrumentation and accurate time measurement,two other
quantitiesare necessaryfor domal massrefraction work. They are: (1) the distance
betweenthe shotand phoneand (2) the velocitiesof the massand the sedimentsout-
side the mass.
Distance
A high degreeof surveyingaccuracyis vital in refraction work. Offshorethis pre-

sentsspecialproblemswhich have been solvedby recordingand usingwater breaks
(Figure 2). Flat responseamplifiersare usedin recordingtwo gains.The high gain
.
o
o
o
o
showsfirsttroughpicksandthreefirstbreakpicks.The low gainshowsthe water

breaksforeachtrace.Separate
water-break phones usedat tracelocations2 and23
andopposite theradioantenna
ontheboatarerecorded ona high-passfilter.
Radiosurveying is usedduallyfor guidingthe boatsto the right locationsfor
shootingandrecording, andfor calibrating
the watervelocity.Distances are ob-
tainedby multiplyingthewater-breaktimesby thewatervelocity,whichis deter-
minedasfollows'Whenlinesarebeingshot,bothboatstake readings from a radio-
surveying
system
whichrecords
theposition
of eachshotpoint,
anda position
rela-
tive to eachcablelocation.The data from the radio-surveying
systemare converted
by anelectronic
computer intodistance
(Figure3). Water-break
timesarepicked
forallphones,
andthesetimesmultiplied
by 5,000ft/sec.Theradio-surveying
dis-
tances for eachphonearesubtracted fromthevaluesobtainedfromwaterbreaks.
Thesedifferences are plottedversustheir respective
radio-surveying
distances.A
sample isshownusinga scaleof1 unit=250ft forthedifferences
and1 unit= 10,000
ft for theradio-surveyingdistances.
Thewatervelocityisreadasthe50,000ft inter-
ceptofthedashed
linethrough theoriginandparallel
to thelinethrough
thedata.
(Theprobable
reasonthislinedoes
notpassthroughzeroisthatthereisa difference
in calibrationbetweenshootingand recordingboat meters.)Each unit equals25
ft/secwiththeverticallinebeing5,000ft/sec.Thus,thewatervelocity
in thiscaseis
4,975ft/sec.Watervelocityis determined for eachline.Thusdifferencesdueto
waveguide
effects
in shallowwaterarereduced.
WATER VELOCITY
DETERMINATION
OF WATER VELOCITY
W.B.T. W.B.T.x 5000 R.S.D. DIFE

1.016 5080 4945 +135
z
-'> 3.988 19940 19750 +190

:3
z
6.073 30365 30100 +265
<
I--o
8.061 40305 40015 +290
, 10.058 50290 49900 +390
<1:
=: TEMPERATURE 67 F
SAMPLE CALCULAT ION

1.016 x 5000=5080'
5080- 4945=+135'
DIFFERENCE
FIO.3. Plot of difference

of waterbreaktimex 5,000ft/secversusradiosurveying
distance
for deter-
mining
watervelocity.
(Watervelocity,
4,975ft/sec,isreadasthe50,000-ft
intercept
of thedashed
line
whichisparallelto thesolidlineandthrough
theorigin.)
If possible,periodic readingsof water temperature shouldbe taken during the

shooting.Approximate velocitiesmay be obtained from these temperatures,using
the tables in the Hydrographic Manual (Adams, 1942) and governmentsalinity
tables. In the Louisiana Gulf, a salinity of 35 parts per thousandis typical, except
near river outlets. The velocity values from the tables are used as an added check,
particularly when shootinghastaken placebeforeand after a storm. At thesetimes,
temperatures,and consequentlyvelocities,may vary markedly in a few hours.
Distances obtained by water-break times and water velocity are true radial dis-
tancesfrom chargeto phones.This method eliminatespossibleerrorsdue to drifting
of chargeor phonecable.
Velocity
The velocity of the salt is usuallyquite uniform and about 15,000ft/sec. However,
it has beenfound to vary as much as four percent from this value.
Shalemassvelocity varies with depth, age,and compactionbut is usuallybetween
6,500 and 8,500ft/sec and may be asshownin Figure 4.
Accurate control of sedimentaryvelocity is necessarysincevelocity varies with
depth and sincethere is usually a large ratio of sedimentary travel to domal mass
travel. A vertical wavefront chart may be calculated from (1), the best vertical
velocity information available in the area (well velocity survey or expandingreflec-
tion spread (Musgrave 1962), (2) a horizontal velocity survey as describedlater,
which may be fitted by a mathematicalrelationshipand extendedin depth,and (3)
a surface-to-surfacerefraction line, sometimescalled a normal line. Since the third
method can be shot at the time of the reconnaissancerefraction lines, it will be de-
scribedin somedetail (Figure 5).
A surface-to-surfacerefraction line, showneast of the dome, is shot in a regionof
normal sedimentarysectionin the area near the dome. A plot, Figure 6, is made of
first-break times versusdistance.For long lines, diagonalpaper (suchas shownbe-
tween the dashedlines in Figure 6) may be made in order to maintain plotting ac-
curacywithin a reasonablespace.As first breaksbecometoo weak to pick, first peaks
or troughsare used.This is justified on the basisthat the phasevelocity in the first
wavelet remainsnearly constant.Lines are drawn through this data with the slopes
changingwhere necessaryto obtain a best fit. A continuousfirst-breakline (solid
line) is derivedusingtheseslopes(Figure 7). This line shouldfit the first breaksas
well as possibleand shouldparallel the slopesof later events,thus being representa-
tive of the first breakshad they been obtained.
From this "break line," a set of constants(Figure 8) is derived describingthe
vertical velocity by use of the cycloidal raypath method (Musgrave, 1952). The
constantsinvolve an initial velocity, an acceleration,and a final velocity or depth
for eachlayer. On the velocity versusvertical-time plot, the instantaneousvelocity
is representedby straight-linesegments.The velocity in eachlayer may either vary
linearly with time or be constant.However, the average-velocitylines after the first
layer are slightly curved. With theseconstantsa wavefront chart is computedand
plotted by an electroniccomputer.Up to 40 layers can be usedin the programwhich
has beendevelopedfor the computer.The wavefront chart (Figure 9) will fit the ob-
INTERVAL VELOCITY-THOUSANDSOF fps

4 6 8 I0 12
I
, ( I = NORMAL
INTERBEDDED SHALE)
I
+-SHALE MASS
i i
i
4 i i
i
"
ml
m !
mm ,m
m!
I m m
n
IIIm m
miI
6
Z
,
mmmmmmmi
m'mm m !
, )mmmm
':' mm!
III iI!
I
8 II1II I I
m
m+'l
'11
I0 14'1III
FIG.4. A plotof shale-mass

velocity
versus
depthdeveloped
fromseveral
wellsin theGulfof Mexico.
servedlineat the surface.Althoughthisis not a uniquesolution,it shouldbe suffi-

cientlyaccurateandconforms to thebestinformationavailable.The constantsmay
beobtainedby trial anderrororiterativeprocedures by theuseof digitalcomputers.
A raypathis animaginary linewhichis normalto all wavefronts.
It isimportant
becauseit is, one,the basisof thistype of wavefrontchart,andtwo, necessary
for
surface-to-surface
refractionplotting.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
hj
o
0 Zo
0 /0
/ 0 _JO
oo oooooo <o
o / .. ;;o
-o-' ,o
o c) O
o Z o
. o o
o
o
o
o
o
,5ooo o

o
Fro. 5. Layout of surface-to-surfacenormal refraction line for

sedimentaryvelocity determination.
- .
-7.0 _,,- 2#o PEAK
-6.0 --"'
-4.0-? -'""''I .//

hi / :#0
TROUGH
J
-3.0 '' /'/
ISTPEAK
/
-2.0 /
IST
TRO
-I' '
/
16 20 24
I I i
DISTANCE
8
i
- K ILOFEET
3 I 3 4 44 4e
i I 2 56 C
i
Fro. 6. Time-distanceplot of normalline.

Outlining of Salt and Shale Masses

433
VELOCITY FT./SEC.
VELOCITY
5000 7000 9000 I 1000 13000 DEPTH CONSTANTS
0 0 -- ------- "-"
I I I I I I V-- 5250
A=5400
.5
z V=8272 %
o _
V=8272 A
_
-5000
i _ A = 3480
_
V=9838
. i.o _
V-8000
A=O
V- 8000
V=10150'/
- -I0000
_
:15 _
z
_
A=4200 ,
o - -15000
2.0 - -20000
Fro. 8. Determinationof velocityconstantsfor a four-layerproblem.(The time versusvelocityplot

yieldsstraightline segments for the instantaneous velocityand slightlycurvedlinesfor the average
velocityplot.) The instantaneous velocityat the top and bottom of eachlayer is givenalongwith the
acceleration(which is the slopeof the instantaneousvelocity).
Fro. 9. Showsthe correspondence

between the observedsurface-to-surface
refraction first breaks and the mathematical chart.
TVo
sinc[.o
= AX
sin 00AX
Vo AX AT:
Vo
s,nCo__S,n
o:,_sn
P: Vo v, - v.
AT
P= "X
&T= I000 p
V, 1 I
sin 24o50 '

EXAMPLE'
P= 5250 =.000080
AT = I000 x .000080 =.080
FIG. 10. Diagram definingthe raypath parameter,p, and stating the relationshipbetweenp, AX, zT,
and the emergentangle. For simplicity zX- 1,000 ft is normally used.
The angleof emergence(Figure 10) of the raypath is obtainedby solvingthe right

trianglefor sinea0. This in turn may be solvedfor AT by rearrangingthe equation.
The parameter p of the raypath is equivalent to the sineof the angledivided by the
instantaneousvelocity. Accordingto Snell'slaw, this is the samefor any layer. From
theserelations,p is the differencein time on a wavefront chart per unit of horizontal
distance.AT is normally usedwhereAX equals1,000ft. The raypathsshownin Figure
11 and points of equal time along each raypath are joined to form wavefronts.This
DISTANCE- KILOFEET
5 IO 15 20 25 :50 35
20
Fro. 11. Wavefront chart showingboth wavefrontsand raypaths--note the lossof the raypath whose
AT=0.100 by total reflectionat the velocity interface.
FIG. 12. Locationof two shortrefractionlineson reflectionmap (dark circles).
wavefront chart should represent all the information available on the sedimentary
velocity.
Reconnaissance
refraction
The next step in developing a picture of the anomalousmassis to shoot two sur-
face-to-surfacerefraction lines (Figure 12), crossingeachother at right angles.Their
intersectionshouldbe asnear the centerof the domeaspossiblefrom the information
available. The purposeof theselinesis to determine whether the domeis salt or shale
and to locate the center of the dome more accurately and to determine the approxi-
mate depth of the top of the dome. For this shooting,two boats are used.The re-
cordingboat tows a 2,000-ft long or longermultiphonefloating cable,while the shoot-
ing boat occupiesshotpoints(spacedfor the length of the cable) along the line of
survey.
The derived first-break lines are plotted (Figure 13) for the two refraction lines in
the same manner as the normal line describedearlier. For future crosssection plot-
ting, times are recordedfrom theselinesfor eachshotpointdistance.Also, times and
distancesare recordedfor changesof slopewhich occurbetweenshotpoints.If a sub-
stantial lead is establishedover the normal time (for example,if the time is short by
0.050 sec) then the dome is a salt dome.
Procedure
for mappinga saltdomebysurface-to-surface
refraction
The approximate depth to salt may be determined by the two-layer refraction
method as indicated in Figure 13. The dip may be determinedby the deviation of
./ To roY,
0.339x 5ooox_,5ooo
2 Vi5000_50002
9020
,/
/ /
Fro. 13.Diagonalplot of two shortrefractionlinesacross
the top of a saltdome.
theapparent
velocityfromthatof saltvelocity(approximately
15,000ft/sec),and
corrections
canbe madefor depthandpositioncorresponding to the amountof dip.
A preferable
method(Figure14) of determining thedepthto saltis by useof the
wavefrontchart, and the time and distanceto the salt break. One-halfthe time is
markedon a transparenttime-distance scalecalibratedat salt velocity.With the
striphorizontal,
thistimeis movedverticallydowna lineequalto one-halfthedis-
tanceto the salt break until a time match is obtainedbetweenthe strip and the wave-
frontchartat theproper/XT.The.depthto thesaltin thiscaseis 1,065ft.
With the depthto saltdetermined, andthe time versusdistancedata previously
recorded,verticalsections areplottedfor thefirsttworefractionlines.
A pieceof transparent paperthathasbeenblocked in 1,000-ftsquares at thescale
of the chart is set over the chart, and the startingpoint is set as describedabove.
Assuming that theprofilehasbeenplottedout to 6W (Figure15),thetime1.537sec
is observedfrom 6W to 6E. The average/XTat 6W is 0.149whichestablishes a pivot
pointonthewestshoulder
of thesaltwitha sedimentary
timeof 0.535.A saltstrip
issetwitha timeof 1.002at thispivotandthelocus
6W-6Eisplotted
fromtime
coincidencebetweenthe saltstripandthe wavefrontchartlocatedat 6E. The time
from6E to 8W is1.820sec(Figure16).The T at 6E is 0.096with a sedimentary
time
of0.530;therefore,
a timeof 1.290issetonthesaltstripat thepivotontheeastside.
The locus 6E-8W is then drawn as before with a wavefront chart at 8W. It can be
assumed at all timesthat an exit or entry point on the salt belowthe samesurface
locationremainsconstantaslongastheshotpointor receiverontheotherendis not
movedmorethan a shortdistance.If the cablelengthis toolongthencorrections can
I000
I
/2DISTANCE
TO
SALT
BREAK
DISTANCE-FEET
2000
I
:5000
I
I/2 TIME TO SALT BREAK
TIME = .528 + 2 -' .264
DISTANCE = 2835 + 2 = 1418

::c 2000'
3000'
.067 AT
4000'
Fro. 14. Preferredmethodfor determining

the depthto the topof the salt.(If thesaltis flat, thedepth
is 1,065ft; otherwise,the depthshouldbe adjustedfor dip.)
be calculatedfor the newentry point.All salt entry andexit pointsare plottedon

raypathsdeterminedby an averageof the two/XT'sadjoiningthat pointon that side
of the dome.If the AT's in one directionvary from thosein the other direction,
eitherthedomeis asymmetrical relativeto zerodistance,or thesedimentary velocity
varies from side to side.
The shapeof the salt on top of the domeis determinedfrom the two refraction
lines.If it is essentially
round(Figure17), radiallinesarelaid approximately every
20 to 30 degreesaroundthe centerof the dome.They extendin intervalsof cable
lengthfrom the centerto approximately30,000ft beyondthe edgeof the salt. De-
pendinguponthe depthandverticalconfiguration of the dome,the shootingboat
mightbe heldat any oneor morepointsalonga radiuswhilethe recordingboatis
movedalongthe opposite radius.If thesaltis quiteshallowandthe flankssloping,it
couldbe shotfrom a point held at the center,whilethe cablewasmovedalonga
radiusin cablelengthintervals.If the saltis relativelydeep,the shootingboat and
the recordingboat might start at oppositeendsof a diameterand movetowardseach
otherin cablelengthintervals,passand continueto the endsof the line. Each of the
nine diameters would be handled in the same manner.
For all nine lines,water velocitieswouldbe determinedas previouslydescribed,
andthe distances to eachphoneat eachcablepositionalonga line wouldbe plotted
on a diagonalplot versusits first break or later arrival. Slopeswould be drawn
throughthe data and a continuous first-breakline derivedfor eachline of shooting.
,,,I
/
/
I
/-
I'
/
/
/
/
Outlining
0
u,,I
d
I
I-
bJ
I
i.
0
,000

of Salt and Shale Masses
439
44O
bJ
//
//
//
//:
//
//
//
//
Wavefront
0
I--
LI.!
1:3
I.iJ
Methods
0
OCli
e' o o
o o o o
o o o
o o oo oo o o oo o o oo o oo oo oo o o ooo oo o
o o
o
o o
o o o o o
o
o o o o
o
o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o
o o
o o o o
fflo o
o v
0u 0 o
n "
o o
o o 0 -
o o o
o
o/ o o oo o, ..-,
o ooo o o o o oo
o o o O%o o o
t ooo c o o o
<zo o oooooo,oOO
o o o! ooooo o
'o
O\%o2 o
o
o -
oOOfo
oo o n
o u o oo o
o o o o
o 0 o o
o
o o o o o o o
o o o 0 o o o
o o o o
o o o o o,
o o o o o o
o o
o o o o o o
o o : o o o
o o
o o c o o o
0o o , o o_1
o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o o o o
n o o
o
_l
o
o
o
Times would then be read from eachfirst-breakline at equal distancescorresponding

to the nominal distancebetweenshotpoints.
Vertical sectionsare plotted aspreviouslydescribed.A generalshapemap (Figure
18) of the salt is made after an outline has been drawn on each vertical section
tangentto the vertical loci. From this contourmap of the salt, it is possibleto recom-
mend a minimum of three wildcat locationsfor drilling on different sidesof the dome
in an advantageouslocationfor geophysicaldevelopment.These are recommended
approximately1,000ft outsideof the salt at the level of the objectivehorizon.
Procedure
for mappinga shalemassbysurface-to-surface
refraction
The refraction seismicmethod of mapping shalemassesis similar to the technique
used for mapping salt domes. However, the mapping of shale massesdiffers very
greatly in onerespect'shalevelocityis lower than that of the surroundingsediments
while salt velocity is higher. An analogywhich might illustrate the point here is to
think of the salt as a conductivebody in an electrostaticexperiment where all the
current lines collectand go through the conductingbody, and to think of the shale
as a nonconductivebody in which the current lines spreadand go around it. It may
be apparentthat it is moredifficult to map a shalebody with refractionmethodsthan
to map a salt body.
In mappinga shalebody from the surface,only the upper limits may be mapped
unlessthe sidesare nearly vertical.
In an area where a large tabular body of shale is encountered,whosevertical
-- 15000'
VELOCITY LINE
Fro. 18.Map madefromsurface-to-surface

detailedrefractionlines(points
are taken from salt outlinesdrawn on the vertical profiles).
INTERVALVELOCITY-THOUSANDS
OF FEET/SECOND
5 6 7 8 9 I0
.2.
'i I I i
.4
.6
.8
.
. .__ .....
PLOT .OF INTERVAL VELOCITY

1.4 Vz= 7625 VS VERTICAL TIME
Az--O
[.6 -
2.0 '
Fro. 19. Plot of interval velocityversusverticaltime. Solidline

showsconstantsfor wavefront chart in Figure 20.
velocityis shownin Figure 19, it is impossibleto definethe shaleby refractionfrom

the surface.This is becausethe shalehaslow velocity and in goingfrom a high to a
low velocitythe raypath is refracteddownwardand lost. This is illustratedby ray-
paths 0.020 to 0.100 in Figure 20.
Not only is it impossibleto map the top of the shale, but the shale also shields
deeperhigh velocity refractorssuchas salt if they are not of sufficientextent. Refer-
ring to Figure 20, a salt dome at 9,000-ft depth would have to be more than 4,600 ft
wide in order to show as a first arrival. At 10,000 ft it would have to be more than
9,000 ft wide and at 11,000 ft it would have to be more than 13,400-ft wide to show.
Shale massescan only be mapped by refraction from the surfaceif they have
nearly vertical sides.In this casea lag will be observedinstead of a lead as shownfor
salt in Figure 13. However, it will be mappedin the samemanner as describedfor
the salt aboveexceptfor the shalebeinglow velocity.
This essentiallyendsthe geophysical explorationphaseof the work, and the pro-
gram now movesinto the geophysicaldevelopmentphase.
DEVELOPMENT
Velocity
As the A-! well is drilled, a continuousvelocity log is run to total depth before
eachcasingstringis set. If no shalemassis penetrated,a velocityline (Figure 18) is
DISTANCE-THOUSANDS OF FEET
I0 20 30 40 50 60
8.0
I
w6.0
4.0
2.0
4 ,ooo,
o
RAYPATHS/1000'
/
IN SEC.
IN SEC.
FIG. 20. Raypaths which do not return to the surfacebecauseof velocity

decrease shown on a calculated wavefront chart.
shot away from the dome at distancesof 1,000, 3,000, 5,000 ft and at 5,000 ft, inter-
vals thereafter out to 40,000 ft, at approximateright anglesto the strike of the salt.
Shots are recordedwith a phone at 1,000 ft intervals to total depth in the well from
each of the above distances. This processmay be greatly simplified with multi-
level phones.
A plot of timesversushorizontaldistance(Figure 21), determinedby water breaks,
is made for every level. The distancesto even 0.1 sec are read on each curve, and
thesedata are usedto constructan observedwavefrontchart (Figure 22).
If a shalemassis penetrated of sufficientmagnitude to yield a velocity appreciably
lower than expectedfrom the surroundingsediments,the velocity line may be used
to map the contact betweenthe low velocity shaleand the normal velocity section.
A wavefront chart such as shown in Figures 11 or 22 may be used for the sand-
shale section outside and a shale strip inside the shale mass in the same manner as
they are usedfor the mapping of salt domes.All of the loci of least time paths which
solve the time-distance relationship now occur inside of the shale mass.When all of
the loci have been drawn along the profile, a tangent to theseloci will approximate
the shapeof the shalemass.
Salt-proximity profiles
At the sametime that the velocity line is shot, two salt-proximitypoints (Figure
18) are shot into phonesevery 500 ft down the hole to total depth from locations
21. A total time versushorizontalistnce plot or the hoHzontM

velocitysurveytken rom the Hnk ell.
DISTANCE - KILOFEET
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
-4000
:8000
--
-,ooo
FiG.22. Observed
wavefrontchartconstructed
by joiningpointsof equaltimeasreadfromFigure21.
446
bJ
b
0
o
b
0
o
_..
Wavefront
b
0
o
Methods
.L3- H.La3Q
bj
i.-
I--0

,
C)
b
0
o
b

0
'
o

o
o
b
0
o
--
Outlining of Salt and Shale Masses 44?
near the top of the dome. One salt proximity or "S.P." point is at the center of the
surface-to-surface lines,and the other near the far shoulder.A tangent (Figure 23) is
drawn to the loci plotted from these data. This profile showsthe proximity of the
salt to the flank well in greater detail than any of the other shooting.Unlessthe well
was drilled into salt, the upper sedimentarytime and salt outline is usedfrom the
surface-to-surfacerefraction shooting.The loci (Figure 23) are obtained by pivoting
the salt strip about a pivot at the top of the salt and finding coincidenttimes on
specialwavefront charts which are made for eachlevel at which phonesare located.
The velocity layering is determined from the acousticlog and the shootingon the
15OOO' A-2'--
B
A-2-A
A-2-C'"""
VELOCITY LINE
A-2-H A-2-G A-2-.
FIG. 24. Locationof fan of refractionlinesto be shotinto A-2 well to profile

salt on oppositesidewith more detail and greater depth.
velocity line. Small wavefront charts are then calculated above and below each
phonelevel with an electroniccomputer.From the salt proximity profile an offset
bottom hole location, A-2, is recommendedwhich will explore the sedimentscloser
to the salt, in this caseunder the overhang.Salt will be enteredat a vertical depth
of about 11,000ft (Figure 26). It will penetrate about 1,500 ft of salt for usein shoot-
ing a fan of lines(Figure 24) acrossthe dome.
If a thin shale layer or shale sheath existsbetween the well and the salt it is diffi-
cult to detect. It can best be detectedif SP-! and SP-2 are widely separatedand the
shale can be traversed in two reasonablyseparateddirections. If the shale is not
detectedthe effectis to map a reducedamountof salt. This may give a falseamount
of salt overhang.
448
Wavefront Methods
Outlining a salt massby recordingin a deephole

The purposeof shootingsalt profilesis to obtain greater detail and depth control
on the side of the dome oppositethe flank survey well. A refraction record (Figure
25) showsthree phonesapproximately400 and 900 ft apart, respectively.These are
recordedon flat-responseamplifiersat two gain levels. A surfacephone is recordedat
the wellheadboth on a flat filter for refraction information and a high-passfilter for
water breaks. The water velocity is determined as before and usedfor distancecon-
trol. A time-distancediagonalplot is made for eachphonelevel on eachline for com-
parisonand to checkfor continuity, smoothness, and errors.A vertical section(Fig-
DISTANCE- KILOFEET
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
,. , , ' '
55 ,oo .
' ER
PE
I -I$00'
8.841
E-88
18800
'
Fro. 26. Methodfor obtaininglocion the far flankof the dome.(Final horizontalvelocitycontrolwould
be obtainedby blendingthe observedhorizontalvelocitysurveysinto the B-! and C-! wells,Figure29.)
ure 26) is plottedfor eachline, andan outlineof the saltis drawntangentto all loci.
A plot of the loci for the lower phone on line A-2-E is shown. The number on each
locusrefersto the approximate
shotpoint
distance
in thousands
of feet.Eachpar-
ticularlocus(Figure26) is obtainedby settingthe total time on the salt strip at a
pivot point whichis at the true vertical depth of the phoneand at a horizontalloca-
tion projectedinto the sectionfrom the directionallog. A wavefrontchart, repre-
sentativeof the sedimentaryvelocity in the directionof the line, is set at the exact
distanceof the shotpointandthe locusis drawnasbefore.Whentwo or morephones
are used,a verticalzXTmay be usedto determinethe vertical angleof approachof
the wavefrontin the salt. The loci and the verticalzXT'stogetherdeterminewhether
the velocitiesusedare reasonable.If a mathematicalwavefrontchart is used,hori-
zontal zXT'scan alsobe usedto checkthe salt tangentpoint on eachlocus.
In order to handlethe possibilityof sideswipeof the seismicenergy,horizontalloci

must be plotted for each contour level. This operation is very important where a
flank well is used for the mapping. First, for example, a strip representativeof the
horizontalprojectionof a wavefront chart (Figure 27) is made for usein plotting the
loci for the -6,000-ft contour. Each 0.1-seccrossingof the -6,000-ft depth at true
horizontal distanceis marked along one edgeof the strip. The data for plotting the
horizontal loci (Figure 28) shouldbe determinedfrom the sectionsof vertical loci on
each line. Necessaryinformation consistsof the time and distancefor the shotpoint
and phone combination which yields the locus nearest each contour level. Also, a
DISTANCE- K ILOFEET
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
, /
Fro. 27. Method for obtaining a horizontal sedimentarytime strip at --6,000 ft from a
wavefront chart for use in plotting horizontal loci.
pivot height is set which is the vertical differencebetween the phone level and the
contourin question.It makes no differencewhether it is up or down. The time is set
on the salt strip on the elevated pivot over the projected position of the phone. The
sedimentary strip is pivoted at the shotpoint location and the locusis drawn as be-
fore. The matching times on the strips arcing around their pivots solvea rather com-
plex, three-dimensionalmathematical relationshipfor all possibleleast time paths in
that plane. The line drawn tangent to a group of loci for each contour level deter-
mines the correct solution for each contour and is the outline of the salt.
A map (Figure 29) is made from a set of loci maps from three flank wells.The map
should now be of such detail and depth that development of the petroleum reserves
can be completed at a minimum cost. Certainly this is a worthwhile goal around a
piercement-typesalt domewhere every locationis a wildcat.
O
u.>.
Outlining
Ld
I
451
FIG. 29. Final map made after developmentgeophysics

has been completedin the three flank wells.
Outlining shalemassesby recordingin a deepholein a shalemass

The shale may be mapped fairly successfullyfrom a deep well within the shale.
The well must be deeperthan would normally be requiredto map an equivalent salt
body, since the seismicenergy being measuredhas arrived over the shortest time
path, which generallyincludesthe least thicknessof shale.If the shalewidensat the
bottom, the first arrival seismicenergy will arrive through the deeper portion only
when the well is deep enoughfor the minimum time path to include the shale.
To map the shalefrom a well drilled into the shalethe followinginformation must
be available: (1) a wavefront chart of the normal section,(2) a well drilled into the
shale(preferablyseveralthousandfeet), (3) times measuredbetweenshotpointson
or near the surfaceand geophones in the borehole,and (4) shalevelocitiespreferably
measuredby two-receivercontinuousvelocity logs.Each of thesepoints is described
in the following paragraphs.
If the velocity configurationof the normal section around a shale mass can be
determined, a wavefront chart can be made in the same manner as those used for
mapping salt.
If a shale mass is known or unexpectedly encounteredand is to be outlined with
refraction, as mentioned above, the well should be drilled several thousand feet into
the shale.In most caseslittle information will be obtained by drilling only 2,000 ft
into the shale. Therefore, it is recommendedthat 3,000 ft or more be drilled. Well A
in Figures30 and 31 penetratesthe shaleabout 8,000 ft.
Outlining
o
33d
NI
H/d30
o
o
o
453
454
bJ
0
0
0
o
Wavefront
133.4
NI
Methods
Hld30
0
-
o
0
o
Shotpoints can be spaced wider than for salt dome mapping. They should be
spacedabout every 5,000 or 10,000 feet along radial lines about the drilled location.
Longer lines are neededfor mapping shale than for mapping salt. Normally lines
should extend about 40,000 feet outside of the estimated shale outline. The number
of radial lines and their directionsdependson the problem. Since the shale is often
lessdomal shapedthan salt, normally it is sufficientto have lines every 20 degrees
coveringan arc about oneline wider (20 degrees),in both directionsthan the desired
coverage.Geophonesmay be spacedfarther apart in the shalethan in the salt. It is
desirable to have more than one geophonelevel recorded at all shotpoints. The
spacingshouldbe closerif the shaleinterface is closeto the well. Necessaryspacings
may be determinedat the well site by the vertical zXT;that is, the differencein time
per 1,000 ft between vertically spacedgeophones.This quantity is actually a mea-
sure of the inverse of the apparent vertical velocity. If the apparent velocity ap-
proachesshale velocity, the signal is approaching the geophonesnearly straight
down the hole. When this result is obtained, the geophoneinterval and the shot-
point spacingsshouldbe extended.If the vertical/XT changesappreciablybetween
shots,the spacingshouldbe shortened.In caseslike thoseshownin Figures 30 and
Table 1
Distance (ft) 5,000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000

Depth (ft)
12,000 1.590
15,000 1.930 2.160
18,000 2.460 3.090 3.830 4.590
31, 3,000-ft geophonespacingis sufficient if good velocity distribution data are

available.
The velocities
of theshalemasses
h/tvebeenfoundto rangefrom6,500to 8,500
ft/secasshown
in earlierfigures.
Tw(receiver
CVL'swithlongspacing
between
transmitter and first receivershouldbe usedin measuringthe velocity to avoid the
effects
of shaledamage
onvelocitylogs(Hicks,1959).Thegeophone
shotscanbe
used to determine the velocity of the shaleonly if the shaleis reasonablyflat on top
and wide in extent; that is, if there is no high velocity material such as salt or a
sandy sectioncloseto the hole. Table 1 lists the times in secondsfor a typical line at
selecteddepths and distancesfor a profileshot into well A shownin Figure 30. The
lociareplottedfor eachof thesetimesandaretaggedby thedepthandthedistance,
bothin thousands offeet.Forexample,' tke firstis 12-5andthelastis 18-40.Exam-
ple raypathsfor 18-20 and 18-50 areindicatedby dashedlines.The outsideheavy

outline
indicates
theshale
interface.
If thins
isagradational
velocity
change,
theout-
line will representthe approximate center of the gradation. Table 2 lists the times in
secondsfor a different profile shot into well A over a different hypothetical shale
massalongsidea salt domeshownin Figure 31. This profileis much flatter and more
difficult to map. The loci and raypaths are shown as before. Note that the shale is
only definedabout two milesfrom the well sinceit is so flat, but the minimum shale
outline is known to be a mile beyond this point by inferencefrom the last locus.
Table 2
Distance (ft) 5,000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Depth (ft)
12,000 1.620
15,000 2.060 2.220
18,000 2.540 3. 250 4.130 5.020
Outliningthedomalmass(salt and shale)by recordingin a well in thesalt

The refraction method can be used for mapping the domal mass. If salt is intro-
duced, the complexity of refraction mapping is greatly increased.Three velocities
are involved: (1) salt--high, nearly constant velocity material, (2) shale--a low
velocity material, and (3) the normal sand-shalesequencewhich generallyincreases
in velocity from the surfacedown. It is necessaryto have at least three levels re-
cordedfrom each shotpoint within the salt in order to make a reasonableinterpreta-
tion with this many unknowns.Even then more levelsor supplementaryinformation
suchas somewell control are desirableto improve the interpretation.
However, it is possiblethat the shalecan be mapped or at least someinformation
about it can be determined from a well drilled in the salt. The followinginformation
is necessary:(1) a wavefront chart, (2) a deep well in the salt, (3) times measured
romeach shotpoint to at least three geophonelevels, and (4) reasonablyaccurate
shalevelocity information.
The wavefront charts can be determined as described earlier. The well in the salt
must be at least as deep as the desiredmap. Unlessthe shaleremainsnearly constant
in thicknessoutsidethe salt, or decreasesin thicknesswith depth, it will not be possi-
ble to map asdeep as the well.
It is desirableto record a number of depth levels and measurevertical/XT's at all
distancesin order to determine the direction of approach of the raypath through the
salt. From the times recordedat any three levels from the samedistance,it is possi-
ble to determine the focal point of the raypaths. We assumethe salt to be a homo-
geneousmass with constant velocity. If the raypaths pass through the shale, the
focal point shouldoccur outsideof the salt. With this as a guide, a salt outline is as-
sumed and the shale is outlined by loci. This is done as though a geophonewere
placedat the salt interfacealongthe raypath (determinedby vertical/XT) with time
equal to the measuredtime lessthe salt traveltime. With a large number of measure-
ments from severaldepths and severaldistances,it is possibleto adjust the salt out-
line by trial and error until all shaleloci are consistent.Well B in Figure 30 showsa
salt well with sevenrecordinglevels. The example raypaths show that a distance of
50,000 ft is required to get the first arrival energy to traverse the shale.At shorter
distancesthe first arrival is the diffraction from over the top of the shale.Well B in
Figure 31 showsa similar salt well. In this caseall arrivals are from diffractionsover
the top of the shale. Thus, only negative information about the shale can be derived.
We can only say that the shale is relatively thick and its sidesare not vertical. As
far as mapping is concernedit is like having a well just to the top of the shale.
For this caseshalevelocity cannotbe measureddirectly without another well, but
all available information in the area should be used to make a reasonable estimate.
SUMMARY
The ExplorationPhaseis conductedon the surface.Reflectionshootingis initially

used to locate the domal masses. Then two refraction lines are shot to determine
whether salt is present and the depth of the salt if present, and to locate the center of
the top of the dome. A wavefront chart is made from t'me-distancedata obtained
from a refraction line shot over a normal section.A number of long refraction lines
are shot to profile the flanks of the dome. Locationsare recommendedfrom the map
resulting from these profiles.
In most casesvery little information can be determined about a shalemassfrom a
surface-to-surfacerefraction program.
The Development Phase is conductedfrom flank wells. Velocity lines are shot
away from the dome and wavefront charts based on observationsare prepared. If
the dome is salt, salt proximity points are shot to control drilling of deviated wells. A
fan of linesis shot to profileflanks on the oppositesideof the dome to greater depths.
Finally a map is made integrating all of the refraction information.
A map of the shalesurfacecanbe madeto a distanceof severalmilesarounda deep
hole drilled into a shalemassif velocitiesare known and a proper refraction program
is shot.
Someinformation about a shalemassadjacent to a salt dome can be gainedfrom
shootinginto a deep salt well. The amount of information is strictly controlledby
the shapeof the salt and the shale.
If the receiverand the shot can be placedon oppositesidesof a velocity interface,
refraction shooting is an accurate method of locating the interface; however,
velocity information on both sides is necessary.In salt dome mapping, the high
velocity salt tends to spreadthe raypaths and aid in mapping a larger portion of the
interface. In mapping shale,the low velocity of the shaletends to focusthe informa-
tion to a small area, thereby limiting the amount of coverageobtained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
.
The authorswish to thank Mobil Oil Company for allowing them to present this
material and to thank all thosepeoplewith Mobil Oil who helped in developingthe
many parts of thesetechniques.
REFERENCES
Adams,Comdr.K. T., 1942,U.S. Coastand GeodeticSurveyhydrographicmanual:Specialpublication

no. 143, Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Gardner, L. W., 1949, Seismographdeterminationof salt-domeboundary usingwell detector deep on
dome flank: Geophysics,v. 14, p. 29-38.
Hicks, W. G., 1959, Lateral velocity variationsnear boreholes:Geophysics,v. 24, p. 451-464.
McCollum, Burton, and LaRue, Wilton W., 1931,Utilization of existingwellsin seismograph work: Bull.
A.A.P.G., v. 15, p. 1409-1417.
Musgrave, A. W., 1952, Wavefront charts and raypath plotters: Quarterly of the Colorado Schoolof
Mines, v. 47, no. 4.
m 1962,Applicationsof the expandingreflectionspread:Geophysics, v. 27, p. 981-993.
Musgrave,A. W., Woolley,W. C., and Gray, Helen, 1959,Outliningof salt massesby refractionmethods:
Geophysics, v. 25, p. 141-167.
Musgrave,A. W., and Hicks, W. G., 1963,Outliningof ShaleMassesby geophysical methods:Presented
at the 33rd Annual International SEG Meeting, October 1963.
Section 5E
Errors in Refraction Interpretation
A knowledgeof the errorsin refraction interpretation is basic to the use of the

refraction method. It was hopedthat severalcontributionswould be receivedon this
subject. Northwood's discussion,"Notes on Errors in Refraction Interpretation"
coversthe basic problems,and at somelater time possiblyfurther amplification can
be made on the details of errors that occur, how they can be detected, what they
mean, and their range of sizes.
458
NOTES ON
ERRORS IN REFRACTION INTERPRETATION
E. J. NORTHWOOD*
ABSTRACT
A discussionof the factorscausingerrorsin refractioninterpretationis dealt with qualitatively. It is

hopedthis discussionwill give the interpretera better understanding
concerning the role of the various
factorsand permit him to make a goodestimateof the accuracyof his work.
INTRODUCTION
The estimationof possibleor probableerrorsin refraction vork is one of the more

difficult tasks of an interpreter. Errors in refraction interpretation can be classified
accordingto their causeunder three general headings'
(1) Errors causedby incorrectreading of the data;
(2) Errors causedby incorrectassumptions;
(3) Errors causedby incorrectgeologicinterpretation of the velocity layers.
The following discussionwill be concernedwith the first two of the above classi-
ficationsas the third is a subjectin itself. However, in passing,it shouldbe empha-
sizedthat refractionwork, at best,onlyleadsto mappingvelocitylayerswith the pres-
ent state of the science.The relationshipbetween theselayers and the geologymay
be quite complex.Only by a knowledgeof the relationshipsof velocity to lithologic
markers, facies boundaries, and time markers can a geologic interpretationbe
assignedto the result of a refraction survey. Nevertheless,geologicsignificancemust
be associatedwith velocity layers, otherwise, there is no reasonfor doing the refrac-
tion work.
ERRORS IN THE DATA
The magnitude of the errorsin the final resultscausedby incorrectreading of the

data is perhapsthe easiestto estimate in any given problem.
The principal error is usually the incorrect picking of the inception of the energy
at the geophone.The possibilityof this error occurringincreasesfor increasingoffset
distances.Not only does the signal decreasein amplitude but also the higher fre-
quency componentsof the signal attenuate more rapidly with the result that the
signal has a longerperiod as the offsetdistanceincreases.As a consequence errorsin
picking the incorrectcycleare more disastrousat large offsetdistances.
This error will affect primarily the depth determination of the refractor. However,
as the magnitude of this error is a function of the offset distance, it will also affect
the dip determination.
The error in the measurementof the time of arrival will have a larger effect on
depth than in the simpler case of reflection work. This can be illustrated by the
case of a simple two-layer problem as in Figure 1. The perpendicular$B to the
* Standard Oil Co. of Texas, Houston, Texas.

459
460 Errors in Refraction Interpretation
Fro. 1. The error T, in pickingfirst arrivalscauses

a computeddeptherrorof BB' usingthe
time intercept method.
refractoris relatedto the intercepttime Toby the followingequation(Dix, 1952,p.

246)'
SA VoTo
= =
cos i 2 cos i
An errorin Tocausedby the incorrectreadingof the inceptionof the energywill

causean error in depth of BB'. Their relationshipfrom equation(1) aboveis'
TeVo
Error BB' = ,
2 cos i
where T, is the error in time.

The deptherroris not only a functionof T, but is alsoinverselyproportionalto
cosi. This meansthat as the velocity contrastdecreases, i.e. cosi decreases,
the
Errors in Refraction Interpretation 461
:Depth
error
Fro. 2. The error Te in pickingfirst arrivalscausesa computeddeptherror of BB'
using the critical distancebisectorconstruction.
errorscausedby Te increase.This type of error as a function of velocity contrast is

dealt with much more extensivelyby Khalevin (1956, p. 912-919).
It shouldbe noted that the errorsin depth due to errorsin arrival time cannot be
lessenedby using the critical distance for calculating the depth by the bisector
constructionas shownin Figure 2.
Approximatingthe time-distancecurveswith a seriesof straight line segmentscan
be approachedby the method of least squaresaccordingto Steinhart and Meyer
(1961,p. 574). However,this approachdoesnot solvethe problemof the numberof
layers that shouldbe dealt with nor doesit solve the correct pairing when reversed
profilesare used.Usually the numberof layerscan be recognizedby inspectionof the
time-distancecurves,but if a mistakein the numberof layersis made,suchasfailing
to recognizeone, then the error in depth can be reducedaccordingto Zirbel (195[,
462 rrors in Refraction Interpretation
p. 716-721)by usingthe criticaldistanceandbisectorconstruction

(seeFigure2 for
bisector method).
However,if segments of the time-distancecurvethat aretoo shortareused,gross
errorsin the slopeof the straightlinescanbe made.This errorhasan effectnot only
on the intercepttime but alsoon the calculationof the velocityof the refractorwith
a result that the depth computationwill be in error. The effectof usingincorrect
apparentvelocitiesfor calculationsof dip and refractorvelocityin a simpletwo-
layer refractioncan bestbe understoodby an inspectionof the nomogram(Figure
3), whichillustratesthe relationships of the apparentvelocities,the refractorveloc-
ity, and the dip given by the equationof Dix (1952, p. 255):
V V V
--+--= 2--cosa.
Va V,, V
As V is the bisectorof the anglebetweenVa and V, any errorin either V or Vwill

causeV.value to changeand alsothe dip value to change.
Location of stationsin refractionwork on land is usually accurate.However, in
marine work occasionallythere are errorsin location,not only for the geophone
positionsbut alsoof the shot locations.If only one is in error, it can usuallybe
recognizedby the water breaks. However, if both the location of the shot and the
'////////// ////////////////// ////'/// / /// / /
DIP=
Fro. 3. Illustrationof a two-layerproblemand the relationship

betweenthe parameters
V1,
Va (theapparentvelocityshooting downdip)and V (theapparentvelocityshooting
updip).
spreadare in error, then the effectis to displacea portion of the time-distancecurve

horizontally which will result in assigningincorrect arrival times to the various
distances,which also causeserrors in the measurementof slopes.
The effect of the errors listed above on the final result is difficult to evaluate with-
out repeating the whole interpretation with the maximum estimated errors put in
the data. Even this may not maximize the final error. In general, the effect of the
errors of the data is a function of the velocity contrast and rises sharply above a
0.75 ratio of the velocities(Khalevin, 1956, p. 912-919). Therefore, any refraction
surveydealingwith velocity contrastslessthan three to four will have high probable
errors.
ERRORS DUE TO INCORRECT ASSUMPTIONS
The errorscausedby incorrectassumptionsare probably greater than thosedue to

the readingof the data, and there is no limit to the amount of error createdby major
deviationsfrom someof the assumptions.
One assumptionusually made is that no decreaseof velocity with depth occurs.
This decreaseof velocity with depth cannot be recognizedby only a refraction
survey.Velocity reversalswith depth, if undetected,lead to calculationsof depth that
are too deepand, if the amount of decreasevarieslaterally, it will alsohave an effect
on the dip calculations.However, if sucha decreaseis known to exist it can be ac-
countedfor in the raypath or wavefront constructionsin a manner detailed by Soske
(1959) who illustratesa caseof a zonenot registeringas a first arrival but recognized
by a corehole. His procedurewould be similar for a velocity reversal.
Another assumptionthat is often made is that even if the velocity increaseswith
depth, all velocity layers are recognizableas first breaks.This is not necessarilytrue
particularly where there is a large velocity contrast evidencedby first breaks. De-
termination of the maximum error for a three-layer case where the intermediate
layer fails to appear as a first arrival is dealt with by Hawkins and Maggs (1961,
p. 526-532). The conditionfor maximum error is one where the hidden layer or
layers just fail to register as first arrivals (Figure 4). In general, the maximum
error increaseswith increasingnumber of intermediatelayers. The largest possible
error occurswith an infinite number of layers or a continuousvelocity distribution.
Even under the most unfavorable circumstances,as shownin Figure 4, it is doubt-
ful if the error would approach50 percent. The effect of this error is oppositethat of
the velocity reversal with depth. The error due to the hidden bed makes the com-
puted depth too shallow,as the overburdenis assumedto be lessthan it actually is.
Both the incorrectassumptionsthat the velocity always increasesor remainscon-
stant with depth and that all velocity layers appear as first arrivals can be classified
as errors in overburdenvelocity. Another sourceof this type of error in the true
vertical velocity of the overburdenis that associatedwith the anisotropyof layered
media. Horizontal velocitiesin sand-shalesequences appear to be from 10 percent to
15 percenthigher than the vertical velocities(Cholet, and Richard, 1954, p. 232-
246; Hagedoorn,1954,p. 52-60; Kleyn, 1956, p. 56-69; Postma, 1955, p. 780-806;
Uhrig, and Van Melle, 1955,p. 774-779). This errorleadsto computeddepthsbeing
too deep if refraction-derived velocitiesare used. If overburdenvelocity control is
464 Errors in Refraction Interpretation
To
N
Fro. 4. The condition of maximum error for three intermediate layers of known velocity which
fail to registeras first arrivals.
based on vertical well surveys, computations would tend to give depths which are
too shallow becauseof the fact that in a refraction survey the trajectory through the
overburdenis neither vertical nor horizontal. The amount of anisotropycan be found
from oblique shootinginto a well survey.
Another sourceof error is the incorrectpairing of velocitiesusingreversedprofiles.
Normally the only cluesof the pairing of velocitiesis the reciprocaltotal traveltimes
and the geometry of the problem. Changesof dip along the sectioncan create prob-
lemsin the geometry,and, even though the refractor is controlledin both directions,it
may not be controlledat the samelocation at depth. However, if a correctknowledge
of the true velocity of the refractor is known, then there is not sucha problem. The
only way to reducepossibleerror due to this causeis by moredetailed shooting,i.e.,
move overlapping of reversedprofilesso that the objective refractor is continuously
controlledfrom both directions.It may also be possibleto correctly pair the arrivals
from their character or frequency, but this is a somewhat risky procedureat the
present stage of our knowledgeof factors affecting character and frequency.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion,errors in refraction interpretation can reach large values if the

following steps are not taken to minimize these errors'
(1) Obtainasmuchcontrol
onoverburden
velocities
aspossible,
particularly
with
respectto velocitydecreasing
with depth.
(2) Shootlargecharges
to insurethecorrect
pickingof firstarrivals.Reproducible
recordingtechniquesassistin this.
(3) Obtaincontinuous
controlof theobjective
refractor
frombothdirections.
REFERENCES
Cholet,
Jacques,
andRichard,
Henri,1954,
A testonelastic
anisotropy
measurement
at Berriane
(North
Sahara):Geophys.Prosp.v. 2, p. 232-246.
Dix,C.Hewitt,1952,Seismic
prospecting
foroil:NewYork,Harper& Brothers.
Hagedoorn,
J. G., 1954,A practical
example of an anisotropic
velocity-layer:
Geophys.
?rosp.,
v. 2,
p. 52-60.
Hawkins,
L. V., andMaggs,D., 1961,Nomograms
fordetermining
maximum
errors
andlimitingcon-
ditionsin seismic
refractionsurveywitha blind-zone
problem:
Geophys.
Prosp.,v. 9, p. 526-532.
Khalevin,N. P., 1956,Contribution
to evaluationof precision
in interpretation
of dataof refracted
waves method: IzvestiyaAkademii
NaukU.S.S.R.(BulletinoftheAcademy ofSciencesoftheU.S.S.R.),
SeriyaGeofizicheskaya,Geo.
physical
Series,
no.8, p. 912-919.
Kleyn,A. H., 1956,Onseismm wavepropagationin anisotropic
mediawithapplications in theBetun
area,SouthSumatra:Geophys.
Prosp.,v. 4, p. 56-69.
Postma,G. W., 1955,Wavepropagation
in a stratified
medium:
Geophysics,
v. 20,p. 780-806.
Soske,
Joshua L., 1959,The blindzoneproblem in engineering
geophysics:
Geophysics,
v. 24, p.
359-365.
Steinhart,
J. S., andMeyer,R. P., 1961,Minimumstatistical
uncertainty
of theseismic
refraction
profile:Geophysics,
v. 26,p. 574-587.
Uhrig,L. F., andVanMelle,F. A., 1955,Velocity
anisotropy
in stratified
media:Geophysics,
v. 20,p.
774-779.
Zirbel,N. N., 1954,Comparison
of break-point
andtime-intercept
methods
in refraction
calculations:
Geophysics,
v. 19,p. 716-721.

FIELD TECHNIQUES
Section
6
FOR REFRACTION
SHOOTING
Section 6
Field Techniquesfor RefractionShooting
Many techniqueshave beendescribedfor refractionshooting,and in fact, it is

almosttrue that thereis a newtechniquefor eachproblem,and,therefore,asmany
techniques
asthereareproblemsto solvewith refractionshooting.However,thereis
one natural division--that of land refraction work and marine refraction work. Some
particularaspectsof thesetwo classifications
are coveredby the following two
papers.
In the first paper, "SomeAspectsof RefractionShootingthroughScreening
Layers," Trostle describesthe techniqueutilized in land refractionwork of the Dela-
ware Basinin West Texas,whereshallowhigh-velocitylayersinterfere with record-
ing of refractionsfrom deep horizons.
The secondpaper, "OperationalProblemsin Marine RefractionWork," by
Sheriffis particularlyapplicable
to the manysalt-domerefractionsurveysthat have
been made offshore in the Gulf of Mexico.
Field techniques
are discussed in many of the otherpapersin this volume, even
thoughthey are not their main subject.More canbe foundin the sections on (a)
determinationof weatheringthickness,(b) interpretationtechniques, and (c) case
histories.
468
SOME ASPECTS OF REFRACTION SHOOTING THROUGH
SCREEN I NG LAYERSt-
M. E. TROSTLE*
ABSTRACT
In certain areas,suchasthe DelawareBasinin West Texas, thin, shallowhigh-velocitylayersinterfere

with recordingof refractionsfrom deep horizons.Observationsin model and field work show rapid
attenuation of refracted energy in these screeninglayers. A model study also showsthat refraction
energypenetratesthroughthesebedsto deeperrefractorsand backto the surface.Undercertaincondi-
tions this energy can be recorded.
Experimentalfieldsurveysconfirmedthe modelstudy.Subsequently, this "thin-bed"refractionphe-
nomenonhasbeenexploitedto map deepmassiverefractorsin the DelawareBasinand in otherplaces
where shallowhigh-velocitylayers had previouslybeen thought to limit refractionpenetration.
As the culmination of many ideas and observationson the behavior of refracted waves, Mr. K. E.
Burg evolveda plan for mappingdeep,low-frequency refractionsbeneathhigh-velocityshallowbeds.
A MODEL STUDY
In 1958, a field crew conductedexperimentsin the Delaware Basin of West Texas

and southeastNew Mexico to test the plan. Concurrently, a two-dimensionalmodel
was made which approximatedthe field conditions,and the resultswere compared.
This model consistedof plexiglassand aluminum sheetsrepresentinglayersof the
groundin crosssection.The dimensionswere as follows:
Thicknessof Layer Longitudinal Velocity
Scale: 24,000 to 1 1.2 to 1'
Layer 1: 1,000 ft (0.5 inches) 9360 ft per sec
(0. 094 inchesper microsec)
Layer 2:500 ft 21,200 ft per sec
(when massive)
Layer 3: 12,000 ft 9,360 ft per sec
Layer 4: Massive 21,200 ft per sec
* Effectedby employinga time scaleof 20 ms- 1 usec,togetherwith the listeddistancescale.
Energy wasinitiated by pulsinga driving crystal.The receiverplacedsuccessively

at different locationsprovided recordingsfor different offsets.Consideringthe scal-
ing factor, a high-cut filter of 5.5 cpswasusedfor recording,togetherwith a lo w-cut
filter of much less than one cps.
The time-distanceplots show a shallow aluminum refractor velocity of 20,000
ft/sec (see Figure 1). The "shingling" of energy in the primary cyclescharacter-
izes thin-bed attenuation. The sustainedenergy in the later cycles was due in part
to the multiple refraction paths available as the offsetsincreased.That is, the
uniformity betweenthe surfacereflectorand the shallowaluminumrefractorallowed
reinforcement for each "reflected refraction." Even with this layering sequencethe
inability of the shallowlayer to sustainhorizontal-travelingenergyin the recorded
Presentedat the 30th Annual Meeting of the SEG, November 19, 1960, Galveston,Texas.
* GeophysicalService,Inc., Dallas, Texas.
469
470 Field Techniques for Refraction Shooting
frequencyspectrumwas evident, and at distances50 times the depth of the base of

the shallow aluminum the energy became insignificant.
A low-frequencyevent observedon the records(B in Figure 2) arrived at the
proper time to be a refraction from the deep, massive aluminum. The observed
velocity, 21,200ft/sec, was aluminumvelocity adjustedfor scale.
The resultsof this initial model study were encouragingbut not entirely conclusive
due to the thicknessof the shallow layer and the remote possibility of a reflected
path for the lower frequencies,due to downward refraction of energy traveling
horizontally in this shallowlayer.
J 4
> ooo'-e?,ooo'
PLEXIGLAS - I000'
iALUMINUM - 500'
Vp FT./SEC. IZ,OOO'
VS FI/SEC
Vp=21,200FT/SEC.
TIME
-DISTANCE
PLOT I
FOR REFRACTIONS IN THE PRESENCE OF A SCREENING LAYER
20 40
I i025-5
5)CiS
PASS
60
BAN
i I 80 I00
DISTANCE IN THOUSANDS OF FEET
Fro. 1. Time-distanceplot of seismicarrival predictionsobtainedfrom a model. A thin layered sheet

of plexiglassand aluminumrepresentedthe geologicsectionto a distancescaleof 1/24,000 and a seismic
traveltime scaleof 1/20,000.
Shooting Through Screening Layers 471
54,00O
55,000
56,000
57,000
58.000'
59,000 , .............
, - .....
, _.
61,000
62000
63,000
65.00O
66,0O0
67,OOO
69,00
REFRACTIONS IN THE PRESENCE
OF A SCREENING LAYER
7t,
(.O25-5..5)CPS PASS BAND
75,
FIG. 2. Model recordingsshownto a scaleof 24,000/1 in distanceand 20,000/1 in traveltime.Arrivals

labeledB presumedto correspondto type raypath illustrated at right.
A secondmodel study was made at a later date which includedan anomaly on the
deeprefractor(seeFigure3). In thiscase,the modelwasmadeof steeland brasswith
a steelscreeninglayer with an equivalentthicknessof 750 ft.
The energy sourcewas placed below the screeninglayer with detector positions
along the upper surfaceof the screeninglayer and on the surfaceof the screening
layer with the detectorpositionsthe same.In both instances,a time anomaly, which
could only be associatedwith the anomaly on the deep refractor, was observedat
the samedetector positions.
The positionof the anomaly and the arrival times proved that the primary energy
traveled a refracted path rather than a reflectedpath. Figures4 and 5 illustrate the
time anomaly observed.
DRIVING TRANSDUCER: I MC.
L
1
159
134 j1 STEE
BRASS
;OURCE
STEEL
WAVE VELOCITIES (METERS/SEC.)

P WAVE S WAVE
BRASS 3,850 2,100

STEEL 5,290 3,100
Fro. 3. Diagram of model with anticlinal anomaly on deep massiverefractor.
in the two models mentioned here the screeninglayer was less than one-half
wavelength thick.
The model work proved that energywhich traveled a refractionpath in the deep
refractor could be recordedin the presenceof a thin screeninglayer. Many questions
TIME ANOMALY: SOURCE Icm ABOVE LOWER INTERFACE
o o o
o
_
o
oo
o o
L
ANOMALY ON DEEP REFRACTOR
i
I I I
20 140 160 180 2OO
DISTANCE (cm)
FzG.4. Plot of time anomaly observedfrom deeprefractor throughscreeninglayer.

Sourcebelow screeninglayer.
TRAVELTIME ANOMALY FOR .75cm SURFACE LAYER
SOURCE ON SURFACE
o o o
oo
-I-
LOCATION OF
ANOMALY ON DEEP REFRACTOR
I I I
I00 120 140 160 180
DISTANCE (cm)
Fro. 5. Plot of time anomaly observedfrom deep refractor through screeninglayer.

Sourceon upper surfaceof screeninglayer.
remained,suchas (1) how thick the screeninglayer could be beforethe penetrating

became insignificant, (2) whether a satisfactory signal-to-noiseratio could be ob-
tained in the field, and (3) whether the refracted energy through a thicker screening
layer would persist and interfere with deeperevents.
FIELD TESTS
One of the first field tests was carried out in the Delaware Basin of West Texas
where the layering can be summarizedas follows(seealsoFigure 6):
0--1,000 ft--Sand, gravel, and clay (6,000 ftfsec).
1,000-3,500 ft--Anhydrite (19,500 ft/sec).
3,500-12,500ft--Sand, shaleand thin lime (13,800ft/sec).
12,500-15,500 ft--Dolomite and limestone (21,000 ft/sec).
Available information indicates that high velocity and density characterize the
sectionfrom Devonian (12,500 ft) to basement(15,500 ft). This zone, and possibly
the basement rocks, can be expected to act as one refracting layer when long wave-
lengths are considered.
In Figure 7 a display of five refraction recordscovering 57,185 ft is shown. Be-
fore analyzing these field records,a descriptionof the recordingprocedureseemsin
order.
Each spread consistedof 24 seismometergroups spaced approximately 500 ft
apart. Each group containedten 4-cycle seismometerson a commonbase. These
seismometers fed energyinto preamplifiersof a specialdesignat eachgrouplocation.
Texas Instruments' 7000 KB seriesamplifiers were used in conjunction with the
SURFACE
CLAY I& GRAVEL----- I000' 6ooo'/s-
NHYDRITE
19,500'/s,
DEVONIAN
GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION

Fro. 6. A generalized
geologiccrosssectionof a part of the DelawareBasinin West
Texasshowing layerthicknessesandpropagation velocities.
samemanufacturer's MagneDiscmagneticrecorder. The responseof the system

wasflat downto approximately
5 cpswitha sharprejection
below3cps.All records
wererecorded andplayedbackwith fixedamplification(noAGC used).In all cases
the true (radio)time-breakanda synthetictime-breakwererecordedon the monitor
record.Thelatterservedto startthemagnetic recorder.
Thiswasnecessary because
for long shots the time from the true time-break to the first refracted arrivals ex-
ceeded
thetimeavailableonthemagnetic
recorder.
Thissystemprovedmoresatis-
factory than an electronicallydelayedstart, whereradio static and other variables
caused
sometrouble.The offsetdistances
notedin Figure7 wereobtainedby re-
measuring
thechainedlinewitha tellurometer.
Thismicrowave measuring device
adaptsvery well to the surveyingrequirements
in longrefractionwork.
Theshallow
anhydriterefractor(A) carriedenergyfor40,000ft. Closeinspection
showsan increasein frequencywith offsetdistancewhich confirmsthe low-cut-fiTter
characteristics
of the layering (Presset al. 1954).
The multiplerefractorsfoundon the modelwerenot outstanding on the field
records
but werepresentandcaused someinterference
with thedeeprefractorin the
22,000-ft to 50,000-ft range(seeB in Figure 7).
Shooting Through Screening Layers

475
476
Field Techniques for Refraction Shooting
At seismometeroffsetsbeyond 50,000 ft an event (C) becameclear at the time

predictedfor the Devonian refractor. This apparently deep refractor (C) displayed
a velocity of 20,500 ft/sec with a period of .100 sec. In this case then, the wave-
length of the deep energy was approximately equal to the thicknessof the shallow
screeninglayer. This display of five profilesshowsthe "thin-bed effect" and indicates
that energydoespenetrate to deeperrefracting horizons.
Figure 8 showsfive refraction recordscovering offsetsof 49,381 ft to 106,539 ft
observedunder the same conditionsas describedin Figure 6. Here the energy of the
shallowhigh-velocity refractor has becomeattenuated. A possiblecomplicationwas
noted in the zone 49,381 ft to 70,000 ft where an early cycle (R) showsrapid at-
tenuation with distance, indicating a reflection, a thin refractor, or destructive inter-
ference.Inspection of the sectionshowsno recognizablethin beds,but computations.
indicate the possibility of a reflected path for this energy. That is, a reflection from
the "Devonian" could arrive at this time by a low angular path through the screen-
ing layer. The rapid attenuation of energy through this screeninglayer would limit
the distancethis event could be followed. This "forerunner" (R) was observedsev-
eral times and it is the writer's opinion that it is a reflected event.
In any case, the event (C) becomesclear at 72,000 ft and continuesintact to
100,000 ft. The lossof energy beyond 100,000 ft was later shown to be associated
with a major fault.
-[06
R.EF.RAC.:T'ION
VELOCITY
PROFILE
Fzo. 9. A third exampleof deeprefractionsrecordedin the previously

describedportion of the DelawareBasin.
A somewhatmore consistentarray of primary deep refraction arrivals was found

in the samegeneralarea and are shownin Figure 9. This recordarray displaysa very
minor attenuation of energywith distanceon the deeprefractor, separatingit in this
respectfrom the shallowhorizon. These data were observednear well velocity con-
trol and were consistentwith this control in depths computed and velocities ob-
served.
In areaswherea multilayerednear-surfacesituation existed, a deviation of refrac-
tion characteristicswas observed.In the sectionshown in Figure 10 the upper 5,100
ft of the geologicsectioncontain high and intermediaterefraction velocities.
Records obtained under these field conditions show a mass of complex arrivals
associatedwith the shallowsection(seeFigure 11). Not until 100,000ft offsetswere
attained did the deep (Devonian) arrival begin to emergeas a consistentdiscernible
event. As a secondary arrival, at shorter distances, the Devonian could not be
mapped with any degreeof confidence.However, usingoffsetsto map Devonian as a
primary event, the structural anomaly was distinguishedwithin the limits of refrac-
tion mapping. This sectioncrossesa known structural anomalv on the Devonian.
SURFACE
............
'=----S N--
_- _- - 6_0
-/
q'
C'_--
i
oo'_/s,._c.
-=-'= '=--_oo,-_.=
---- .....................
=_-_.
=-______
__
::)LOMITlr 11 ANHYDRITE
19,500'/Sec. RUSTLE
R
SALADO
14,500'/Sec.
::::ANHYDRIT :':';':':':';'
,' :::1
.:.:.:.:.:.:.;'///,'.',', ;,:,1,:.:,:/,,/,
...
::::::::::::19500
':..:.:.:.:.:.:.:,
:.:.,:.:.:.:,:.:.:
CA S T I L L E --:
GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION

Fro. 10. A generalized
DelawareBasingeologic crosssectionshowingalternatinghighand
intermediatevelocitylayeringat shallowdepths.
o
I,-
ILl
0
0
o
o
o
o
o
q
0''
o
Shooting Through
Screening Layers
z
o
rn

',
8
'n
479
CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING DEEP REFRACTIONS
From
themtdel
andfieldwork,
criteria
were
established
fordistinguishing
the
deep refractions from arrivals associatedwith the shallow screeninglayers. These
include:
1. Frequency
The predominantfrequencyof arrivalsfrom deepmassiverefractorslying belowa
screeninglayer was generallylow, with 8 to 12 cpseventsnormal.
Under certain conditions,the predominant frequency increased.The controlling
factors were:
1. shothole environment,
2. layering of the screeningzone, and
3. velocity of the material between the screeninglayer and the deep refractor.
With a high-velocity shooting medium, with hole depths such that the surface
reflection reinforcesthe higher frequencies,and with a screeninglayer made up of
layers less than one normal wavelength in thickness,the recorded events could in-
creaseto 12 or even 20 cps. A highervelocity betweenthe screeninglayer and deep
refractor contributesto higher frequencyarrivals.
2. Attenuation rate
Where the deep refractor was essentiallya massivebed, the attenuation rate was
slower and was fairly consistentwith normal sphericaldivergence.
In somecasesthe sameinitial energy cyclesprevailed consistentlyfrom 50,000 ft
to 150,000ft.
3. Depth computations
The events identified as deep refractorsmust occur at the proper position on the
time-distance curve. Where well control was available, the time-distance curve was
predictedbeforefield shootingbegan.Thesepredictionsgave the interpreter a quick
check on refractor conformanceand made anomalousevents immediately evident.
4. Geologicallysound
The data gathered on the refractorsmust be geologicallysound.In the courseof
various surveys,mapping has includedknown geologicfeatures. The conformity of
the refraction data with known geologywas good.
5. Internally consistent
Internal checking of observed data was possible by changing shot-to-detector
positionswhile maintaining the same structural position on the refractor.
Other internal checksallowed good estimates on the relative effect of structural
complicationsbetweenthe shotpointand spread,as well as an evaluation of pene-
tration of the refractor. In the West Texas area theseproblemswere not considered
serious.
RESULTS
From the model and field investigationsit was concludedthat low-frequencyre-

fractionscouldbe obtainedbelowa thin high-velocityscreeninglayer.
8 MILES
-4.7
4.8 -4.8
4.9 -4.9
5.0 5.0
-5.1
5.2
5.3- 5.$ :
5.4- -5.4 rn
o
z
5.5- 5.5 o
5.6
-5.7
5.8
5.9
-6.0
-6.1
ARC PROFILE
DELAWARE BASIN
FiG. 12. Productionseismograms

along arcuateprofilenear well control.
With the specially designedequipment, reconnaissance refraction surveys were

made throughout the Delaware, Val Verde, and Kerr Basinsof West Texas, as well as
in the Middle East and South America.
In West Texas, many of the areasmapped werepreviouslyunworkableor very
marginal by other techniques.
Figure 12 showsrefraction data obtainedon productionlinesusingarcuatelayouts
(Jones,1933). In this area the shallowscreeninglayer was layered as in Figure 10
with a total thicknessof 4,000 ft. Well data establishedthe shallowlayer to be rela-
tively flat and the deep horizonsto have several thousandfeet of dip. The arc re-
fraction profile provided a satisfactorytie to the wells.
Although long refractionmappingis certainly not a "cure all" it has contributed
to the knowledgeof the areassurveyed. Wildcat wells to be drilled in the next few
years will provide data for further evaluation of the techniques.
REFERENCES
Jones,J. H., 1933,A seismicmethodof mappinganticlinalstructures:Proceedingsof the SecondWorld

PetroleumCongress,Section1, p. 169-173.
Press,Frank, Oliver, Jack; and Ewing, Maurice, 1954, Seismicmodelstudy of refractiongeophysics:
Geophysicsv. 19, p. 388-401.
OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS IN MARINE REFRACTION WORK
ROBERT E. SHERIFF*
ABSTRACT
Operationalfactorsin seismicrefractionwork at seaintroduceproblemswhichare not encountered in

land refractionwork. The mostseriousproblemis uncertaintyin the locationof shotand detectors.Water
breaks and record-to-record correlation on record sections sometimes can be used to determine the shot-
to-detectordistances.The necessityof usingproductionmarinereflectioncrewswhichare inexperienced
in refraction work, cost factors, and usually a limited program require that one live with someof the
problems.Mere awarenessof the problemswhichariseis the major steptowardavoidingor solvingthem.
Bubbleeffectsmust be recognized
if secondary
eventsare to be used.The useof recordsections
helps
avoid ambiguitiesin interpretation and greatly assistsin the picking of secondaryrefraction events.
INTRODUCTION
Much refraction work at sea consistsof limited programscarried out with pro-
duction reflection crews.Plannersof offshorerefraction work may not realize that
operational factors peculiar to conventional marine work make both the conduct of
the work and its interpretation somewhat different from refraction work on land.
This paper is written to point out some of these differences.
The mostimportant step toward avoidingor solvingtheseproblemsis beingmade
aware,in sufficienttime, of the dangerwhich may arise.Hence,this paperis mainly
confinedto citing the problems,solutionsbeing suggestedonly occasionally.Solu-
tions for the special circumstancesof a particular survey are a problem for the
planners of the particular work.
About half of theseproblemsconcernuncertainty in location, and, hence,a divi-
sion into location and nonlocationproblemsis convenient. The use of record sections
to aid in solving some of these problems will be discussedlast.
LOCATION PROBLEMS
The uncertainties in position usually involved in marine refraction work intro-

duce difficultiesnot encounteredin refraction work on land. Aside from the prob-
lems of determiningwherea refractionprofile is locatedor of the relationshipsand
time ties between reversed or adjacent profiles, which are not dealt with in this
paper, the principal uncertainty is in determining the shot-to-geophone("offset")
distance.Often, neither shotpointlocationnor detector cablelocationis precisely
known, and one attempts to determine the offset distance from the arrival time of
energywhich travels through the water layer directly to the detectors.Finally, one
may attempt to confirmthat the distancesare correctby the overall match of adja-
cent records.
Shot-locationproblems
Usually only the recordingboat is equippedfor precisenavigation, and shotpoints
are locatedwith respectto presetbuoys.Such buoysare commonlyanchoredby
* The California Company,New Orleans,Louisiana.
482
Operational Problems in Marine Work 483
ropes of length three or four times the water depth, and, hence, the buoy may be
some distance from the predetermined location of its anchor. The line connecting
the buoy to its anchor cannot be shortened because,if it were, the bobbing of the
buoy in the waves might walk the anchor. Not uncommonly buoys drift, are pulled
under by the current, or otherwise disappear. Multiple buoys or color coded buoys
are frequently used to decreasethe possibility of erroneousbuoy location.
The location of the shotpoint with respectto the buoy alsointroducesuncertainty
inasmuch as the shot is not located right at the buoy (in order not to damage it by
the shot). The fact that shotpoint location in ordinary reflection work is not critical
and that the time of an offshoreseismicparty is expensive tends to make for care-
lessnessabout the location of the shot. It is often difficult to get a shooting crew to
write down exactly where the shot is located with respect to the buoy or the direc-
tion of the current. The fact that supervisory personnel usually are looking at the
recordson the recording boat a long distance off also encourages"unknowns" in the
shooting operations. The overall effect is frequently an uncertainty on the order of
300 ft in shot location. Supervisionon the shooting boat and detailed shot location
notes are worthwhile.
Where navigation equipment is available on the shooting boat, the shot can be
located by directing the boat through the water churned up by the shot and noting
its location.
Detector location
Where currents are present in the water, the geophonestreamer tends to drift
away from the desiredin-line position. This drifting is more seriousthan in reflection
work becausethe recording boat spendsmore time waiting, thus allowing the cable
more time in which to drift. It is desirable to have the shooting boat prepare to
shoot before the recording boat proceedsinto position in order to minimize cable
drift. The direction from the recordingboat to a buoy at the center or far end of the
cable may be determined for each shot to help determine the cable position.
Marine detector cables usually are less than two-thirds of a mile long because
longer cablescannot be handled easily. Hence, to cover a moderate range of offset
distancesrequires several shots.
Problemsin the use of water breaks

The energy transmitted directly through the water layer from the shot to detector
("water breaks") is usuallyof higherfrequencythan the seismicwavesand, hence,
hasa sharponset.The traveltime of this wave can be usedfor determiningthe offset
distance.
The traveltime of the water-borne,direct wave dependsupon the temperatureand

salinity of the water (seeFigure 1). In areaswherethesefactorsvary, particularly
around the mouths of large rivers, such as the Mississippior Orinoco, appreciable
errors may occur. For example, either a 20F differencein water temperature, or
the difference between fresh and normal sea water will introduce a difference in
sound velocity of about two percent and a correspondingerror in distance. Most
refraction interpretation involves the use of delay times. Inasmuch as the calcu!a-
5100
5000
4900
z
)
4700
=oo ,;oo eo- 00'
FIG. 1. Traveltime of the water-borne direct wave.
tion of a delay time involves the subtraction of a large term proportional to the
offset distance,significanterrorscan be introducedunlesssuch distancemeasure-
mentsare accuratelymade. This type of error tendsto be systematic.
Temperatureand salinity variations(particularlytemperatureand salinity layer-
ing in the wateror variationcausedby moderatelywell-defined
currents)affectthe
water breaks in another way also. The distribution of temperature and salinity
variations may bend the path of the water-bornewave and, thus, influencethe
amount of energycontainedin the water breaks.The nature and configurationof
the water bottom also affects the amount of energy in this wave. Sometimesthese
effectsare solarge that the direct wave doesnot carry enoughenergyto give a clear
arrival above the noise level. Part of the direct wave is reflected back and forth
between the bottom and the water surface. This tends to lengthen the direct wave
and make the onsetlesspronounced.This effectseemsto be accentuatedwhen the
water depth decreasesin the direction in which the direct wave is traveling. Hence,
it is sometimesimpossibleto detect the direct energy from the explosionin the
direction of shallow water, whereas,it can be done easily in the opposite direction.
Since the water breaks arrive late on the records becauseof their relatively slow
velocity, care should be taken to run the records long enough to record these
events. As a further complication,thesewater arrivals may occur in the presenceof
higher amplitude wavesor noiseand, as a result, may not be recognized.
Most marine detectorsand amplifiers(exceptfor piezoelectriccrystal types) dis-
criminate against the high frequenciesof the water breaks so that it is better to use
separatehigh-frequencyhydrophonesand high-frequencyamplifiers to detect their
arrival. However, a complete high-frequencysystem is normally impractical, and
the most that is usually available is one high-frequencychannel, the detector being
hung from the recording boat. In addition, one may be able to record the output of
a few of the detectorsin the cable separately through high-frequencyamplifiers; in
spite of the discriminationof the detectorsagainst high frequencies,adequatedirect
arrivals can frequently be detected in this manner. One tries to get sharp water
breaks recorded for detectors at each end of the cable and one or two in between
so that the location of other detectors can be determined by interpolation from
these.
OTHER PROBLEMS
Problemsin the use of reflectioncrewsfor refractionwork

Marine refraction surveys frequently are appended to reflection surveys and,
consequently,neither equipment nor proceduresare designedfor refraction work.
This resultsin a loweringof data quality. Specialequipmentfor the refraction work
such as water-break amplifiers and hydrophonesfor determining the water break
are apt to have beenout of servicefor sometime and, hence,may not be operating
at peak efficiency.The radio transmissionof the time break (which may have been
workingwell for the shortdistancesof reflectionwork) may be inadequateat refrac-
tion distance.The crew may not be sufficientlyexperiencedwith refraction work to
have developeda "routine" such as is commonly achieved in reflection work. This
inexperienceis apt to affect navigation personnelespecially.Even such a simple
operation as plotting the spreadlocation on the map may be done incorrectly by
thosewhoseexperienceis largely in reflectionwork. It is thereforenecessaryin marine
refraction work to supervisethe entire operation down to minute details.
The high costof marinerefractionwork inhibits experimentationand discourages
collectingdata not absolutelyrequired. Unlike marine reflectionwork (where high
production keeps the unit cost low) the distanceswhich must be traveled between
refraction shots are so large that high production cannot be obtained. Extra time
may be lost becausethe radios becometemperamental at large distances,because
larger chargeshave to be made up, or becausethe personnelhas not done enoughof
this type of work to becomeproficient. About five minutes between adjacent shots
of the sameprofileis the best that can be hopedfor, and the time betweenprofilesis
seldomlessthan an hour. Three reversedprofilesrepresentsa good day's work.
Shot bubbleproblem
The shotsin reflectionwork are locatednearthe surfaceof the water to prevent
the bubbleeffect,but sucha chargelocationcutsdownon the explosion efficiency
becausemuch of the energyis vented to the atmosphere.Conversely,refraction
chargesare usuallydetonatedon the sea bottom in order to get enoughseismic
energyto carry over the long distancesto the detectors.Hence, large bubbleeffects
Fro. 2. The shotpointis locatedover a relatively thick sectionof semiconsolidated Plioceneand Mio-
cene sandsand shales.With increasingoffset,an upfaulted block of Cretaceouslimestoneis crossedat
approximately 16,600-ft offset distance.Note the diffractionsoff the fault. The departure of the first
break event around 28,000-ft offsetdistanceis attributed to departure in cable position. Note that each
event has a parallel bubbleevent (which doesnot alwaysline up on adjacentrecords)which might be
misinterpretedas a secondaryarrival.
All of the recordswere 24-tracerecords,but duplicatetraceswere cut off to prepare this profile. The
horizontalscaleis not everywherethe samebecauseof cabledrift.
Fro. 3. Anotherprofilein the samegeneralregionas Figure 2, exceptthat the shotpointis located

abovea shallowlimestoneblock whichis faulted downat about 14,000-ft offsetdistance.Again note the
clear diffractionsfrom the fault. Variationsin alignment at about 10,000 to 13,000ft are attributed to
cable drift.
frequently result. Energy originating from bubbles must be recognized where

secondaryarrivals are being used.This may be difficult becausethe bubble time and
the amount of bubble energymay not be known. The recordsin Figures2, 3, and 4
contain a considerablenumber of alignmentscausedby bubble energy.
Chargesize limitation
The sizeof chargein marine refractionwork is limited by the amount of explosive
which can be handled and positionedsafely. Chargesusually cannot exceeda few
hundred pounds which is often less than the amount one would wish to use. How-
ever, the efficiencyof generatingusefulseismicenergyis higherfor chargesexploded
....... ..: :.::::

.:;.*' ::-.,::
:::::::::::::::::::::
.:.li
,si:::;:
::'::::::::::;(;;;:::::::;::::i:.P--
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::.
.............
.,.::::a.z;,
'* ................
:::
......
Fro. 4. Refractionprofilemadewith headstilted in playbacksuchthat 10,000-ft/sec apparentvelocity

appearshorizontal.Note everystrongeventis followedby a bubbleevent. The actualwater breakscan-
not be seen,but later cyclesin this energytrain canbe. Water breaksweregenerallyclearlyseenthrough
separatehigh-frequency amplifiers.
in the water than for thoseexplodedin shotholes,sothat chargesmuchsmallerthan

usedin comparableland work will give equivalentusefulenergy.
Recordingon magnetictape
To recordrefractionarrivals on magnetictape requiresthat the start of the tape
be delayed until after the shot whenever the time from shot instant to refraction
arrivals exceedsthe time of rotation of the magnetictape drum (if it is a conven-
tional seismic recorder). In this case the time breaks are recorded on a monitor
paperrecordwhichis correlatedto the magnetictape by the recordingof a common
event on both, such as the head check pulse. Similarly, water breaks are usually
recordedonly on the monitor paper recordwhen long distancesare involved.
USE OF RECORD SECTIONS IN REFRACTION INTERPRETATION
Forming a record sectionout of the componentrecordsof a refraction profile can

assistin solvingthe interpretational problemswhich arise in marine refraction work.
Some of these are discussedin the following sections.
Use to determineoffsetdistance
The various records of a single refraction profile in marine work often form a
ragged set. The effective geophonespacing along a line from the shot may vary
becauseof cable drift or becausethe shot is not located on the line of the spread, and
overlap and offlap of adjacent recordsare common. Laying each record besideits
companionsand shifting the distance, or overlap, between records to achieve the
best overall fit of primary and secondaryalignments, including water breaks, is a
practical way of checking offset determinations. The use of variable-area or vari-
able-densitydisplays(seeFigures2 and 3) aids in this processbecauseit improves
the detectability of secondaryrefractions and various other types of arrivals which
are difficult to seeon conventional recordsbecauseof high amplitude. In the match-
ing processone needsto recognizeenergy which originated from bubblesrather than
from the shot itself, becausethe bubbles on different shots may have different time
and energy relationships.
Use to check time break
Matching adjacent records can also be used to check the time breaks since the
time breaks recordedat large offsetsare frequently very poor. When the time break
is recordedby the firing of a thyratron upon commandfrom a radio signal from the
shooting boat, false time breaks may occur, and one may have to chooseamong
several possibletime breaks.
Use to improvepickability of secondaries

The use of variable-area or variable-density record sectionson playback of refrac-
tion tapes greatly increasesthe pickability of secondaryarrivals, particularly where
the paper monitor recordsare recordedwith high amplitude without use of gain
control. In most marine shooting,time cannot be taken for reshootsbecausethe
cost of the operationis so great, or becausethe cable is drifting in a current, etc.;
hence,the first shot must do, even if over- or undershot.Someof the larger amplitude
variations between adjacent shotscan be removed on playback to producea more
uniform profile.
The fact that refraction arrivals commonly have large stepoutsacrossthe records
increasesthe difficulty of recognizingsecondary arrivals. This situation can be
greatly improved in playback by shifting headsto flatten events arriving with a
particular apparent velocity (Figure 4). This increasesthe easeof recognitionof
secondaryarrivals and other energy trains which are useful in checkingadjacent
recordsfor proper location. The amount of head shift (i.e. the apparent velocity
which will appearwith zero moveout) is not critical inasmuchas evena fair approxi-
mation improves pickability greatly.
49O Field Techniques for Refraction Shooting
This technique has particular application in correcting for variations in spread

length. Spreadvariations might be accommodatedin playback by varying the trace-
to-trace distance but this is usually not feasible. However, varying the amount of
head shift is relatively easy; hence, it is possibleto flatten an event having a par-
ticular apparent velocity even where the geophone-to-geophone distancesvary. This
producesa refraction profile which has a variable-offsetscale,but which is easierto
work with than the otherwise crooked alignments.
Head tilting under reasonably good circumstances(i.e. if the velocity of the
refracting layer one wishes to map is known accurately, if variations above the
refractor are small or can be compensatedfor, if the refractor depth doesnot vary
drastically,and exceptfor diffractions)can producea profilewhich picturesroughly
the relief on the refractor directly.
CONCLUSIONS
Refraction methodsare no longer regardedas "the old-fashionedway of prospect-

ing," and most geophysicistsnow regard them as another tool available for solving
certain types of problems.Marine refraction is not different from land refraction in
this regard. But the geophysicistwho wishes to use refraction offshore needs to be
aware of the peculiar problemsinvolved in order to know how to apply the method
best.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Colleagues,both in my own companyand in contractingcompanies,have pointed

out theseproblemsto me over the years. BecauseI cannot specificallymention them
all, I merely thank them collectively.I alsothank the California Exploration Com-
pany and Dominion Oil Limited for permissionto publish this paper.
CASE
HISTORIES
OF
Section
7
REFRACTION
METHODS
Section 7
Case Histories of Refraction Methods
Here severalpapershave been gatheredthat are descriptiveof particular problems

that have been interpreted. While someof these problems also include techniques
that shouldbe studied in conjunctionwith other technique papers, earlier in the
volume, they all do have a particular subject area and are therefore included as case
histories.
In the first paper, Hoke describesa method usedfor "Refraction Prospectingin
the Rub' al Khali." This paper describesa survey made with many refraction mea-
surementsand the developmentof a technique which might well be includedin the
"techniques" sectionof this volume. However, since the paper concernsa specific
problem in Saudi Arabia, it has beenincludedwith the casehistoriesas a description
of a method which would solvea particular problem. Although survey profilesand
maps are not the principal resultsof this paper, the solutionof a type of problem is
well worth presentingas a casehistory.
In the secondpaper, "Refraction Survey in the Heletz-Negba Area, Israel" by
Behr and Ginzburg, a great deal of interpretation was placed on a small amount of
refraction field data. Perhapsthe quality of the tme reversalsand generaldeductions
made from the information could have been more accurate with a greater multiplic-
ity of refraction measurements.
The third paper, Elllot's "Some Applicationsof SeismicRefraction Techniquesin
Mining Exploration," representsthe only contribution receivedfrom mining explo-
ration and describesthe useof someslightly different refraction techniquesin mining
exploration.
In the fourth paper, "Seismic and Gravity Profile Acrossthe Northern Wasatch
Trench, Utah," by Cook, Berg, and Lure, refraction work is comparedwith reflec-
tion work which extendsthe profile into the deeperportion of the basin, and the two
are comparedwith a gravity profile acrossthe Wasatch Trench.
In the fifth paper, "A SeismicSection of the Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Arctic
Islands," Hobson and Overton use velocity determined by refraction to show the
sedimentarycorrelationsand to showdepths to the basementwithin the basin.
492
REFRACTION PROSPECTING IN THE RUB' AL KHALI
JOHN H. HOKE*
ABSTRACT
Refractionsurveyshave beencarriedout over a large portion of SaudiArabia during the past five
years. Refractionwork has proven to be both definitiveand rapid, and has considerablyexpandedthe
scopeand versatility of the geophysicalapproachin this area.
The interpretationprinciplethat has been utilized has been referred to by othersas the three-point
system,the ABC method, the reciprocalprocedure,two-way wavefronttargeting,and the plus-minus
method.It hasapparentlybeenwidely usedfor weatheringdeterminations,bedrock configurations,and
shallowbasementsurveys.A more universalapplicationof this theory for the interpretation of rela-
tively incompetentrefractorsat great depthsof burial has perhapsnot been as generallyrecognized.
The recordingand interpretationprocedurethat has been developedfor refractorswith a limited re-
cordingrangeis called the total time method. The constructioninvolved is not complicatedand pro-
videsa preciseresolutionof the refractiondata. The computationsare straightforward,and a program
has been developedfor an IBM 705 computerwhich will automaticallycalculatethe intercepttime,
refractorvelocity,refractionangle,vertical time, and depth to the refractorfor eachgeophonelocation.
INTRODUCTION
Aramco conducted extensive refraction surveys during 1959-1962 in the

southern part of their concessionin Saudi Arabia. Previous exploration work
in this area consistedof widespreadgravity and magnetic coverage,scattered struc-
ture drill control, a program of shallow jump correlation reflection work, and several
areas coveredby conventional reflection work.
These techniques were often inconclusive in evaluating the deeper structural
anomalies,and the latter two proceduresare very slow and expensivefor a broad
reconnaissance program.
The present program involves a regional structural evaluation based on recon-
naissancerefraction coverage of anhydrite bodies within the Eocene and Upper
Jurassicsupportedby deep stratigraphic drilling. The recordingand interpretation
proceduresthat have been adopted are particularly suited to the terrain, subsurface
geology,and the type of structural complexesthat are most characteristicof the
Rub' al Khali. The type of terrain encounteredin the sandmountain portionsof the
area is shownin Figure 1.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The area is generally covered by sand dunes, with geologicoutcrops limited to

the surroundingareas of higher elevation. The Rub' al Khali itself is a large struc-
tural basin bordered by the Arabian shield and the Yemenesehighlands to the west,
the Hadramut Plateau on the south, and the Oman Mountains to the east. The
basin opensinto the Persian Gulf geosynclineat its northern extension,and it is
in this portion that someof the major oil fields of the Middle East are found.
t Presentedat 21st Meeting, EAEG, Trieste, Italy; 32nd Annual SEG International Meeting, Cal-
gary, Alberta, Canada, and 4th Arab PetroleumCongress,Beirut, Lebanon.
* ArabianAmericanOil Company,Dhahran, SaudiArabia.
493
494
Case Histories
of Refraction
Methods
Prospecting in the Rub' AI Khali 495
INTERVAL VELOCITY
FEET/SEC.
GENERALIZED
DEPTH
SECTION o. o. o. o.o..o.o.
(FEET) I i i
NEOGENE
LI_I
RS-FORAION
IOOO Z
I.I_1
2000
;5000
4000 .......
5000
THANANA
GROUP
6000
7OOO _ t,, -,,, ,,,,

RIYADH
GROUP
8000
9000
FIO. 2. Averageformationalvelocities
basedon velocitysurveysthroughoutthe ArabianPeninsula.
The structural geologyof the Rub' al Khali is characterizedby extensivehomo-

clines,and elongatedstructuraltrendswith moderaterelief, with occasional small
anomaliesprobably related to salt plugs.
STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION AND SEISMIC VELOCITIES
The subsurfacesectionis remarkably consistentover most of Saudi Arabia. This

permits regionalmappingof persistentunits over very large areasby refraction
techniques.Figure2 showsa summaryof the interval velocitiesthat are character-
istic of various formational units that are present over most of the concession.The
velocitiesindicated do not apply to the southwesternRub' al Khali, where there is
a large lateral velocity gradient associatedwith facieschangesin the Cretaceous
section. The formational velocities indicated can be used to make fairly accurate
estimatesof the averagevertical velocity to different geologichorizonsin most of
the unsurveyed wells.
496 Case Histories of Refraction Methods
The anhydritemembersof the Eoceneand Upper Jurassicare generallythe most

effective refractors in the section when they are massive. The basement is not
normally mapped due to its great depth of burial, and the large chargesizesand
fieldproblemsthat wouldbe involvedin recordingthesearrivals. When the Jurassic
anhydrite is thin or missing, the remaining Jurassiclimestonesor the Yamama-
Sulaiy interval can act as a replacementrefractor. As a lithologicunit, the anhy-
drites seem to exhibit exceptionalcompetenceas a refracting medium.
The shallow Rus anhydrite is utilized as a refracting horizon in areas of difficult
terrain, whereit is mappedby jump correlationmethods.This procedurepermitted
a rapidreconnaissance
evaluationof largeinaccessible
areasas a preliminaryexplo-
ration phase,which couldthen be followedby a more selectiveprogramof the more
laboriouscontinuousprofiling on the Jurassicrefractor.
The horizontal velocities of the anhydrite units vary regionally for reasonsthat
are not completelyunderstoodat the presenttime. The total range of the observed
velocitiesis in generalagreementwith the figuresgivenby Birch (1960) for the effect
of increasedconfiningpressureson the compressional wave velocitiesof an average
anhydrite. The anticipated linear relationshipbetweendepth of burial and refractor
velocity was not observedhowever,and there are apparently other factors that are
as important as a simpleloadingeffect. Somechangesmay be a simplepenetration
effect, although continuous velocity surveys that have been made through the
anhydrite intervals suggesta homogeneous unit without vertical velocity stratifica-
tion. The refractor variations that have been found in someareas may be the result
of high-velocitylimestonesabove or underlying the main anhydrite body that are
only locally competent.Lateral variationsin lithology and in the degreeand extent
of porosity developmentwithin the refractor, as well as changesin its thickness,
undoubtedly also contribute to changesin the propagation characteristicsof the
refractor. The recordedhorizontal velocitiesare normally considerablyhigher than
the vertical velocity due to anisotropy.
The maximum increasein horizontal velocity that has been observedin the Rub'
al Khali is somewhatover 20 percent. This is in generalagreementwith the values
reportedby de SegonzacandLaherrere(1959),basedonanisotropicmeasurements of
anhydritesin North Africa. The subtle changesin refractor velocity that may be
observed must be carefully evaluated before making structural interpretations.
Field proceduresare directed toward keepingthe effectiveoffset as constantas
possible.
Direct arrivals from most of the overburden are not normally observedin Arabia
due to the velocity inversionsin the section.The first refraction arrivals commonly
representa variable selectionof varioushigh-speedlayersin the shallowpart of the
section. When the Eocene anhydrite is massive its arrivals tend to dominate the
first-arrival energy,and in somecasesmay persistthroughoutthe recordingrange
of the Jurassicrefractor.
TYPICAL REFRACTION RECORDS
Figure $ illustrates this situation. The Jurassicrefractor cannot overtake the

Eocene arrivals, and, unfortunately, the deeper event will attenuate before the
497
Prospecting in the Rub' AI Khali
RANGE'37,000-48,000 FEET
SURFACE
CHARGE-
I000POUNDS
EOCENE ,JURASSIC
ARRIV.L ARRIVAL
.........
MONITOR
RECORD
T_,.J
'-tEJl
i''1
VXrIH
li,111 FILTERING 31-0
'''''''' '"r "" ' I '-"-'i'

ECOI 2.00 t000' t200 too
PLAYBACKRECORD
.FILTERING
,20-0
Fro.3. Jurassic
refraction
recordfromtheeastern
Rub'al Khali
with interference from the shallow Eocene refractor.
forerunningEoceneenergy.The attenuation rateof the shallowanhydriteenergy

variesfrom area to area, depending uponits thickness, lithology,and depth of
burial.The stablefrequencyspectrum andthe sustained natureof thisenergysug-
gestsomesortof a wave-guide effectwith feedback intotherefractor underthe
properconditions.Theexample illustrates
howthedifference betweenthefrequency
characteristics
of the two energysources permitsdiscrimination by filtering.The
Jurassic
arrivalisabout0.3ofa second
behind
theinitialenergy
onset
onthemonitor
record.Theplaybackhasshiftedthe desiredarrivalfroma weaksecondary
up to
an observableevent that can be satisfactorilypicked.The vertical separationbe-
tweenthe two anhydritesin thisareais approximately 7,000ft.
Figure4 illustratesthe typeof energy
arrivalobtained froma well-developed
Jurassic
anhydrite interval.The Eocene
anhydriteis not competent
in thisarea,
but potentialinterferencefromotherrefractors
normallypushes the recording
rangewellbeyondthe criticaldistance
for the Jurassic.
Surface
charges
havebeenwidelyusedin thesandcovered areas,wheretheenergy
requirements
aremetby a series
of individual
stacks
eachconsisting
of 200to 300
lb of powder. The pattern followedin arranging the stacksvaries with the nature
and configurationof the near-surfacematerial. The energycouplingis not very
effectivewhenlimestoneis exposedat the surface,and drilled holesare usedin these
areasto eliminatethe necessityof goingto very large surfacecharges.
OVERBURDEN VELOCITIES
It is evident that direct information concerningthe overburden cannot be ob-

tained by refraction methods.Therefore, all velocity control is derived from the
availablewell ties and velocity surveys.The refractoris first tentatively identified
by continuous
velocitysurveysand a conventional
surveyto determinethe average
FULL
GAIN
PLITUDE
RANGE50,000-61,000 FEET
SURFACE CHARGE- 4500 POUNDS
FILTERING 32-0
ONE GEOPHONE PER TRACE
Fro. 4. Jurassicrefractionrecordnear the Ghawar Field, Saudi Arabia.
vertical velocitiesto horizonsof possibleinterest. When a direct well tie is made an

overburden velocity is computed that will include a correction for the overall
anisotropy of the section above the assumedrefractor. Recent velocity surveys
have alsoincludedactual measurementsof the slant path velocities.Wells that have
not beentied into the refractionnetwork are incorporatedin the overburdenoverlay
by applying a postulatedanisotropicfactor to either a measuredvertical velocity
or, when necessary, to an estimated average velocity. The overburden velocity is
one of the most poorly definedparametersinvolved in the interpretation of refrac-
tion data in Arabia. It is recognizedthat depth estimates between widely spaced
control points may be considerablyin error. However, it is assumedthat structural
distortions causedby local variations from a linearly prorated overburden will be
relatively minor.
RECORDING PROCEDURE FOR THE JURASSIC REFRACTOR
The Jurassicis recordedby a continuousseriesof reversedin-line refraction pro-

files. This is accomplishedthrough the consistent use of two shooters spaced at a
distance considerably beyond the critical range for the Jurassic. The recording
spreadis normally placedmidway betweenthe two shooters,but its positioningdoes
not have to be symmetrical provided it is located within the recording range of the
refractor for both shooters.The inner and outer limits of a workable recordingrange
for the refractor are first determined by long, in-line, and reversed seismicrecord-
ings, commonly referred to as propagation profiles. When the spread has been shot
into from each shotpoint, both the spreadand the shootersmove down the line one
spread length, after allowing for at least a two-group overlap on the ground. The
standard spreadat the present time consistsof 12 geophonesspaced1,000 ft apart.
SECONDS
5000 FT.- '

V2
RECORDEDARRIVALTIMES AND REFRACTOR

COVERAGE
....... EXTRAPOLATED REFRACTORTIMES AND PROJECTEDCOVERAGE
Fro. 5. Schematicdiagram of the "total time" interpretation method. Similar letters

representtimes having commontraveltime paths and they must be equal.
Coverageis rapid, and as much as 30 km of reversedcoveragecan be obtained in

one day under ideal conditions.
INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE FOR TIlE JURASSIC REFRACTOR
Figure 5 illustrates a time-distanceplot of a seriesof profilesrecordedin the man-

ner just described.The recorded arrival times can be projected into the shotpoints
following the adjacent refractor coverageto obtain intercept times every 10,000 ft.
A moreinteres.
ting methodconsists
of extrapolatingthe plotsoutwardto determine
the total shotpoint-to-shotpointtraveltime. These "total times" can then be used
to compute an intercept time at every geophonelocation. The theory involved has
been very adequately discussedby Hagedoorn (1959), Schenck (1962), Hawkins
(1961), Heiland (1940, p. 548-549), Stam (1962), and presumablyothers.The tech-
nique has apparently been applied to shallowbasementsurveys,bedrockdetermina-
tions, and as a method to determine weathering correctionsfor reflection spreads.
So far as is known, the practical application of this procedureto relatively incom-

petent refractorsat depths up to 15,000 ft has not been previously reported. The
utilization of very competent and shallow refractors permits a direct recordingof
the reversed total times without moving from the original shotpoint locations.
The intercept times at each geophonelocation are computed by adding together
the two recordedarrival times and subtracting the extrapolated total time from this
total. The procedureis straightforwardand rapid and providesconsiderabledetail
on the configurationof the refractor. The accuracy of the refraction data and the
total-time plot is checkedthrougha multitude of recordedand constructedreversed
travel paths. This tends to make the final interpretation quite firm, since the re-
versedtimes will not checkout if the data are incorrectlypicked,timed, or plotted.
The reversedtimes can alsobe derived by tabulation which will eliminate the pos-
sibility of plotting errors. The commonletters in the example indicate someof the
reversed travel paths that are present, and they must always be equivalent for an
accurate resolutionof the data. A final check is obtained by a comparisonof the
reversedtotal times and by the tie betweenintercept times computedfor thosegeo-
phonesthat are commonto two adjacent spreads.The relationshipbetweena pro-
jected intercept time and onedeterminedby the total-time method can be shownby
J = (Iq-G) - F (see Figure 5).
The refractor velocity is expressedas:
V2 = 2 X (distancefrom A to B)/[(I- A) -- (H- B)]. (2)
The effective refractor velocity can be determined over any geophoneinterval. The
range selecteddependsupon the amount of detail desiredon changesin the apparent
velocity of the refractor. A simple procedureconsistsof computing a continuous
seriesof time differentials,as in the denominatorof equation (2), with the distance
interval being equivalent to the spacingbetween adjacent geophonestations. The
weathering effects can be consideredeliminated, unlessthe base of the weathered
layer is extremely rugged. The only significantfactor remaining that will distort
these time differentialsfrom a representationof the true refractor velocity are errors
in the record picking causedby interference or noise, or appreciable differencesin
the overburden traveltimes beneath the geophone.Since systematic errors in the
record picking would not permit a resolutionof the total times, all deviations from
this sourceare assumedto be random. Curve-fitting techniqueswill provide a smooth
time-differential plot, which can then be convertedinto a continuoussequenceof
apparent refractor velocities.
The overburden travel paths emergingfrom the refractor, which have originated
from the two opposingshotpoints,will differ appreciablyonly if there is a significant
amount of local relief on the refractor. The magnitude and breadth of the distortion
that will be superimposedon the refractor velocity plot is dependentupon the con-
figuration and depth of burial of the local structure. When the refractor is very
deep this effect will sometimesbe quite pronouncedand have considerablelateral
extent, sincethe angle subtendedby the overburdenrefraction paths coversa broad
area. It is not necessaryto distinguishbetweenactual changesin the refractor veloc-
ity and pseudochangescausedby local structure on the refractor. Therefore, the

computed V2 velocities are used directly to compute a compensatingrefraction
anglewheneverthere are changesin the overburdenvelocity or the apparent refrac-
tor velocity. If the refractor velocity and refraction angle are assumed to remain
constant throughout an area, the sharp structural features will be considerably
minimized and distorted.
rEPTi COPUTAOrS
The depths to the refractor are computed by the formula
Z = ((I + A) -- E) X V/(2 X cosi). (3)
The cosinei is determined by the relationship
sin i = V (interpolatedfrom velocity control)/V2 (computed). (4)
The locationscommon to two reversalsare computed by averaging, so that
= + - + + - x x 0.
The constant changesin V and V2 require that a unique "cosine factor" must be
computedfor eachgeophonelocation.Severalthousanddepth computationsmay be
involved on each line, and this number is later compoundedby each new control
point that modifies the previous overburden overlay. This presentsa formidable
volume of computingand recomputing,if the refraction data are to be continually
adjusted to all the available well control. For this reason, a program has been de-
velopedfor the IBM 705 computer,which can readily make all the necessarydepth
computations.
COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR REFRACTION COMPUTATIONS
The input data for this program consistof the two arrival times from the opposed
shotpointsand the extrapolated total time for each reversal. The total times from
shotpoint to shotpoint may be projected on a standard time-distance plot, or tabu-
lated by adding together the successiveincrements of refractor traveltime on the
adjacent spreadsthat will make up a "total time." The surface elevation, weather-
ing referencedatum, and the computedweathering times for each geophonelocation
are also included to adjust the depth calculationsto a sea-level datum. The over-
burden velocities are introduced as a separate input and can be changed without
affecting the basic input data.
The refractor velocitiesare computedas in (2) with the distanceinterval being
equal to the spacing between geophones.The time differentials between adjacent
geophonesare statistically averaged until the time deviation between stations is
less than one ms. These smoothed-out time increments are then converted into a
refractor velocity for each geophonelocation. Intercept times from the surface are
computedby
ti = (TR - Try) -- TRr, (6)
where TR and TL are the two arrival times and TRL the total time between shot-
points.The refractionangleis computedthroughformula (4) and the intercepttimes
are converted into vertical times through
2tv- [t- wxco]/cos i. (7)
These times can then be used in conjunctionwith reflection work to provide inte-
grated interpretations.
Two depths are computed to help in evaluating the probable successof the
weatheringcorrectionsapplied in the area.
The equationsfor these depth calculationsare'
Z(s) = (2tv X V/2) - ERE (8)
and
Z(s:)= [(ti/(2 cosi)) X V] - Es, (9)

where ERp is the elevation of the referenceplane or baseof weathering and Es is the
elevation of the surface.A comparisonof the two depth plots will normally indicate
whether the assumednear-surface velocities are under- or over-correcting for the
topographic relief along the line.
WEATHERING CORRECTIONS
The large amount of relief and the very low near-surfacevelocitiesin someof the
sand dune areasof the Rub' al Khali make the computation of adequate weathering
correctionsan important aspectof the interpretation process.When the sand dunes
are very large or the water table is very deep, the weatheringcorrectionsare often a
significantportion of the raw intercept time. These weatheringanomaliesmay occur
as local featuresaffectingonly a portion of a spread,or as broad distortionsinfluenc-
ing areas large enoughfor them to attract possiblestructural interest. When the
errors in the weathering correctioncreate only a scattering in the depth values, they
can be largely eliminated by an averaging process.This procedurealso tends to
smooth out the random picking errors causedby noise or other interference.
Weathering correctionsare normally obtained at 10,000 ft intervals along the line
by shootinga short weatheringspread.These correctionsare not always satisfactory
due to the absenceof vertical upholecontroland the probability of velocity stratifica-
tion in the near-surfacebeds with potentially undetectable low-velocity layers.
Weathering correctionsfor the individual geophonesare determinedby establishing
a secondaryterrain weatheringcorrectionfor each geophonelocation, and applying
this value to the primary weatheringtimes that have been prorated betweenshot-
point locations. The terrain correction is obtained by first constructinga smooth
terrain datum, which is a plane that passesthrough the surface elevation at each
of the weatheringshotpoints.The interval betweenthis datum and the surfaceeleva-
tion at each geophonelocation is converted into a plus or minus time correction
based on an arbitrary near-surfacevelocity that may range from 1,200 to 3,000
ft/sec.
SECONDS
1.200,
E
400
'!TOTALTIME"
RECORDIN6 SPREAD
SHOTPOINTS MAIN RECORDIN6
SPREAD SHOTPOINT N
FEET I'-'-I
', -. ,,'T.,,7,?,
g3,'..l'
V/=/0,000
Feet
cond
,,'
IOO0l , ,' , ,,y , ',, ,, I ---I000
,_ ,, ,' I,' ,,!,_,.z, ,,'!
2000 2000
=20 Feet
persecd /000
Fro. 6. Recordingand interpretationprocedurefor a competentrefractorwhen continuousrefractor

coverageis not obtained.Arrival time E is the "total time" for the main recordingspread.
DISCONTINUOUS REFRACTION PROFILING
When a very competentrefractor is present the total time from shotpoint to shot-
point can be recordeddirectly at one of the shotpoints.The method is illustrated
in Figure 6. This procedureis normally used when the terrain is extremely rugged
or partially inaccessible.It can alsobe usedwhen it is considereddesirableto cover
an area more rapidly than would be possibleby continuousprofiling.
The shotpointscan be at any range from the main spread providing they are
beyond the critical distance and in-line. The total time is obtained from a second
spread at one of the shotpoints,and this time is recordedsimultaneouslywith the
shot into the main spread. Occasionalcontinuouscoverageon the refractor out to
the total time spreadis desirableto verify that the refraction arrivals on both spreads
are equivalent.
Refractor depths between Za and Z4 can be determined without any information
on the ranges,weathering corrections,or elevationsat the shotpoints.This can be
a distinct advantage in difficult terrain, where establishinghorizontal and vertical
control is a major problem. Depths at Za and Z4 are determined as in (3),
z = {[( + ) - ]/(2 coi)} x (0)
and
z = {[(c + p) - s1/(2 co0} x (11)

The refractor velocity is similar to (2), in this examplebeing representedby,
V.-- 2 X (distance
B to C)/[(B- A)- (C- D)]. (12)
When the shotpointshave been surveyedin, the approximateoverall dip between
the shotpointscan be found by,

Z- Z = [(a - n)/co i] x v, (13)
where location G is at the midpoint between shotpointsS and N. If the weathering

correctionscan be consideredto be relatively constant at the two shotpoints, and
the point of symmetry on the spreadcan be determinedby air waves,a solutionfor
(13) can be made without extendinghorizontal or vertical control to the shotpoints.
CONCLUSIONS
The refraction methods discussedare attractive becauseof their simplicity and

versatility. There are no limitations placed on their application, except that a re-
fractor with some degree of lateral continuity be recognizableand consistent.The
field recordingmust be followed with somecare to determine that usable data are
being obtained and that the refractor continuity is unbroken. The interpretation
procedure is relatively straightforward, and the approximationsinvolved in the
theory are not seriousunlessthe structural picture is quite complex.
The method outlined appearsto be applicablethroughoutthe Aramco concession,
and, from the standpointof economicsand speed,it is probably the best exploration
techniquethat has beenemployedin Saudi Arabia. Surfacemapping,structuredrill,
and seismicreflectionwork have been widely used in Arabia, but their limitations
in someareashave reducedtheir effectivenessfor regionalstructural interpretations.
Only gravity and magnetic coveragehave the same universal scopeas the refraction
program. Refraction prospectingseemsto be justifiably enjoying a resurgeof popu-
larity in many areas of the world.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank the Arabian American Oil Company for permission
to publish this paper, and expressappreciation for the encouragementand assist-
ance received from various members of the Exploration Department in the prepa-
ration of this article.
REFERENCES
Birch, F., 1960, The velocity of compressionalwavesin rocksto 10 kilobars,Part I: Jour. of Geophys
Res., v. 65, p. 1099.
de Segonzac,P. D., and Laherrere, J., 1959, Applicationof the continuousvelocity log to anisotropy
measurements in Northern Sahara; resultsand consequences: Geophys.Prosp., v. 7, p. 202-217.
Hagedoorn,J. G., 1959, The plus-minusmethod of interpretingseismicrefractionsections:Geophys.
Prosp.,v. 7, p. 158-182.
Hawkins, L. V., 1961, The reciprocalmethodof routine shallowseismicrefractioninvestigations:Geo-
physics,v. 26, p. 806-819.
Heiland, C. A., 1940, Geophysicalexploration:New York, PrenticeHall.
Schenck,F. L., 1962, Wavefront refraction solutions:Unpublishedmanuscript,R. H. Ray Geophysics,
Inc.
Stam, J. C., 1962, Modern developmentsin shallowseismicrefraction techniques:Geophysics,v. 27,
p. 198-212.
REFRACTION SURVEY IN THE HELETZ-
NEGBA AREA, ISRAEL
MICHAEL I. BEHR* AND AVIHUE GINZBURG**
ABSTRACT
An experimentalrefractionsurveyin the Heletz-Negbaarea, Israel, has revealedthe existenceof five

discretevelocity interfaces.Possiblyonly one shallowinterface bearsany structural significance.
Correlationof refractionresultswith measuredand computedgravity, electriclogs,well velocitydata,
and stratigraphyhas conclusively identifiedthe deeperinterfaceas representingthe boundaryof litho-
facesbetweenshalesand underlyinghighervelocitylimestone.
INTRODUCTION
The Heletz oil field (Figure 1), Israel'sfirst, wasdiscoveredin 1955 by the Lapi-
doth Israel Petroleum Company. The field has sincebeen fully developed,produc-
ing some2,000 barrels per day from about 20 wells.
Located on the southeastflank of a concealed,major coastal plane feature, the
accumulation is essentially stratigraphic, controlled by the updip reduction in
porosity of a few thin reservoirsands.Depth to the producingLower Cretaceous
sandsis 1,500 m (Tschopp, 1957).
The relatively small producingarea is located near the axis of a major gravity
anomaly which parallels the coast line and traversesa large part of the southern
Coastal Plain (Figure 2).
A number of earlier attempts at reflection shootingin the critical regionsof the
structure gave disappointingresults,which must be attributed to a combinationof
adversefactors: irregular topography; high-velocity beds, such as chalk closeto the
surface;dry and highly porouscalcareoussandstonebedsat surface;and thick low-
velocity layer, in placesover 100 m thick. But probably the most critical factor
influencingreflectionquality is the existenceof extremely cavernousdolomite for-
mations in the Cenomanian and Lower Cretaceous sections.
An experimentalrefraction survey, sponsoredby the Ministry of Development,
governmentof Israel, was carried out in the Heletz-Negba area during the period
from April to October,1957. The object of the investigationwas to test the efficacy
of the refraction method for structural mapping. Considerablegeologicalcontrol
was available for this area, which had been obtained from development and wildcat
drilling.
Two profiles were shot, one along the gravity axis, the secondat right angles.
The results obtained along the axis line Heletz-Negba are describedin this report
(location map, Figure 3).
* Formerly with Weizmann Institute of Science,Israel. Presently with Burroughs Corporation,

California.
** GeophysicalInstitute of Israel.
x Productionfiguresare for 1960.
505
kilometers
33
SCALE
T i beria
HAIFA lake
TEL-AVIV
32
32
JERU;
NEGBA
HELETZ
31
N E G E V
:30
30
}ULF OF AQABA
m. 1.1V[p of Tsre].
Heletz-Negba Area, Israel 507
I10 IlS 120 125 IOiZ0
..REVAHA,
'"
IlS
/ 7EL
I10
gO 105
LEGEND
OILWE REFRACTION
LINE
TEE o REFRACTI
SHPNT IOO
Coordinetein kilem Cfr inll

,
Fro. 2. Regionalgravitymapof Heletz-Negba

Area.
[LD TECIrIqUES
In orderto establish
the sequenceof formationvelocities,
a 14-kmreversedpro-
file wasshotfirst,shownon the shotpoint locationmapbetweenshotpoint 50 to
thenortheast andshotpoint 345to thesouthwest.Failuretodetectthedeeper
refrac-
torsfromshotpoint 50,alongthelineofseismometers fromkm7 to km 12.5,neces-
sitatedan additionalseriesof shotsfrom a newshotpoint281, alongthe sameline
of seismometers.A few shortreversed profileswerealsoshotpermittingclosersub-
surface
coverage
ontheshallow
refractors
(profiles
50-160,160-281,and281-345,
the latter wascoveredin onedirectiononly). More completesubsurface
coverageon
thedeeper
refractor
wassecured
by making
a number
ofrecordings
withtheseis-
117
HELETZ
NO23
HELETZ
NO
30 / sP.
2O6
HELETZ
NO.
22
o $P.
236
-- //
.-RUR
NO,
-- ,-LEGEND
DRY
TESTHOLE
OIL WELL
109 ... ./ $P.

81 REFRACTION
SHOTINT
:ODINATES IN KITERS
107
III 113 115 I 8 120 122
Fro. 3. Map of Heletz-NegbaArea with locationof refractionprofile.
mometerspreadslocatedat the critical distancefrom the shotpoints(SP 142 spread

N, SP 184 spreadN, SP 206 spreadN, SP 76 spreadS, and SP 96 spreadS).
In the initial phaseof the field work, largechargeswereexploded,thereby ensuring
the detection of the earliest events. For many subsequentrecordingschargeswere
greatly reduced, which, in conjunctionwith the controllingaction of the AGC,
meant that simultaneousrecordingscouldbe made of a numberof secondaryevents.
Hole depth was found to be most critical; the minimum depth being the water
table. For example, a 1,000-lb charge exploded above the water table generated
hardly any recordableenergy; whereasa charge one-quarter that size, but posi-
tioned at the optimum depth, gave satisfactoryresults.Burying chargesat the opti-
mum depth sometimesinvolved drilling the holesto depths of 130 meters. To off-
set someof the high costinvolved in drilling suchdeep shotholes,simultaneoususe

was made of two instrument trucks. Each set of instruments was connected to one
of two adjacent spreads,where the two end-seismometertraces from each spread
were made to overlap.
Field operationswere suspendedas soon as sufficient data had been amassedto
give conclusiveproof of a major discrepancybetween the refraction resultsand the
structural geology,in particular for the deeperstrata. This explainsa certain incom-
pletenessof the field work in the southernpart of the profile.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
A study of the uphole times on the refraction recordsand of the traveltime curves
for the near spreadsconfirmed earlier findings of the coincidencebetween the base
LVL and the water level (Behr, 1958). In the caseof the Heletz-Negba line, its direc-
tion is such that the water level remains reasonably constant over the surveyed
area, at a depth of only a few meters above mean sealevel.2 It could thus be assumed
Table 1.
ShotpointElevation Depth
shot
of ObservedTheoretical
uphole time
vertical time
no. meters (meters) (millisec) (chargeto

surface)
76 98.0 120 109 109
95 91.8 115 101 103
142 102.0 142 119 122
184 112.0 110 114 110
206 112.0 136 124 124
236 99.5 137 118 118
345 61.6 90 75 75
also that the base of the LVL remained constant, which meant that the effect of the
LVL could be eliminated in a simple and effective manner by referring all arrival
times to a datum at MSL. The average velocity from surface to base of LVL was
found to be remarkably constantat 1,000 m/sec. The validity of the abovemay be
judged by Table 1, which comparesobserveduphole times with theoreticalvertical
times, computedon a basisof the 1,000-m/secaveragevelocity to the datum and a
subweatheringvelocity of 2,000 m/sec.
Average LVL velocitiesand subweatheringvelocitieswere known from previous
refraction and reflection surveys in the area.
After correction to datum, all useable events appearing on the records were
plotted against distance from sourceon a time scale of one cm--50 m. Vertical
paths were assumedfor the LVL, the validity of which may be judged by the small
anglesof refractionfor the upper interfaces(Figure 4). Due to the inconvenientsize
of this graph, on which the overlappingof an unusually large number of events tend
to obscurethe more important data, the original is not presentedwith this report.
"Data on water levelsobtainedfrom HydrologicalService,Water Department, Ministry of Develop-
ment.
ooo .
'-,..... . 2089
oo
I ' ' ' I _ _ i '-.[, -
hO point no.50 76 96 ; 14 16 /84 81
es NI. ' ' ' '' ' HI ' ' H2.H. ' '8 I. '
,.rfo=e
.... ""' ''"'' .......................................' ;;'.........................................................
_ ____Z'::::c:===:-
:,ooo
_
' /
.........
note
exoggemted
depth
I0_
000
m LEGEND
_ 200
m 2.) VELOCl
IN KM/SEC. REFRACTION
INTERFACES
) 21 SHOTPOiNT NO.AND DIRECTION
OF ROFILE folr OCCUFOcy
m 57 TIMEINMILLISECS. ,o vory)ng
degrees
of occurocy,
m .... owingto m uenceo uppermeroces
............... -- 000
FIG.4. Refraction
traveltime
curves
fortheHeletz-Negba
profilewith
corresponding
interpretationof velocityinterfaces.
Instead,Figure4 presents
onedrawnona greatlyreduced
scaleandonwhichmost
ofthelaterphases
ofearlyevents
andmanysecondaryonesareomitted.
Thisplot
isalsoa moreconvenient
formforidentifying
refractor
velocities
withcorrespond-
ingbranches
ofthetraveltime
curves.
However,
theoriginal
plotswereusedforthe
actualdepthand dip computationsof the interfaces.
Identification
ofvelocitybedsfromapparentvelocities
wasguided bycomparing
overalltimesforshotsin opposite
directions,
alongmutualrefraction
paths,and,
also,relating
intercept
timesat common shotpoints
forspreadsin opposite
direc-
tions.Theupperpartofthevelocitysequence
isknownfromearlier,shallow
refrac-
tion surveys.Comparison
of overalltimesis givenin Table2.
Table 2.
Apparent
No.of Totaltravel- velocity
at Remarks
Shotpoint
endseis- timeinsec endofprofile
mometer inkm/sec
50 160 1.310 6.1 Arrival time via 6.0 km/sec equals time via
160 50 1.311 6.0 5.0 km/sec at this shot-detector distance.
50 142 1.134 4.6 Apparent velocities refer to 5.1 km/sec re-
142 50 1.141 5.2 fractor.
76 184 1.304 6.1 Velocities refer to 6.0 km/sec.

184 76 1.300 6.0
Apparent velocity of 5.1 km/sec could refer

96 206 1.408 5.1 to downdip of 6.0-km/sec bed near critical
angle of dip, or to the 5.1 km/sec bed when
206 96 1.398 6.0 a major discontinuity existsat the 6.0-km/sec
bed.
160 281 1.432 5.1 Near-critical distancebetween4.0-and 5.1-km/

281 160 1.427 4.4 secvelocities,each representingtrue velocity.
281 345 0.937 5.0 Apparent velocity of 5.0 km/sec probably as-
345 281 0.878 4.4 sociated with true velocity of that value.
160 345 2. 075 (projected) 5.0 6.2 km/sec refersto dip in 5.1 km/sec.
345 160 2.089 (assumed) 5.0
50 345 3.100 6.2 Discrepancy in time possibly due to picking
345 50 3.140 6.0 of different phase.
Computing depthsand dips of interfaces

For the deeperinterfaces, such as the tops of the 5.1 and 6.0 km/sec, the method
describedby Tarrant (1956) was applied as a first approximation,permitting rapid
determination of the approximate shapesof the refractors and, at the same time,
relating up- and downdip segmentsof the traveltime curveswith the particular part
of the refractor. Depths and dips were subsequentlyadjusted using the more accu-
rate methodof Slotnick (1950). In more complicatedsituations,suchas causedby
faulting, trajectories were drawn, and correspondingtimes computed, which were
then comparedwith the experimental values.
On many of the refraction recordslater events appear, apparently with relatively
large amplitudes.The slopesof these events, when plotted as traveltime-distance
curves, duplicate the slopesof the primary events. An attempt has been made to
investigatethe sourceof the energy. None of the more obviousconfigurations,how-
ever, involving a combinationof air/ground interface, base of the LVL, and any
other known shallowinterface could explain this phenomenonof multiples. Because
of theseunidentifiedrepeatedevents,only the times of primary eventsfiguredin the
depth determinations. Exceptions were made where continuity existed between a
primary event and its reappearancefurther out along the profile as a secondary
event.
In practice a number of factors prevent anything like an accuratedetermination

of depth and dip of the interfaces,particularly when dealing with multiple, non-
conformable, and discontinuousinterfaces, associatedwith high velocities. Uncer-
tainties associatedwith computing the upper-velocity sequenceaccumulatein sub-
sequentcomputationsfor the underlyingvelocity beds.
Below the traveltime curves,the sequenceof velocitybedsis shown(Figure 4), as
interpreted from these data. A number of trajectories have been indicated in order
to relate branches of the various refractors with correspondingup- and downdip
segmentsof the traveltime curves.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The 2.0-/2.8-km/secinterface
Position of this interface is based on separate depth calculationsin the vicinities
of shotpoints 50 and 160. The T-X segments connected with this interface are
limited to short lengths closeto the shotpoints, which means that for the interven-
ing and greater part of the sectionthere is no subsurfacecontrol at this level. Non-
detectionof the 2.8-km/sec interface in the vicinity of shotpoint 281 implies a very
thin bed or its complete absence.The interface as drawn between shotpoints160 and
281 must, consequently,be consideredpartly hypothetical.
The 2.8-/3.9-km/sec interface

This interface was detected on the line of seismometers from km 1.8 to km 4 with
the shot at shotpoint 50. On the reversedprofile from shotpoint 160, the 3.9-km/sec
velocity is not observedas a first event. This is explainedby a fault near shotpoint
142 in the next lower interface, which results in energy from the deeper interface
arriving somewhat earlier than that from the upper one, obscuringthe refraction
arrivals from the 3.9-km/sec bed.
Between shotpoints 160 and 281 considerablecoverage exists at the level of the
interface in question. However, the accuracy of the depth determinationsis influ-
encedby the uncertainty surroundingthe overlying velocity bed.
Inadequacy of information pertaining to the shallowinterfacesalong the profile
between shotpoints 281 and 345, in an obviously complicated sector, makes a
straightforward interpretation difficult. A number of possibleinterpretations are
mentioned in discussingthe next interface.
The 3.9-/5.1-km/sec interface

The influenceon the T-X curvesof the fault on this horizon, betweenshotpoints
50 and 160, has been mentioned in discussingthe upper interface. It is also evi-
dencedby an upward step on the graph at surfaceposition km 4, shot from shot-
point 160.
The apparent velocity of 6.2 km/sec from shotpoint 281 is the basis for the 11
degreesdip. An alternative, that this velocity could be associatedwith the next-
higher velocity bed and not the 5.1-km/sec bed, is dismissedfor the reasonthat the
same spread,shot from a greater distance,in the samedirection (from shotpoint
345), detectsthe still greaterapparentvelocityof 7.5 km/sec,whichis morelikely to
representthe 6.0-km/sec velocity bed.
There are a number of ways of interpreting the two comparatively low-velocity

segmentsof 4.1 and 3.6 km/sec which were recordedon the spreadkm 11.2 to km
12.4 from both shotpoints !60 and 50'
1. As a resultof a combinationof dipson the 2.0-/4.4-km/sec and on the 4.4-/5.1-
km/sec interfaces.The boundary conditionsare'
(a) Low dip on the upper interface with correspondingmaximum dip of 27
degreeson the lower.
(b) Low dip on the lower interface with correspondingmaximum dip of 20
degreeson the upper.
2. Causedby a sharp discontinuityof the 5.1-km/sec bed near the surfaceposi-
tion km 10.5'
(a) The comparativelylow apparent velocitiesof 4.1 and 3.6 km/sec repre-
senting refraction arrivals via the 4.4-km/sec bed. However, since the
theoretical time via the 4.4-km/sec refractor indicates an arrival time of
0.25 sec longer than that observed at shotpoint 281, this means that the
raypath would only be part of the way along the 4.4-km/sec refractor.
(b) The comparativelylow apparent velocitiesrepresentingdiffractionsoff the
5.1-km/sec escarpment.
The 2.0-/4.4-km/sec interfaceis known from past experienceto representan un-
conformity, with strong dips at this horizon not being uncommon.Hence, an inter-
pretation basedon a variation of l(b) is favored.
Following the 3.6-km/sec slopeis a short segmentapproachingzero slope,which
is interpreted as representinga fault or escarpment,considerablyuplifted to the
south.
'he 5.1-/6.0-km/sec interface

Subsurfacecoverageis continuouson this interface between km 1-} and km 9.
The approximate16 degreesdip manifestsitself as a 9.0-km/secapparentvelocityin
the updip directionfrom shotpoints206 and 345. In the downdipdirectionfor seis-
mometerpositionssouthof shotpoint184, refractedenergyfrom the 6.0-km/secbed
was apparently not beingreceived.Highly porousand dry calcareoussandstonesat,
or closeto, the surfaceat the receivingend no doubt impaired the transmissionchar-
acteristics.However, it is not believedto have been as critical a factor as the shape
of the energy-generatingboundary itself, which is discussedlater when attempting
to identify the boundary.
Along the spreadfrom km 12.7 toward the southernend of the profile, the high
velocity of 6.2 km/sec reappears, clearly emanating from a considerablygreater
depth. This is estimated at 2,800 m, _ 300 m, dependingon the upper velocity se-
quence,which is conjectural.There is no positive evidencein the nature of very high
apparent velocitiesto prove any form of continuity between this interface and the
interface to the north of the samevelocity, but existingconsiderablyshallower.
Identification of velocitiesand correlationof interfaces
Results of velocity measurementsin structure and test holesat numerouslocali-
ties in the coastalplain may be summarizedas follows'
Velocity range
Stratigraphy (km/sec)
Neogene;a marl, clay ...................................... 1.8 to 2.1
Eocene-Senonian;chalk, marl .............................. 1.9 to 2.1

Eocene-Senonian;limestone, flint ........................... 2.6 to 3.0
Turonian-Cenomanian;chalk, marl ......................... 2.8 to 3.0

Turonian-Cenomanian; limestone........................... $. 9 to 4.4
Cenomanian-Lower Cretaceous;limestone, dolomite.......... 4.3 to 6.0
From this table it is noted that a velocity of 2.0 km/sec may refer to marl and clay
of the Neogeneas well as to the chalk and marl of the Eocene-Senonian.Similarly, a
3.0-km/secvelocity couldbe associatedwith a numberof parts of the stratigraphic
section, viz., the Eocene-Senonian when the facies is limestone and flint or the
Turonian-Cenomanian when the facies is marl and chalk. A 2.0-/3.0-km/sec inter-
face may, therefore, represent any of the following contacts: Neogene/Eocene/
Senonian, Neogene/Turonian-Cenomanian, Eocene-Senonian/Eocene-Senonian,
and Eocene-Senonian/Turonian-Cenomanian.Since both the base of the Neogene
and the Eocene-Senonianmark unconformitiesin this area, the 2.0/2.8 km/sec can-
not be considered a reliable structural marker.
Previous, detailed, shallow refraction studiesin the area have establishedgood
correlationbetweenthe 2.8-/3.9-km/secinterfaceand a marker on the electriclogs,
which coincideswith the top of the limestone-dolomitecomplexof the Cenomanian,
possiblyof structural significance(Tschopp, 1957; Grader, 1957; Behr, 1958).
The closestreliablestructural marker to the 3.9-/5.1-km/sec interface is a remark-
ably persistentshale bed of the Lower Cretaceous,often referred to as the "Shale
Break," as shown in Figure 5. Its occurrenceis a few-hundred meters deeper than
the seismic horizon. No correlation is at all possiblebetween the refractor and the
geologicalmarker.
On the same crosssectionit is immediately clear that the top of the 6.0-km/sec
bed bears no relation to the structure at that level, accepting that structural atti-
tude is reflectedby the "Heletz sand" of the Lower Cretaceousand the top of the
limestoneof the Jurassic.
In Figure 6, the depths of the 6.0-km/sec bed have been compared with electric
logs taken in the three holes, viz., Negba No 1, Heletz No 22, and Heletz No 23.
The first two holes are located on or near the refraction line, while Heletz No 23
lies two km northwest of Heletz No 3, the latter on the line (Figure 3).
At Heletz No 22, the depth of the refractor coincideswith the top of the lime-
stone seriesof the Jurassic,which is overlain by a sectionwhich is predominantly
shale. A velocity survey in this well (Figure 7) indicated interval velocities no
greater than 4.2 km/sec as deep as the Jurassiclimestone,followed by an interval
velocityof 6.35km/secfor theselimestbnes,
150metersin thickness.
Thereis, there-
fore, a remarkable agreement between the velocity of the refractor (6.0 km/sec)
and the measuredinterval velocity (6.35 km/sec) as well as the corresponding
a Neogeneis the term used to describethe undifferentiatedMiocene-Oligocene.
o
o
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"-'1
/
- I
,.,,- J
I
I
-
o
_o
o gtJ.'Fi .
o
NI #ld](]
I
Heletz-Negba Area, Israel
o
515
NEGBA HELETZ HELETZ

N O.I NO, 2 2 N0.23
+1OI +12 +82
MSL.
m/s. refroctor otl )

1600
1700
' 1800
TopJur,os
- m/s. refroor 1900
.u-'oSl?
206
/--assumed
2000
2 IOO
Depth of6000
rn/s. refroctor
SR345
-ztsoo to-$ooom 2200
).z8s
Fro. 6. Correlationbetween6.0-km/secrefractorand electriclogsfrom threetest holes.
depths at which they were found, respectively, -1,900 and -1,870 m. Another
important observationhereis that the computedaveragevelocitydownto the refrac-
tor is of the samemagnitudeas that actually measured,respectively,3.7 km/sec
and 3.6 km/sec.
Identifying the 6.0-km/secrefractorwith the Jurassiclimestoneat Heletz 22 is,
therefore, basedon conclusiveevidence.
At NegbaNo. 1, on the sameelectriclog diagram,the refractor(--1,600 m)

is shownto nearly correspond in depth with a well-definedresistivityfeature
(-1,625 m), thelatter markingthe top of a limestone-dolomite
sectionunderlying
a section of shale in the Lower Cretaceous.Above the shale, the section is again
predominantlylimestoneand dolomite.
From Heletz No. 22 to NegbaNo. 1, over a distanceof 7 km, the refractorhas
beenelevated300 m comparedto a 100-mstructuralfall on the "ShaleBreak"
horizonof the Lower Cretaceous.No velocity data are availablefor the Negba loca-
tion which couldhave corroboratedsucha marked lateral velocity change.There is,
however,clearevidence
from otherwellsthat rapidvelocitychanges
do occurand
that the phenomenoncanbe expectedto be widespread.Comparingthe interval
velocitiesmeasuredat the Revaha well, some5 km eastof Negba (seelocationmap,
AGE JURASSIC LOWER CRETACEOUS CEN. NEOGENE
-LITHOLOGY
INTERVAL
HARDLS LS. SH SH8SS SHtLS. LS. LS DOL. MARL
'1'
131
I-
rq
---I
METERS/SEC. o o o o o I%1
METERS
FROM
MSL. o
0
o
0
o
o
.= I
.LITHOLOOY LS. SH. LS SSI LS LS LS.8SH. DOLOMITE 8 LS. CHALKY LS. rq
INTERVAL
VELOCITY o
METERS/SEC. o o
o
o o
o o
o
Fro. 7. Interval velocitychart for Heletz No. 22 and Revahatestholes.
Figure2) with thevaluesat HeletzNo. 22 showsthat, whereas,

at thelatter, thehigh
interval velocitiesare limited to the Jurassic,they appearconsiderablyhigherstruc-
turally (Cenomanian-LowerCretaceous)at the Revaha well.
The closecoincidencebetweenthe 6.0-km/sec refractor and the existenceof inter-
val velocitiesof equalmagnitudeat the samedepthas the refractorat Heletz No. 22
and, most probably,an identicalsituationat Negba is convincingevidencefor
identifyingthe 5.1-/6.0-km/secinterface,at least betweenHeletz and Negba, as a
lithoraceboundarybetweenthe lowervelocitypredominantlyshalewith somelime-
stone and the underlying high-velocity limestone.
For the southernpart of the refractionprofile,in the vicinity of the Brur well,
the depth to the 6.0-km/sec refractor has been estimated at 2,500 to 3,000 m,
which is of the order of 1,000 m deeper than at Heletz 22. No wellshave sofar
penetratedto the Jurassicin this particulararea.The Brur well bottomedin Lower
Cretaceous.
In order to accountfor this great differencetectonically,a major discordance
between the Lower Cretaceousand the underlying Jurassicwould be necessary.
This is highly improbablesinceit would be contrary to an impressiveknowledgeof

theseformations, gained over a large part of the country through surfaceexposures
and deep drillings.
Pursuingthe interpretationfurther on the alreadyestablishedbasisof lateral facies
changes,the explanationwould be that the upper limestoneformationsof the Juras-
sic, known to exist at Heletz 22, havebecomethinner and have possiblydisappeared
completely,having beenreplacedby shale.It would take only a reductionin thick-
nessof the limestoneformation to a certain minimum for it to ceasebehaving as a
refractor. Irrefutable evidence of such extraordinary, fast lateral facies changes,
even at these greater depths, may be judged by the resultsof Heletz No. 23 test
hole, 2 km west of Heletz No. 22, which was drilled to a depth of 2,285 m well
into the Jurassic,penetratingonly shaleall the way to bottom.
In interpreting the T-X graphs, all events were assumedto be straightforward
refractions, except in obvious cases,such as at faults and escarpments,where the
wave paths were recognizedto be more complicated.Irregularity being a common
feature of lithofaces,the more complicatedarrivals suchas diffractionsmust become
more numerous. In consideringsuch diffractions as refractions, seriouserrors could
be introduced. It is quite possiblethat suchunintentional mistaking of events could
have occurredfor the interpretation under discussion.While broad limits of accuracy
shouldbe kept in mind, neverthelessthe essentialfeaturesare acceptedwith confi-
dence.
It must be recalledhere that in discussing
the 16 degreesdip on the 5.1-/6.0-km/
secinterface,betweenshotpoints142 and 160, a 9.0-km/sec apparentvelocity was
detectedfor the updip direction, whereasfor the oppositedirection there was an
absenceof energyback to the surface.A boundarywith largediscontinuities,suchas
would be the nature of a lithofaces, could conceivablybehave in this manner of
transmittingconsiderablymore energyback in the one direction.
CORRELATION BETWEEN REFRACTION RESULTS AND THE GRAVITY ANOMALY
Previousinvestigationsby the author (1958) have indicated that in the general

area of Heletz-Negba, the gravity anomaly as measuredrepresentsthe interaction
of at least three separatesubsurfaceinfluences,shown schematicallyin Figure 8.
1. Influence of the Neogene transgression,which involves the gradual conver-
genceof low density material (A) in favor of uplifting the high density ma-
terial (C).
2. Influence of a generalthickening eastward of the Eocene-Senonian overlying
the Turonian-Cenomanian, which involvesthe contrastbetween intermediate-
densitymaterial (B) and the high-densitymaterial (C).
$. One or more types of deep-seatedregional effects.
Correlation of shallow structure with correspondinggravity maps at a number of

placesin the CoastalPlain has showncloseagreementbetweenthe shallowstruc-
tural features of the Turonian-Cenomanian and reduced gravity.
In Figure 2 a type of regionalgravity map is shown.It wasobtainedby subtract-
SE.
SURFACE
Geological Section
sole ..endmarl. <]ener_olly

Neogene, in some areas
A. LOW DENSITYMATERIAL: asoI:.ocene
aro ,enonian.
chalkand soft limestone,
generally_
Eocene and Senonion,
B.INTERMEDIATE
DENSITY
MATERIAL:
possiblyalso marlof upper cenomonian.
C. HIOH DENSITYMATERIAL' limestone
Cenomoni=n.
and dolorhire,generally
Turonian and
D. DEEP-SEATEDEFFECTS
Fro. 8. Theoreticaleast-westgravity profileproducedby four separatesubsurface

influences.
ing the reducedgravity values from the Bouguer anomaly. From this contour map
a gravity profilewas constructedalongthe Heletz-Negba refractionline (Figure 9).
As this line runs roughly along the strike of the transgression,the influence of the
latter, comparedto the size of the total anomaly, can be consideredto be small and
of no consequencehere. On the same diagram, the 6.0-km/sec refractor has been
somewhatmodifiedin shapeto permit simple computation of the theoretical gravity
anomaly along the profile. A density contrast of 0.2 was assumedat the interface
representingthe lumped distribution of the shale and the underlying limestone.The
problem was treated as a two-dimensionalone on the assumptionthat the line of
profile was closeenough to the axis of a symmetrical feature.
Allowing for deviations inherent in the oversimplification of the problem there
appears to be a definite relationship between the gravity anomaly and the inter-
preted faciesboundary.It is evenpossiblethat the generalincreasinggravity north-
ward is mainly the manifestation of the thickening effect, in this direction, of the
deeperlimestonesection.
LEGEND
_j THEORETICAL
VERTICAL
COMPONENT
OF
-.,..,...,.
-...,.
,... .i,.,,. 6RAVITY
0.2 ATFORDENSITY
CONTRAST
I.TZR;ACE. OF
' .'. __ EXPERIMENTAL
REGIONAL
i BOUeUER
>,
m GRAVITY ANOMALY
>_ a
M SL. NEGBA
I HELETZ18 HELETZ22 BRURI S.P:345
...- 500
-. I000
1500
zm

ASSUMED
DENSITY
REPRESENTING
BOUN
SHALE--LIMESTONE LITHOFACES
IN
DAR 2000
2500
. LOWER
CRETACEOUS
AND
JURASSIC. OOO
Fro. 9. Comparisonof theoreticaland experimentalgravity anomaliesin the Heletz-NegbaArea.
CONCLUSIONS
Five discretevelocity interfaceshave been found in the Heletz-Negba area. Only

one shallow one is of possiblestructural significance.
A combinedstudy of electriclogs,lithology, and gravity has contributed convinc-
ing evidencethat the deepestvelocity interface definesa facies boundary between
the predominantely shale sectionand the underlying limestonesof the Lower Cre-
taceousand Jurassic.A geologicalconceptionbasedon the refraction resultsis ven-
tured in Figure 5.
It is not unlikely that the next upper refractor in a similar way is connectedwith
lateral facies changes.
The refraction resultswould support the theory that the hitherto-unknown, deep-
seated influenceon gravity, in this region, is probably connectedwith major facies
changesand is possibly the major contributing factor.
There has been a tendencyin the past for the geophysicistengagedin oil explora-
tion to concentratehis thinking exclusivelyon the interpretation of structure. This
attitude has developedbecauseof the leading role structure has played in oil trap-
ping. The consequence of such a narrow approach toward the example discussed
would probably have been to condemn the refraction data as incompatible with
structure, a method therefore not to be used in the particular area and to be dis-
couragedin general.
As it happens in this case, a section of interfingering of impervious shale and

porouslimestone and dolomite could hold interesting stratigraphic promise. While
the refraction technique is not here advocated for delineating such hard-to-find
pinch-outs, it could serve as a valuable guide for localizing facies trends.
For the unwary who blindly attack such an area with the reflection technique,
the results could be devastating. The facies contacts which critically refract energy
must also reflect energy back to the surface. On the seismogrammany such reflec-
tion events could be expected, greatly increasing the chances of miscorrelation
between events. The nonrelationship between a reflection time section, based on
such questionableties, and structural attitude would, in the absenceof other perti-
nent data, not be so apparent, since allowance for 'faulting' and 'lack of adequate
velocity information' would ally itself with deception. Add now to such a seismic
pattern also reflected events from reflectors,associatedwith age horizons,reflected-
refractions and diffractions, confusionof the seismicsection becomescomplete.
Assumingunder the most ideal conditionsthat reflectionsrelated to structure are
recognizableand can be carried acrossa profile, the seismologistis now faced with
the task of convertingthe time data to depth. Failing to appreciate the immensity
of the velocity problem would play havoc with his interpretation.
The immediate reward for such a refraction survey and a careful study of all the
relevant data may not be the location for a test hole; it may, however, well succeed
in bringing into focussome of the vital problems, so that a subsequent,more syste-
matic and, at the same time, less vulnerable attack may be planned.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Development, government of Israel,

for permissionto publish this information.
Due to the geologicalcomplexity of Israel, interpreting geophysicaldata at most
times challenged the best coordinated efforts of geophysicistand geologist. The
country was indeed fortunate at the time to have had the outstanding servicesof
Dr. Peretz Grader, upon whose guidance the authors relied heavily for their geo-
logicalinterpretations. Until his death in 1960, ?eretz held the positionof Petroleum
Commissioner.
The authors wish to expresstheir thanks to ProfessorC. H. Dix for his valuable
comments.
REFERENCES
Barthelmes,A. J., 1946, Applicationof continuousprofilingto refractionshooting:Geophysics,v. 11,

p. 24-42.
Behr, M. I., 1958, A geophysicalstudy of the central and southernCoastal Plain of Israel: Publication
of the GeophysicalInstitute of Israel.
Grader,P., and Moser, F., 1957,A type compositeof the uppercretaceousand lowertertiary formations:
Israel GeologicalSurvey Bull. No. 15.
Slotnick,M. M., 1950, Graphical methodfor the interpretationof refractionprofile data: Geophysics,
v. 15, p. 163-180.
Tarrant, L. H., 1956, A rapid method of determiningthe form of a seismicrefractor from line profile
results: Geophys.Prosp., v. 4, p. 131-139.
Tschopp,H. J., 1956, The oilfind of Heletz, Israel: Bull. Ver. SchweizerPetrol.-Geol.u. Ing., v. 22,
no. 63.
SOME APPLICATIONS OF SEISMIC REFRACTION TECHNIQUES

IN MINING EXPLORATION
CHARLES L. ELLIOT*
ABSTRACT
Applicationof seismicrefractiontechniquesto selectedcomplexmining explorationproblemshasbeen

attempted using specialproceduresfor operationand interpretation.In one area, the surfaceof an
undulatingbedrockunderthickeningcoverwasaccuratelyderivedon a point-by-pointbasisusingactual
raypath tracing techniquesby meansof the angleof emergenceof the raypathsat adjacentdetectors.
In another area, an experimentalprogram resultedin the direct detectionand delineationof a low-
velocitymassivesulfidebody. This wasaccomplished by fan shootingusingemergence anglesand ray-
path tracings of the high-velocity rays that were diffracted by the boundariesof the body and using
the time lag of the first arrivalsof the directraypathsthat traversedthe sulfidebody.
INTRODUCTION
Seismicrefraction techniqueshave had limited applicationsin mining exploration

compared to petroleum prospecting.Usually, in active mining areas, refraction
techniquesare either inapplicableto the explorationproblemsor impractical to use
becauseof the complexity of geologicconditions. However, in selectedcasescon-
ventional refraction procedureshave been successfullyused, and shallow refraction
techniqueswith hammer energy sourceshave found wide applications in depth to
bedrock determinations.
The seismicrefraction method hasbeenusedextensivelyin petroleumprospecting
with marked successfor many decades.Since the early development years after
World War I, the refraction method has had a parallel developmentand application
in other fields. Engineeringstudies,mining exploration, and water supply investiga-
tions have all used refraction techniqueswith moderate successbut with limited
application prior to the last decade.
Sincethen the developmentsof portable refraction instrumentsfor shallowdepth
studiesusing hammer energy sourceshave renewedinterest in refraction techniques
(Gough, 1952; Mooney and Kaasa, 1958). Shallow refraction equipment and pro-
ceduresare generally restricted to depths less than 200 ft; however, this is the
region of prime interest in engineeringand water supply investigations.
Widespread use of shallow refraction techniques in engineering applications is
evident in the literature. Thickness of overburden and depth to bedrock are the
principal applications' at constructionsitesfor dams, bridges,and buildings;along
right-of-waysfor pipeline and highway construction;and for location of depositsof
sandand gravel (Moore, 1952; Hobsonand Collett, 1960; Drake, 1962; Sram, 1962).
Also, the removal of near-surfacematerials by tractor-mounted rippers can be pre-
determined using empirical correlationsbetween formation friability and derived
seismicvelocities (Fahnestock, 1961).
* GeophysicalEngineer,Tucson,Arizona.
522
Applications of Refraction in Mining 523
In water supply investigations, shallow refraction techniques have been exten-

sively used to locate the water table, detect buried river channelsin the bedrock,
and outline the configurationof the bedrock surface (,Boniniand Hickok, 1958).
In general,in mining exploration,shallowrefraction techniqueshave beenusedfor
similar field problems,although to a somewhatmore limited degree.Deep refraction
methodshave also been used but only in isolated circumstances.
METAL MINING APPLICATIONS
In metal mining explorationthe direct region of interest for practical applications

of seismicrefraction techniquesis from surfaceto a depth on the order of 1,000 ft.
Therefore, both shallow and deep refraction methods are applicable when geologic
conditions permit.
Mainly, the seismicrefraction method is used in furnishing information on the
geologicsubstructureas an indirect aid in the exploration for ore deposits.Normally
the mapped interface of interest is bedrock or the basementsurface. Occasionally
seismicrefraction techniquescan be used for direct detection of an economically
interesting mineral deposit.
Knowledge of the thicknessof overburden and/or the contour of the bedrock
surfacehas been useful in metal mining exploration as illustrated by the following
applications'
(1) To locate ancient, buried river channelsin the bedrock in exploration for
placer deposits.
(2) To differentiatebetweenvariouslithologicalunits or ore versushost rock by
meansof undulationsof the bedrocksurfacedue to differential glaciationor weather-
ing prior to burial.
(3) To determine probable compositionof the bedrock material by means of
their seismic velocities.
(4) To determinecontoursof the bedrocksurfacefor applying correctionsto, or
checkingon the validity of, magneticand gravity data.
(5) To determine the thicknessof overburdenfor selectionof diamond drilling
sites or estimation of casing requirements for drilling in remote regions.
(6) To determine depth to bedrock in covered areas where other geophysical
methodsfor direct detection of ore depositsin the bedrock have been used in order
to correlatedepth solutionsas a meansof checkingthe validity of significantanom-
alies.
(7) To follow an outcroppingbedrock surface underneath cover, such as allu-
vium, glacial ice, or recent sediments,to determineif the depths to bedrock and,
therefore,possibleore depositsare within the limits of detectionby other geophysical
methods used for direct ore location.
Commonly, in many areas of active mining exploration interest, applications of

seismicrefraction techniquesare impractical or impossible.Complex geologicalcon-
ditions with many rock types, faulting, fracturing, unconformities, etc., are com-
monly associatedwith areas of ore deposition.Consequently,velocity contrastsare
uncertain and variable, with resultant complexseismic-wavepropagationpaths, so
that data interpretation is far from unique if it is, in fact, possible.Frequently a

higher velocity layer overlies the deeper interfaces of interest. Also, areas where
bedrock depths are important often have badly undulating surfacesrelative to
their depth, so that conventionalrefractioninterpretationsdo not yield the desired
accuracyof the contouredsurfaces.Often it is the undulationsof the bedrocksurface
that are important and not averagedepths to bedrock which result from following
standard refraction analyses.
Using specialtechniquesfor field operationand interpretation, it has beenfound
that the refraction method can sometimesbe applied with a moderate degree of
success.Mapping of a highly undulating bedrock surface can be feasible under
certain circumstances.Also, under nearly ideal conditionsdirect detection of a mas-
sive sulfidebody can conceivablybe accomplished.
sP.cIA. T.cINIQO.s usa-r>
The specialtechniquesthat have been used to solve the undulating basement

problem and the direct detection of massive sulfidesare basically variations of
standard seismicrefraction procedures.The special proceduresand modifications
were developedand adjusted to meet each specificcircumstanceimposedby the
field problem.
Solving the undulating basement problem requires the use of raypath tracings
starting from the emergenceangle of each raypath. This provides a means of de-
termining the basement surfacepoint-by-point rather than by depth averaging.
Direct detection of a massivesulfide body has been demonstrated to be feasible
usingfan shootingprocedureswheregeometricand velocity conditionspermit. Both
the time lag of arrivals of rays that traverse the low-velocity sulfide body and the
emergence-angleraypath tracing of the high-velocity rays that are diffracted by
the body can be usedfor detectionand delineationof the sulfidemass.
Emergence-angle
raypath tracing
The use of emergenceanglesin raypath tracing as a means of solvingrefraction
problemshas been reported in the literature. This procedurehas been describedfor
the rapid graphical solutionsof multilayer problems using reversedprofiles (Slot-
nick, 1950) and for partial solutionsof unreversedprofiles (Dix, 1941, 1952).
With known velocitiesof the upper layer and the times of first arrivals at a known
separationbetweentwo detectorpoints, it is possibleto determinethe angleof the
emergentraypath within the plane of observation.Figure 1 showsthe relationships
for determination of the emergenceangle e so that
sin e = V, (1)
where/XT is the time differenceof the first arrivals at geophonesR and R2.
But/XT//XX is the reciprocalof the apparent velocity of the lowest medium and
is directly obtainable from the slope of the traveltime curve segment between
geophonesR and Ra.
R R2
MEDIUM
V
Fro. 1. Determination of the emergenceangle.
To solve for the surface of an undulating bedrock it is expedient to place the

shotpoint in the high-velocity bedrock. This eliminates determination of the ray-
paths at the shotpoint end of the profile and thereby allows uniquenessto the
solution. In practice, the shot can convenientlybe placed in the high-velocity bed-
rock at an outcrop, in a drill hole, or in an undergroundmine.
When more than a single-velocityor lithologic layer is present above the high-
velocity bedrock, then it is necessaryto determine the parameters of each of the
upper layers. Normally thesewill be regular and uniform so that determinationof
the velocity and interface depth and dip of each layer can be derived using short
reversedspreadsand standard refraction analysis.
In Figure 2, a shotpointS is in bedrockwith velocity V4, and two adjacent geo-
phonesare at R and R.. The emergenceangle e at A is determinedusing the upper
layer velocity Vx, the traveltime curve betweenRx and R2, and equation (1). With
Vx, V2, and Va and their respectiveinterface parametersknown, graphical construc-
tion of the raypaths AB, BC, and CD is possible.Point D is determined using the
false, but useful, suppositionthat V4= m, so that an assumedinterface DE is
derived which must be perpendicular to the outgoing raypath. Therefore, the
measuredtotal traveltime is taken up by the wave travel from D to A or
AB BC CD
r = + + (2)
V1 V. Va
This is solvedfor CD and yields an absolutelimit to the depth of the interface and,
hence,is a guide to the determination of trial raypaths.
Now trial raypaths can be constructed, such as SF and SGH, with as many
separatesegmentsas are required. The nature of convexitiesand concavitiesof the
bedrock surfacebetween the shotpoint and geophoneswill determine the segments
requiredas the raypath must remain in the high-velocitymedium. Actually, analysis
would begin near the shotpointand progressoutward so that preliminary bedrock

undulationswill be known for controlof subsequenttrial raypaths.
Assumingit is known that bedrockmust be at the depth shownat G, then segment
$G is known. Trial rays similar to Gtt are constructedand checkedusing the total
traveltime relationship
AB BC Ctt SG q- Gtt
T- V q- q---t-
V V4 (3)
until the correct GH is ascertained.
This procedureis mainly useulfor following undulating bedrock underneath
cover from an exposedoutcropsuch as from mountains to piedmontsand alluvial-
filled valleys, e.g., westernUnited States. Also it can be advantageouslyused any
time determinationof a raypath has a bearing on a solution to a problem, an ex-
ample of which will be shown in the next section. The main advantage to this
approach is that it offers a means by which point-to-point determinationsof the
positionof an interfacemay be derived. Using as many adjacentpairs of geophones
as are necessary,accurate contours of the interface can be obtained without resort
to the averaging solutions obtained with conventional refraction interpretation
procedures.
Reversedfan shooting
Fan shooting over piercement-typesalt domes in the Gulf Coast region was
actively and successfullypursuedin the early days of petroleum prospecting.Its
V2
T V$
V4
Fig. 2. Raypath tracing using the emergence-angletechnique.

R8
R7
BODY R6
o R8
o R
Rs
VI R2
v,v, R,
FIG. 3. Fan shootingraypaths throughand around low-velocitysulfidebody.
techniques,principles, and refinementsare a well-known art and are thoroughly

describedin the literature. Basically, a modificationof conventionalfan shooting
practices allows means for the direct detection of massive sulfide occurrences.This
is then a direct ore detection method as comparedwith the other seismicrefraction
techniqueswhich are inherently indirect methods only. Apparently this technique
has not been extensively tried as indicated by the absenceof literature references,
other than someexperimentsby Pratt Hartley at Eureka, Nevada, many years ago
(unpublished).
For massive sulfide bodies imbedded in Precambrian basement rocks, velocity
contrastswill be the reverseof the caseof piercementsalt domesin sediments.Nor-
mally massivesulfideswill havea velocitylowerthan that of the surrounding
rock
and the velocity contrast can be appreciable,better than two to one in some in-
stances.
Therefore, the raypaths that traverse the sulfide body will time lag the normal
raypaths expected in the absenceof the body. Using conventional practices of
shootingcrossedfans, the resultant time lags can be solved for approximate thick-
nessand position of the sulfide body.
An important and useful, additional condition arises in this case. For detectors
in the fanned spreadnear the extremitiesof the sulfidebody the first arrivals will be
along raypaths through the surroundinghigh-velocity rock and diffracted by the
edgesof the body. In Figure 3 the first arrival raypaths are depictedfor a hypotheti-
cal sulfidebody with velocity V. buried in a medium of velocity V. High-velocity
raypaths from the shotpointin medium V that circumventthe low-velocitysulfide
body are the diffracted first arrivals at geophonesR, R7, and Rs. The first-arrival
raypaths with time lag due to traversingthe sulfide body are indicatedat geophones
R3,R4, and Rs. At somepoint near the extremityof the body the traveltime of first
arrivals will be the same for both the circumventing high-velocity and traversing
time-laggedraypaths. Thesepoints are indicated at geophonesR.and R6.
For the high-velocity raypaths that circumvent the body, the emergence-angle
raypath tracing proceduresof the previoussectioncan be used to advantage.By
this meansthe edgepointsof the body can be ascertainedfrom the directionof the
emergenceray at the geophoneand the total traveltime, assumingthat velocity V
is known or can be independently determined. The derived edge point positions
can then be correlated with the body position as determined by the time lags as a
means of refinement of the interpretation and establishmentof the validity of the
derived body outline.
This method has all of the inherent limitations that are present in conventional
salt dome fan shootingwith someadditional ones.The surroundingrock formations
shouldbe homogeneous and/or uniform in velocity propertiesand their positions
and parametersknown before these techniquescan be applied with any degreeof
success.Any velocity variations in the surroundingrock could give rise to appreci-
able variations in first-arrival times and, hence,make possiblesolutionsambiguous
or nonexistent. Unfortunately, geologicconditionssurroundingore occurrencesare
usually complex,and consequentvelocity variations couldbe extremelydeleterious.
Ideal velocity conditionsof the surroundingrock formations would likely be the
exception rather than the general rule.
Also the sulfidebody must be very massiveand approach completereplacement
of the host rock in order that suffi'cientvelocity contrastswould exist for measurable
differencesin first-arrival times. Even tens of percent sulfide by volume would not
appreciably decreasethe velocity of the body from that of the host rock. Again,
extremelymassivesulfidebodiesin nature are the exceptionrather than the general
rule. Also, when only consideringexplorationfor massivesulfides,other geophysical
methods are more ideally suited to their direct detection, so that seismicrefraction
techniqueswould likely not materially offer any advantage.
Refinements to this basic technique are indeed possibleand might result in a
practical method for sulfideexploration.Suitable modificationsof the procedures
for accuratelydelineatingsalt domeboundariesusingaplanaticsurfaces(Gardner,
1949) or wavefront plotting (Musgrave et al, 1960) conceivablycould offer a new
and important approach.
FIELD RESULTS
Two areasin Arizona presentexampleswherethesespecialtechniquesof seismic

refraction have been applied and illustrate their potentialities in mining explora-
tion. At the Emerald Isle Mine the seismicwork formed an integral part of a general
explorationprogram for coppermineralization.At the United Verde Mine the seis-
mic work was an experimentalproject to determine if the known massivesulfide
zone could be detected by seismicrefraction techniques.All of the work was per-
formed under the auspicesof Newmont Exploration, Ltd., in the period 1948-1949.
Emerald Isle Mine
The Emerald Isle Mine is located approximately 15 milesnorthwest of Kingman,

Mohave County, Arizona. The mine at the time of the seismicsurvey was inopera-
tive and consistedof several shallow shafts and a small open pit from which about
100,000 tons of copper carbonate ore had been extracted. The mine lies in a broad,
mature valley between the Cerbat Mountains to the east and the Black Mountains
to the west, and about one mile from the foothills to the east.
In the valley, outcrops are sparse.Alluvium and gravels fanning out from the
mountain washes overlie Gila conglomerate which rests unconformably on the
Precambrianbasement.The bedrock consistsmainly of granitic gneissand feldspar
porphyry. The Gila conglomerate, in which the carbonate mineralization occurs,
and the Precambrian basement were exposedin the open pit.
The primary sourceof the copper was not known but was believed to lie beneath
the Gila conglomeratein the valley and likely within a mile of the openpit. Outcrop
control toward the foothills to the east ruled out the possibility in this direction.
In view of the lack of geologicalcontrol, explorationfor the primary sulfidesbecame
a geophysicalproblem. The area west of the open pit was extensivelycoveredon the
ground by magnetic, induced-polarization,and resistivity surveying. In addition,
two seismicrefraction profileswere run.
The purposeof the two seismicprofileswas primarily to determine the depth to
the Precambrian basement under the Gila conglomerate and alluvial cover. This
servedtwo purposes'to determineif sectionsof the basement,and, hence,any possi-
ble sulfide mineralization, was beyond the depth of detectability of the other geo-
physical methodsbeing employed; and to aid in depth correlationin the interpreta-
tion of the other geophysicaldata in areas where the basement was not excessivein
depth.
No geophysicalindications of extensive sulfide zones in the bedrock were ap-
parent, so that no follow-up drilling was done. Therefore, an accurate check of the
seismic-deduceddepths to bedrock is not available. However, depths to bedrock
deducedfrom resistivity data from Wenner array expandersgave excellent correla-
tion with the seismicdepths.
The equipment used in the survey was standard eight-channel, seismicrefraction
equipment manufactured by Century GeophysicalCorporation, and conventional
field procedureswere followedin the survey operations.Geophoneseparationsof 200
ft were used for the main long profiles and variable geophoneseparationsin the
short spreadsfor upper layer solutions.
Bothprofiles
wereshotfromthesame
shotpoint,
S,located
in bedro'k
in the
bottom of the open pit. Seismicline no. ! (Figure 4) bears S 25W from &, and
seismicline no. 2 (Figure 5) bearsN 55W from &.
Figures 4 and 5 show the results of the two seismiclines. Short spreadsat inter-
mediate points along the profile were shot to determine depths, dips, and velocities
of the upper layers. In addition, velocitiesfor the Precambrian bedrock and the Gila
conglomeratewere determined by shooting in shallow diamond-drill holes in the
open pit and vicinity. The traveltime curves shown on the figures have been cor-
rected for elevation before plotting. The resultant velocities shown are average
velocities for each layer determined from the traveltime curves and the drill-hole
velocity determinations.
530
o
o
I
o
o
I
SONOO3SI9911N NI 3111.1.
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Applications
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of Refractionin Mining
NI 31NI.I.
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531
The undulating bedrock surfacewas derived from the emergence-angle and ray-
path tracing using the depth, dip, and velocitiesof eachupper layer. Only selected-
raypaths have been plotted for illustration.
Total traveltimes from the seismic records were readable to within one ms.
For the surfaceweatheringlayer with an averagevelocity of 3,000 ft/sec and a
geophonespacingof 200 ft, calculationsof the emergenceangleswould be in error
by no more than onedegree.Therefore,with reasonablecontrolof the parametersof
the upper layers and the velocity of the bedrock, the emergence-angleraypath
tracing techniqueresulted in accurate derivation of the undulating bedrock surface.
In the interpretation, convexitiesand concavitiesof the bedrock surfaceinfluenced
the shortest time path in the high-velocity bedrock, and consequentlysome trial
and error and cross-checkingof the various raypaths were necessaryin order to
arrive at the final undulating surface.
United Verde Mine
The United Verde Mine is located in Jerome, Yavapai County, Arizona, and is
one of the largest known copper-pyrite ore bodiesin the world. From its discovery
in 1876 until it was finally shut down in 1952, in excessof 30,000,000 tons of ore,
averagingapproximately 5 percent copper with significantamounts of gold and sil-
ver, were produced.
The ore body is in Precambrian and consistsof nearly massiveiron and copper
sulfidesin a curved lenticular pipe that plunged very steeply to the north. Vertical
extent was in excessof 3,000 ft with a maximum crosssectionapproximately 800 ft
by 700 ft. The main mass was nearly pure pyrite with copper-richsulfidepockets
locatedalongthe footwall. The oxidezoneextended160 ft from surfaceand a second-
ary enrichmentzone below this to 600 ft. A massivediorite stock forms the hanging
wall and quartz porphyry the footwall. Locally, patchesof chloritic schistremain on
the footwall side. A network of small basic dikes cut the sulfide mass parallel to
and near the hanging wall side.
The seismicsurvey at the United Verde Mine was an experimental program to
determine if massive sulfide bodies could be detected by seismicrefraction tech-
niques. The sulfide body here offered an excellentopportunity for such an experi-
mental program. The sulfide zone and surroundinggeologywere well known and
fortuitously the major massof the sulfideson the lower levels was still in place and
relatively undisturbed.This was mainly a pyrite zone with low coppercontent, and,
hence,had not beenmined out. At the time of the survey, stoppingon the lower levels
was confinedto selectedzoneswithin the main sulfidemassand along the footwall
contact only.
Five geophonespreadswere used undergroundon the 2,550 level; the spreadlay-
outs are shownin Figure 6. For each spread two shotpointslocated on surfacewere
used, as indicated in Figure 6. Both shotpointswere in the hanging wall diorite and
belowthe surfaceweathering.The geophoneswereon the footwall sideof the massive
sulfidezone and implanted in either black chloritic schistor quartz porphyry.
Ideally, the shotpointsand geophonespreadsshouldbe located so that two ap-
proximatelyperpendicularfan patterns would result with the spreadsextendingbe-
TO $,
1700 FT HORIZ.
2120 FT VERT.
;;,., ,.-;.- ,:? ',;'.,

,I .." .;, ,.'/
"%:1
TO
2025
2590
$,
FT HORIZ.
FT VERT.
. A
ll\
,--'
::,'-.h
!,,,,._,,.,,,11..,2
',;;'
';'"/"'=-
:'*'[ :
\-''."_.'-'"*",'.,_ /
'-':'
'""-_-_-zz
2550
DRIFTS
SULFIDE OUTLINE
GEOPHONE
POSITION -:
4-, SPREAD NO.--GEOPHONE NO.
HIGH
VELOCITY
RAY,
HORIZ.
PROJECTION
SCALE IN FEET
? ,7o ,o ,oo
I
Fro. 6. Plan of 2,550levelshowinggeophone

spreads,United VerdeMine.
yondthe limitsof the sulfidebody.However,the availableunderground openings

restrictedthe placementof the geophones, and civil featuresand limited diorite
exposures on surfacerestrictedplacementof the shotpoints.The resultinglayout
wasat besta compromise so that the raypathsbetweenshotpointsand detectors
_
wouldbe mainly within the dioriteand/or the sulfides,exceptfor very shortdis-
tancesin quartz porphyry and black schist.
The equipmentusedwasthesameasin the EmeraldIsle Mine survey.Geophone
separations
were65 ft and100ft for thevariousspreads. For eachspreadbothshot-
pointswereused,and largechargesin excess of 50 lbs of dynamitewerenecessary
in order to get appreciablefirst breaks.
Velocities for the diorite and the sulfides were determined using traveltimes to
specificdetectorsand usingstraight-linepaths.Traveltimesfrom Sato spread1,
detectorsno. 1, 2, and 3, and spread4, detectorno. 8, indicateda minimumvelocity
of 18,800ft/sec for the diorite.For the sulfides,traveltimefrom S to spread2,
detectorsno. 4 and 5, wereused.Usingthe probableraypathand allowingfor refrac-
tion at the diorite-sulfideinterface,the maximumvelocityin the sulfideswasdeter-
minedto be 10,400ft/sec. An attempt was made to placea shotpointand geo-
phonespreadin drifts on severallevelswithin the sulfidesto more accuratelydeter-

mine the sulfidevelocity. However, local high-velocity dikes within the sulfidesand
gashazard in available drifts negatedthis approach.In addition, laboratory deter-
minationsof velocitiesof massivesulfidedrill coresindicated a velocity range from
7,000 to 11,000 ft/sec.
For the subsequentanalysis, average velocities of 10,000 ft/sec in the sulfides
and 19,000 ft/sec in the diorite were used. These velocity determinations are at
best only approximations but were sufficiently accurate for the purposesof the
experimental program.
The emergenceangleswere calculatedfor all shotpoint-spread-detectorcombina-
tions. The emergenceanglescalculated for detector positions that were within the
shadowof the low-velocity sulfidebody were normal and, hence,indicated the ray-
paths that traversedthe sulfides.The detectorpositionsnear the extremitiesof the
sulfidebody in somecasesyielded significantemergenceangles.However, the only
apparent usefulemergenceangleswere obtained when shootingfrom S, for S2 was
Table 1. High-velocity rays determined from emergenceangles

Distance to edge of low-
Ray Shotpoint Spread Geophones
e
Degrees
velocitysulfides
Horiz. ft Vert. ft
A 1 1 1 & 2 18 233 318

B 1 4 5 & 6 0 290 472
C 1 4 6 & 7 12 386 500
D 1 4 4 & 5 0 440 690
E 1 3 1 & 2 90 490 0
positionedpoorly relative to the sulfide body and geophonespreadsto yield any

significant emergenceangles. The important emergenceangles and resulting high-
velocity raypath componentsare listed in Table 1.
Due to the three-dimensional,shotpoint-spread-detectorgeometry relative to the
finite sulfidebody, the true emergenceangles,as calculated, must lie within a plane
defined by the shotpoint and the two detectors used to determine the apparent
velocity. The high-velocity raypath was determined for each emergenceangie in
the true plane and then projected into the horizontal and vertical planes. The
horizontal projectionsof the significanthigh-velocity rays are shown on Figure 6.
The ends of the vectors thus indicate the most probable position of the contact of
the extremity of the low-velocity sulfide body and the high-velocity diorite. The
horizontal and vertical distancesto the sulfidebody edgesfrom the midpoint be-
tween the two detectors used are listed in Table 1.
For the actual conditionspresent, emergence-anglecalculations are subject to
large errors.The geophoneswere necessarilyspacedclosetogether, 65 ft and 100 ft,
and implanted in the high-velocitymedium. With traveltimes readableto no better
than one ms, large errorsin the apparent velocity result. For zX= 100 ft and 65 ft
and zXT= 1 ms the possibleerrorsin the true emergenceangleswill be, respectively,
11 and 17 degrees.
TO s
Co
Bo
AO
TO Sz
/
?.
ee
SULFIDE OUTLINE
j DERIVEDOUTLINE
GEOPHONE POSITION 2550 LEVEL
2100 LEVEL INTERCEPT OF HIGH

VELOCITY RAY
SCALE IN FEET
,o o o
FIG. 7. Actual versusderivedsulfideoutline, 2,100 level, United Verde Mine.
Therefore, the emergence-angletechnique of determining the high-velocity ray-

path intercept is by no meansaccurate under the conditionsof this experimental
setup. However, the resultinghigh-velocity rays on the west end of the sulfidebody,
rays A, B, C, and D in Figure 6, do correlatereasonablywell and thereby give some
suggestionas to the point of extremity of the low-velocity sulfide body. Ray E is
lessconclusive,and, hence, the east extremity of the body is not at all defined ade-
quately. The interceptsof the high-velocityrays A through D with the 2,100 ft level,
450 ft above, are shown on Figure 7 and do show a distinct grouping.
The time lags of the total traveltimes were calculated for all shotpoint-spread-
detectorcombinations.Straight-linepaths were assumedand refraction of the rays
at the diorite-sulfide interface was not taken into consideration. The thickness of
sulfidesalong eachstraight-linepath traversedby the slowrays was calculatedfrom
the time lag. The time lag and indicated sulfidethickness,comparedwith the actual
sulfide thicknessfor each raypath, are listed in Table 2. Actual sulfide thicknesses
were scaledfrom geologicplans and sections.
From the resultsof a singlefan shoot the actual position of the low-velocity sulfide
body along the raypath is indeterminable. However, by correlating the derived
thicknessesfrom two crossedfans, a probable outline and position of the sulfides
Table 2. Straight-line-path thickness of sulfides

Shotpointno. ! Shotpoint no. 2
Spread-
geophone Time lag Indicated Actual Time lag Indicated Actual
ms sulfides ft sulfides ft ms sulfides ft sulfides ft
1-1 0 0 0 1 21 0
2 1.5 32 175 1.5 32 0
3 5 105 420 3.5 74 0
4 9 190 555 1.5 32 160
5 12 253 485 0.5 10 145
6 27 570 440 3.5 74 220
7 16 337 365 2.5 53 245
8 30.5 643 345 6.5 137 240
2-1 3 66 300 29.5 620 370
2 5.5 116 300 20.5 432 410
3 8.5 179 295 15 316 410
4 13 274 320 15.5 327 415
5 8.5 179 370 12.5 264 415
6 10 210 395 16 338 430
7 9 190 460 10 211 400
8 12 263 375 13 274 485
3-1 11 232 375 21 443 485
2 13 274 460 29 612 390
3 13 274 450 28.5 600 310
4 13 274 445 29.5 621 175
5 19.5 410 375 26 548 210
6 ? ? 300 21 443 140
7 13 274 325 34.5 726 240
8 17.5 370 320 17.5 369 260
4-1 2.5 53 320 17.5 369 260
2 5.5 116 340 15.5 327 330
3 9 190 325 6 127 285
4 11.5 242 430 ? ? 230
5 8.5 179 450 6 127 125
6 6 126 540 8 169 60
7 4 84 210 10.5 221 0
8 2.5 53 0 ! 21 0
5-1 13 274 445 21.5 453 175
2 12 263 450 ? ? 240
3 12 263 460 25 527 250
4 13 274 240 24 506 230
can be obtained. This was done for various levels using vertical and horizontal
projectionsof the thicknessesof the sulfidesas indicated by the two crossedfans.
The straight-line raypaths interceptedthe sulfidebody approximately at the 2,100 ft
level due to the vertical displacementof the shotpoints relative to the geophone
spreadson the 2,550 ft level.
The probable outline and position of the derived sulfide body are shown in com-
parison with the known sulfidebody in Figure 7. Under the circumstancesand pro-
ceduresused, the agreementis remarkably good. This method cannot be expected
to give accurate indications of sulfide position and extent due to the simplified
assumptionsusedin the analysis.However, it has indicated the presenceof the low-
velocity sulfideswith some measureof extent and position.
This would be sufficient justification for employment of this method in mining
exploration. Normally, detection and determination of approximate position and
extent of a sulfide body are all that is required. Measurement of time differences
and, therefore, the resultingtime lags and emergenceangles can now be made to a
higherdegreeof accuracythan at the time of this experimentalprogram. Therefore,
significantimprovementsin techniqueare possible.Refinementsof the method and
more detailed work might resolvesomeof the ambiguity.
CONCLUSIONS
Complex geologicconditionsnormally limit applicationsof conventionalseismic

retraction techniques in metal mining exploration. However, when warranted,
refraction work can be successfullyapplied in conjunction with other geophysical
methodsin solving geologicstructural problems. Shallow refraction techniquesand
proceduresare well known and have been applied extensively for thickness of
overburdenand depth to bedrockdeterminations.
With specialprocedures,sometimesrefraction techniquescan lead to knowledge
of the subsurfaceconditionsthat are unobtainable by other methods.From the field
examplesusing specialtechniquesof seismicrefraction it is apparent that thesetech-
niquescan have merit in mining explorationfor solving selectedproblems.
For accurately determining the surfaceof buried bedrock that is undulating rela-
tive to its depth, the emergence-angleraypath tracing techniquecan be successfully
used. By this method selectedpoint determinations of the bedrock surface can be
uniquely and accurately defined.
Direct detection of massivesulfide bodies is possiblefollowing conventional fan
shootingtechniques.In addition to the time lag of arrival of wavesthat traverse the
low-velocity sulfide body as indications of the presenceof the body, emergence-
angie raypath tracings can be used to determine the high-velocity rays that are
diffracted by the edgeof the body. Both techniquesused together should be able to
detect and delineatelow-velocity massivesulfidebodies.
Further researchin this area is warranted and might lead to a new auxiliary geo-
physical techniquefor massivesulfide exploration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishesto expresshis appreciationto Newmont Exploration, Limited,

for permissionto publishthe fielddata and results,and to Dr. Arthur A. Brant, under
whosesupervisionthe work was performed.The programsdiscussedare mainly the
work of others, and their efforts and analysesare gratefully acknowledged.The
EmeraldIsle Mine surveywasconductedby A. E. Johnsonand W. E. Heinrichs,Jr.,
and the United Verde Mine program by K. E. Hunter.
REFERENCES
Bonini, W. E., and Hickok, E. A., 1958, Seismic-refraction

methodin ground-waterexploration:Min.
Eng., v. 10, p. 485-488.
Dix, C. H., 1941,Notes on refractionprospecting:Geophysics, v. 6, p. 378-396.
1952, Seismicprospectingfor oil: New York, Harper & Brothers.
Drake, C. L., 1962,Geophysics,Gv.oPHYscs, andengineering:Geophysics, v. 27, p. 193-197.
Fahnestock,C. R., 1961, Use of seismictechniquesin analyzing subsurfacematerials: A.I.M.E., Pre-
print no. 61 L 45.
Gardner,L. W., 1949,Seismograph determinationof salt dome boundaryusing well detectordeepon
domeflank: Geophysics,v. 14, p. 29-38.
Gough, D. I., 1952,

p. 311-333.
A newinstrumentforseismic
exploration
atveryshort
ranges'Geophysics,
v. 17,
Hobson, G.D., andCollett,
L. S.,1960,Someobservations
witha hammerrefraction
seismograph:
Trans.C.I.M.M.E., v. 63, p. 448-455.
Mooney, H. M., andKaasa,
290-294.
R. A., 1958,
Newrefraction
seismograph'
Rev.ofScient
'
Instr.,
v. 29,p.
Moore,R.W.,1952, Geophysical
methodsadapted
tohighwayengineering
problems:
Geophysics,v. 17,
p. 505-530.
Musgrave,
A. W., Woolley,
W. C., andGray,H., 1960,Outlining
ofsaltmasses
byrefraction
methods:
Geophysics,
v. 25, p. 141-167.
Slotnick,
M. M., 1950,
A graphical
method
fortheinterpretation
ofrefraction
profile
data:Geophysics,
v. 15, p. 163-180.
Sram, J.C.,1962,
198-212.
Modern
developments
inshallow
seismic
refraction
techniques'
Geophysics,
v. 27,p.
SEISMIC AND GRAVITY PROFILE ACROSS THE NORTHERN
WASATCH TRENCH, UTAH
KENNETH L. COOK*, JOSEPH W. BERG, JR.** ,AND

DANIEL LUM***
INTRODUCTION
The presentpaper describessomeof the geophysicalresultsthat ultimately led to

the discoveryof the Wasatch trench,Utah, as a great structuralfeature extending
alongthe west sideof the WasatchRangefor a distanceof about 160 miles (Cook
and Berg, 1956, 1958,1961;Cook,1962,p. 325; Cooket al., in preparationfor pub-
lication). The investigationwas part of a broad geophysicalstudy of the eastern
part of the Basin and Range Province.
Intermittently during 1956 to 1958, a seismicand gravity profile was taken across
the area which is now known to constitutethe northern part of the Wasatch trench.
The profileextendsin a generallyeastwarddirectionbetweenLittle Mountain South
and the northern Wasatch front in the vicinity of Ogdenand North Ogden,Utah
(Figure 1). In June 1958, 28 seismicstationswere taken alongthe profilefor a dis-
tance of 15 milesbetweenLittle Mountain South and North Ogden.The immediate
object of the survey was to determine the major subsurfacegeologicfeatures of the
area with specialemphasison the existenceof Basinand Rangefaulting. The long-
range objectiveof the survey was to attempt to perfect seismictechniquesto chart
effectivelyand most efficientlythe locationand characterof Basin and Rangefaults
and the thicknessof rocks of Cenozoicage in the basins.
In 1956, a gravity profile, with approximatelyone-milespacingbetweenstations,
was establishedacrossthe valley from Little Mountain South to the Wasatch front,
eastof Ogden(Lum, 1957,Figure4). The gravityresultsof thisprofile,togetherwith
other detailedgravity data in the surroundingregion(Lum, 1957), indicatedthat the
valley is a northward-trendinggraben,boundedon both the east and westby two or
more Basin and Range faults. Precambrianrocks crop out on either side of the val-
ley' Lower Upper PrecambrianMineral Fork tillite at Little Mountain South, and
Middle Precambrian Farmington Canyon complexin the Wasatch Mountains east
of Ogden.
In October and November, 1958, the gravity profile was reestablishedin greater
detail, with approximately one-quarter-milespacing between stations generally.
The gravity dataand interpretive geologicsectiongiven in this paper are basedon
this more recent survey. However, the locationsof the faults are modified only
ContributionNo. 52, Department of Geophysics,University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.

* Professorand Head, Department of Geophysics,University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.
** Formerly with the Department of Geophysics,University of Utah, presentlywith Department of
Oceanography, OregonState University, Corvallis,Oregon.
*** Formerly with the Department of Geophysics,University of Utah; presently with Hawaii
Departmentof Land and Natural ResourcesHonolulu.Hawaii.
539
540
Oco
oEc
Seismic and Gravity Profile, Utah 541
slightly from those originally postulated by Lum (1957, Figure 4) prior to the
seismicsurvey.
Except along its east end, the seismicprofile was establishedessentiallyto co-
incide (within 1 miles) with the gravity profile. Thus, it was hoped that the
combination of seismicand gravity data would indicate the geologicalstructure of
the valley and permit a better evaluationof the densitycontraststhat are applicable
in the interpretation of the structuresof the basinsin the Basin and Range province.
INSTRUMENTATION
The instrumentationfor the refractionwork consistedof: (1) four amplifierswith

a passbandbetween approximately 4 cps and 60 cps and six amplifiers with a pass-
band between approximately 10 cps and 60 cps, all amplifiershaving a gain of ap-
proximately 1,000; (2) four seismometers (HTL S-36 U) with a natural frequency
of two cps and six seismometers with a natural frequencyof 6 cps; (3) two cables
with 12 seismometerstations spaced at 100-ft intervals for each cable; (4) a
blaster (HTL-Short Pulse); (5) two Karr radio-telephones(TR-242) usedto trans-
mit the shot instant; and (6) additional truck-mountedconventionalseismicrecord-
ing equipment and power supplies,all of which were part of a seismicrecording
truck.
The instrumentationfor the reflectionwork consistedof' (1) a seismicrecording

truck completely equipped with amplifiers, power supplies,recordingoscilloscope,
and miscellaneousequipment; (2) cablesas describedabove; (3) a blaster as de-
scribedabove; and (4) 24 seismometers with a natural frequencyof approximately
30 cps.
The gravity data were taken with a Worden gravimeter with a sensitivity of
0.1047 regal per dial division.
PROCEDURE
Refractionprofiles
Two eastward-trending refraction profiles were established east of the base of
Little Mountain South (Figure 1): one extendedbetween shotpoints1 and 2, a
distanceof 3,200 ft; and the other extendedbetweenshotpoints6 and 7, a distance
of 15,600 ft. These two profiles were both reversed. Also east of Little Mountain
South, an additional, northward-trending,reversedrefraction profile was established
between shotpoints3 and 4 to confirm the velocitiesof the other two profiles.
The refractionprofileswere established(1) to follow the Precambrianrock that
crop out on Little Mountain South until the horizon was deep enoughto obtain
reflectionsfrom it, and (2) to obtain velocity control to be used in the reflection
work.
A 1,200-ft maximum seismometerspreadlength was usedfor the refraction work,

and, wherepossible,an overlap of one seismometerwas allowed when one spreadwas
placed adjacent to another spread. All seismometerspreadswere along the line of
profile. In general,the seismometers
having a natural frequencyof 2 cpswere spaced
at 400-ft intervals and the seismometershaving a natural frequency of 6 cps were
usedto fill in betweenthem. The shot was offsetfrom the spreadby a maximum of
1,900 ft, in line with the profile.
Reflectionprofile
After the refraction profileswere completed,shotswere detonated at shotpoints
8 and 9 to obtain reflectionresults(Figure 2). Becausepoor reflectionsresultedand
becauseof the populatedarea,the profilewasmoved! milesnorth, wheresuccessful
results were obtained. The overlapping of the reflection and refraction profiles en-
abled a correlation of the results of the two methods. The reflection work was then
continued acrossthe valley wherever sufficientspacewas available for the spreads.
Questionableareas were filled in as the survey progressed.The dot-dash line on
Figure ! showsthe positionof the reflectionprofile.
The short lines extendingfrom shotpoints8 through 28 in Figure 1 indicate the
subsurfacereflection coverage.The direction of the spreadsis given by the direc-
tion of the lines. Dip shotswere made where two lines extend from a station at an
angleother than 180 degrees.In general,a 1,100-ft spreadwasusedon both sidesof
the shotpointwith station intervals of 200 ft. Two reflectionseismometers
that were
separatedby 24 ft at each station were usedas a meansof enhancingthe signal.
For all shotpoints,a Mobile auger drill, which was mounted on a Jeep pickup
truck, wasusedto drill shotholeswhich rangedin depth between10 and 30 ft. Sixty
percenthigh velocitydynamiteand Herculesno. 7 capswereusedfor all shots.For
the refraction work, the maximum charge used was 10 lb of dynamite and the
average was 5 lb. For the reflection work, the maximum charge used was 5 lb of
dynamite, and the average size was between 3 and 4 lb. On the average, about
four shotsper hole were detonated for the reflection work.
The time instant for the reflection work was recordedin a conventionalmanner,
and the time instant for the refraction work was transmitted from the blaster to the
recordingtruck by radio. The time instant in all casescould be read to _+0.001sec
Gravity profile
The gravity data were obtained with a Worden gravimeter using conventional
field techniques.Horizontal and vertical controlwere obtainedwith U.S. Geological
Survey topographicquadrangle maps, which included bench marks and elevations
of road intersections.The gravity values were corrected for instrument drift, lati-
tude variation, and combinedelevation effect (including free-air and Bouguer
effects).Terrain correctionsout to and includingzoneI (outer radiusof 8.44 km) on
the zone charts of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey correspondingto the
Bullard modificationof the Hayford-Bowie method (Swick, 1942, p. 68) were also
applied. An averagedensity of 2.67 g/cc was assumedfor the rocksin making the
Bouguer and terrain corrections.The station values were tied to U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey pendulum station no. 49 in Salt Lake City, for which the simple
Bouguer anomaly value was taken as --183 mgal (Cook and Berg, 1961, p. 76;
Duerksen, 1949, p. 8). The accuracyof the finally reducedgravity values is be-
lieved to be within 0.5 mgal for most of the stations, and within one to two mgal
I J 1 IIIIII I II I I I III II II
:: II I II I I I I II II II
II II I II I I I I II II II
II IIIII I I I I II II II
II ;'11 I/ II I III I II I
/ II I I /I I II I I
i // / / // // / // / /
I .// / I i /-/ / .// / /
i II i I i ii / /I i I
/ //. / / //t// t /// // / I
I I / /// II I I I II
I / I / /// // / I I //
.11 I ' I / // I I I
., / /////// ///// / /. /
/ ,,,S /// // / II I I I I I
,,I 1 /// // / II III 1 I
/// /
I / ""/
/1 ///////
// ,, ,,,,--
tt - t t
,, / / /
//II ,/ /I /
/
:I*'IV3S 31NIJ. AV/ O.L

at the Wasatch front and within OgdenCanyon. The gravity valuesfor the inter-
pretive geologiccrosssectionwerecomputedwith a two-dimensionalJunggraticule'
no end correctionswere applied.
INTERPRETATION
Seismic results
Quality of results.--The first breaksfor the refraction work were generallyvery

good.The timesof arrival couldbe pickedto _+0.005sec.A few secondarrivalscould
be followed, but these were not used in the interpretation.
The averagefrequency of the reflectedarrivals was between 50 and 55 cps. For
the reflectionwork, filters on the amplifierswere set to passfrequenciesbetween45
and 65 cps. Although this narrow passbandproducedringing on the records,par-
ticularly on the east sideof the valley, this frequencyrangeproducedthe bestresults.
Considerabledifficulty was encountered,however,in separatingthe multiplesfrom
other events; and the reflectionsmust thereforebe assigneda fair to gooddegreeof
confidence.On the average,five to eight discreteeventswere usuallypickedon each
reflection record.
As evidencedfrom drilling, the weatheringlayer was very thin (5 to 8 ft) and
sufficiently uniform to omit in crosssection work. Considerationof the first-break
times on the reflectionrecordsresultedin very closeagreementbetweenthe baseof
the seismicweathering layer and the top of the water table. For this reason, no
weatheringcorrectionswere usedin the analysisof the data.
Refractionresults.--Figure 2 is a compositetime crosssectionacrossthe valley
along the refraction and reflectionprofiles.The depths determinedfrom the refrac-
tion work and averagevelocitiesthat were used are shown beneath shotpoints1, 2,
6, 5, and 7. Also, the traveltime plots for the refraction profilesare shownbeneath
these shotpoints.The velocitiesshownin the upper left part of the time crosssec-
tion are based on refraction results.In order to present homogeneousdata in this
area of overlapping data, these velocities were applied to the reflection times to
obtain depths by reflectionwhich would agree with those determinedfrom the re-
fraction results.
The westernmostrefraction profile, which trends eastward, shows three layers
havingtrue velocitiesof approximately5,000, 9,700, and 14,500ft/sec, respectively.
The two higher velocities are interpreted to be representative of the Mineral Fork
tillite (the velocity measuredon Little Mountain South at shotpoint 11 wasfound to
be 9,780 ft/sec) and Precambrian rock below the tillite. Under shotpoint 1, the
depthsof the two contactswere computedto be 45 ft and 235 ft, respectively.Both
contactsdip about 7 E.
The other eastward-trending refraction profile showstraveltime curves that are
more complex.On both endsof the graph,the shallow5,000ft/sec layer is inferredon
the basisof first arrivals from reflectionwork in the area. At shotpoint 6, on the west
end of the profile, the depth of the contact betweenthe 5,000 ft/sec layer and an-
In the easternpart of the gravity profile,someof the gravity values,as for examplethosenorth of
OgdenCanyon,are projected(for a distanceof lessthan a mile) into the profilealongthe trend of the
gravity contours,whichis approximatelyperpendicularto the profile.
other layer having a velocity of approximately6,000 ft/sec is 92 ft. This contacthas

a dip of 2 E. The traveltimecurvegoingeast from shotpoint6 showsan irregular
feature which is located on the traveltime graph below shotpoint 5. The curve shows
what appearsto be the transition from a relatively high velocity layer (velocity
above10,000ft/sec) to a lower-velocitylayer (9,750ft/sec on the graph) at a depth
of approximately1,300ft. It shouldbe noted that the traveltime plot of the reversed
profile (from shotpoint7) showsa similarfeature with the transitionfrom a lower
velocity layer (8,100 ft/sec on the graph) to a highervelocitylayer (velocity about
15,000 ft/sec on the traveltime graph). This anomalousfeature of the curvescould
possiblybe explainedby a 1,000-ft to 1,500-ft doming or folding of the subsurface
rocks or by a nearly vertical subsurfacediscontinuity, that is, a fault. The fault
interpretation is preferredbecauseof the observeddecreasinggravity to the east at
this location (Figure 3). Thus, the interpretationof thesecurvesis that they are
the manifestationof a nearly vertical fault with high-velocityrock (14,000 ft/sec) on
the westsideand a lower-velocityrock on the eastside(approximately9,000 ft/sec).
The fault is downthrown to the east. From these data, it is impossibleto tell the
exact amountof throw of the postulatedfault.
Reflectionresults.--Figure 2 showsthe plot of two-way time to recognizablere-
flected events plotted as small circlesunder shotpoints8 through 28. Reflections
were picked on the basisof amplitude and lineup of the traces, and all recognizable
reflectionswere picked on all records. The records were correlated between shot-
points on the basis of record character. The dashed lines connectingtimes of re-
flected events between the shotpointsshow the interpretation of the correlation be-
tween the various reflectedevents.The last correlatablereflectionswere interpreted
to be indicative of bedrock reflectionsas shown on the time section; however, this
interpretation is open to question,and the actual depth to bedrockcould be differ-
ent from that shownin Figure 2 for the reflectionresults.
Averagevelocitieswere computedusing the reflectedevents by the conventional
analytical method given by Green (1938). Severalusablevelocitieswere computed
for each reflecting horizon on each record. Velocities calculated for seismometer
spreadson both sidesof the shot were averaged.Although severalerratic velocities
wereobservedthat resultedfrom localdipsand/or irregularities,the generalvelocity
trend checkedbetweenshotpoints.When the velocitiesdid not agreeon either side
of the shotpoint,to within the limits set by the dip, they were not used.Using the
averagevelocitiesthat were computed in this manner, dips were calculated for the
reflectinghorizons.An averagevelocity column is shownin the center of the time
sectionthat is applicablefor the portion of the sectionbetweenthe two insidefaults.
A similar velocity column is shown between the two faults on the western side of
the valley. These averagevelocitieswere computedin the manner describedabove
but they did not conform with the velocitiesin the center column. On the basis of
reflectioncorrelation(or lack of correlation)and velocity discordance,the data were
interpreted to be possiblyindicative of faulting as shownby the heavy dashedline.
Only three reliable averagevelocitiescould be calculatedfrom the recordson the
upthrown side of the possibleeastern fault. These average velocitiesare shown in
the columnon the easternside of the profile, east of the fault. The faulting on the
546
o
,
o
,
XI IAV19
XIIAV19 -IVn01sq 1
3n9noa
o
o

o

eastern edge of the valley was suggestedby the occurrenceof shallow reflections
which were interpreted to be causedby the basementrock of Precambrian and/or
Paleozoicage. No deep reflectionscould be picked on the records.The location and
attitude of the fault as shownon the time sectionis uncertain, and additional work
is neededin the area to resolvethis uncertainty.
The dips computedfrom individual recordsusing the assumedvelocitiesshoweda
generaltwo- to three-degreedip toward the centerof the profile. Severalof the com-
puted dips are shownon the time crosssection.The erratic dips are believedto be
causedby subsurfaceirregularities.For example,a few small westdipsin the upper
west-centralportion of the time sectionmay be causedby slumpingin the vicinity
of the fault zone.
The interpretedgeologicsectionis shownat the bottom of Figure 2. The faulting
wasplacedby the aboveinterpretation.The depthsto the horizonswere computed
by taking one-halfof the two-way reflectiontime and multiplyingthis time by the
averagevelocity that was applicablefor that two-way reflectiontime as read from
the columnof averagevelocities.On the assumptionthat the last correlatablereflec-
tionswerefrom the bedrock,the total indicatedthicknessof the valley fill alongthe
sectionis about 6,200 ft; thus the bedrocksurfacewould be about 2,000 ft below sea
level. It shouldbe emphasized,however,that this indicatedthicknessis probablya
minimum depth becausethe observedreflectionsfrom any goodseismicreflector--
as, for example,a basaltlava flow--within the rocksof Cenozoicagewouldlead to
an erroneousinterpretation of the total depth to the true bedrock.
It shouldbe noted that our resultsfor the minimum depth to the basementrock
agreeswell with thosefound independentlyin the samegeneralarea by McDonald
and Wantland (1960, p. 21), who concludedfrom their seismicreflectiondata that
"the basementrock might be as much as 6,000 ft deepin the bottom of the trough,
which lies some 5 miles west of Ogden." A test well, which was drilled in this area
by the U.S. Bureauof Reclamationincident to their ground-waterstudies,pene-
trated rocksof Cenozoicageto a depth of 3,006 ft, whichwasthe total depth of the
hole.
Gravity results
Figure 3 showsthe observed,assumedregional,and residualgravity, as well as an
interpretive geologiccrosssection,along the gravity profile that extendseastward
from Little Mountain South,throughOgden,and up OgdenCanyonin the Wasatch
Range.The small amountof topographicrelief for the WasatchRangeindicatedon
the crosssectionresultsfrom the fact that the elevationsusedin the profile are the
elevationsof the gravity stations,whichweretakenin the bottomof OgdenCanyon,
rather than the elevationsat the high mountain surface.
For the interpretive geologicprofile shownin Figure 3, the computedgravity
valuesare shownwith appropriatesymbolson or near the residualgravity curvein
accordance
with whetherthe assumeddensitycontrastbetweenthe valley fill of
Cenozoicage and the bedrock along each of the three assumedbedrock surfacesis
0.4, 0.5, or 0.6 gm/cm, respectively.It shouldbe notedthat the total gravity relief
due to the grabenis about44 mgal. Althoughit is believedthat the geologicstru-
tures shown are reasonable,it must be emphasizedthat instead of the few faults
which are postulated, a seriesof smaller step faults will give similar resultsfor the
theoreticalgravity. It is believed,however,that the total displacementalonga fault-
block mountain often occursby large movements along a relatively few major faults
rather than the cumulative effect of small movementsalongmany minor faults.
The indicated thicknessof the valley fill for the largest assumedaveragedensity
contrast (0.6 gm/cma) betweenthe bedrockand valley fill is about 7,600 ft. At this
depth, the bedrock surfacewould be about 3,400 ft below sea level. The rather low
compressionalseismicvelocities that extend to considerabledepth (Figure 2) in-
dicatethat the assumedaveragedensitycontrastof 0.6 gm/cmacouldconceivablybe
too low. If so, the estimated thicknessof the valley fill from the gravity results
(7,600 ft) would be too great.
Of the two faults shownon the west side of the valley, the southwardprojection
of the west fault at point B coincideswith Hooper Hot Springs,just off the map in
Figure 2; and it is therefore suggestedthat these springsare possibly due to this
fault (Lum, 1957,p. 12). The fault shownat point C' on the gravity profile(Figure3)
is interpreted as the southwardextensionof the fault indicated at point C on the
seismicprofile (Figure 1).
The northward and southward extents of the graben and its relationship to the
Wasatch trench are treated in another paper (Cook et al., in preparationfor publica-
tion).
CONCLUSIONS
The seismicand gravity resultscombinedindicate a great graben about 13 milesin

width in the valley between Little Mountain South and the Wasatch Range. The
thicknessof the valley fill is indicated to be at least 6,200 ft by the reflectiondata and
to be 7,600 ft by the gravity data for an assumedaverage density contrast of 0.6
gm/cma between the valley fill and the bedrock of Precambrian and/or Paleozoic
age. If the velocity sectionapplies,the depth estimate basedon the seismicdata will
needto be increasedif it is found'later that a goodreflector(as, for example,a basalt
flow) existswithin the rocksof Cenozoicage. Correspondingly,the depth estimate
based on the gravity data will need to be decreasedif it is found later that the
assumeddensity contrast is too small.
The seismicresultsindicate that the valley graben is boundedon the west by two
faults east of Little Mountain South. One fault, for which the seismic evidence is
good,is beneathshotpoint5 (point B, Figure 1) about 2.4 milesfrom the baseof the
Little Mountain South. The other fault, for which the seismicevidence is fair, is
betweenshotpoints10 and 13 (point C, Figure 1); and the gravity data indicatethat
this fault extendssouthwardto point C'.
On the east, the graben is bounded probably by at least three parallel or sub-
parallel faults. The most easterly fault, which was crossedby the gravity profile
only, lies alongthe Wasatch front (point F, Figure 1). The next major fault toward
the valley is probably the one which is interpretedfrom the seismicresultsto be
betweenshotpoints22 and 24 (point D, Figure 1); the seismicevidencefor this fault
is poor.This fault probablyextendssouthwardto join the fault indicatedon the
gravityprofile(point D', Figure1) andnorthwardto join the fault inferredat Utah

Hot Springs(north of the area includedin Figure 1). The fault inferredfarther to-
wardthe interiorof the graben(pointE, Figure1) is basedon the gravity interpreta-
tion only.
In general,it is believed that the seismicand gravity data combinedhave fur-
nishedmuch useful information concerningthe structural features of the Wasatch
trench in this area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
H. D. Narans,Jr., assistedin the seismicsurveyand in the reduction,compilation,

and interpretationof the seismicdata. W. W. Johnsonsupervisedthe gravity survey,
during 1958, and assistedin the reduction, compilation, and interpretation of the
gravity data. Funds for the project wereprovidedby the National ScienceFounda-
tion under ResearchGrant NSF-G2766, and the Utah EngineeringExperiment of
the University of Utah.
REFERENCES
Cook,K. L., !962, The problemof the mantle-crustmix: Lateral inhomogeneity

in the uppermostpart
of the earth's mantle: Advancesin Geophysics,v. 9, p. 295-360.
Cook, K. L., and Berg, J. W., Jr., 1956, Regionalgravity surveyin Salt Lake and Utah Counties,Utah
(abstract):Geophysics, v. 21, p. 539.
1958,Regionalgravity surveyin northernUtah (abstract):Geophysics, v. 23, p. 400.
1961, Regionalgravity survey along the central and southernWasatch front, Utah: U.S. Geol.
SurveyProf. Paper 316E, p. 75-89.
Cook,K. L., and others,Regionalgravity surveyin the vicinity of the GreatSaltLake andnorthernpart
of the Wasatch Range, Utah: in preparationfor publication.
Duerksen,J. A., 1949, Pendulumgravity data in the United States:U.S. Coastand GeodeticSurvey
Spec.Pub. 244, 218 p.
Green,C. H., 1938,Velocity determinationby meansof reflectionprofiles:Geophysics, v. 3, p. 295-305.
Lum, Daniel, 1957, Regionalgravity survey of the north-centralWasatch Mountains and vicinity,
Utah: unpublishedM.S. thesis,Universityof Utah, 27 p.
McDonald, H. R., and Wantland, Dart, 1960, Geophysicalproceduresin ground water study: Jour.
Irrigation and Drainage Division, Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engineers,v. 86, no. IR 3, September,
p. 13-26.
Swick, C. H., 1942,Pendulumgravity measurements and isostaticreductions:U.S. Coastand Geodetic
Survey, Spec.Pub. 232, 82 p.
A SEISMIC SECTION OF THE SVERDRUP BASIN,

CANADIAN ARCTIC ISLANDS
GEORGE D. HOBSON* A) A. OVERTON**
ABSTRACT
Sevenseismicrefractionprofileswere completedin 1961 in the CanadianArctic Islandsunder the

Polar ContinentalShelfProjectof the Departmentof Mines and TechnicalSurveys.Thesesevenprofiles
were shot alonga line extendingfrom a location30 milesnorth of Ellef RingnesIsland, alongthe west
coastof this sameislandto a point 30 milessouthof the islandinto BelcherChannel.
The programwascarriedout usingan S-55helicopterwith the supplysupportand majormovesby
Otter fixed-wingaircraft. Dynamite chargeswere successfullydetonatedin depthsof water to 1,285ft
without the use of "boosters."A Decca Survey Chain providedregionalnavigationbut this systemis
not sufficientlyaccuratefor long-rangeseismicrefractionsurveying.Thesesevenprofilesare presented
in a crosssectionacrossthe SverdrupBasin,correlatedby seismicvelocities,indicatinga thicknessof
approximately40,000ft of sedimentin the centerof the Basinto a formationwith a horizontalvelocity
of 20,000ft/sec "Basement"or the baseof the unmetamorphosed sedimentsmay be 64,000ft deepat
this location.
INTRODUCTION
An earlierpaper by Hobson(1962) hasoutlinedthe seismicobjectivesand tech-

niques,the physicalenvironment,the method of operation,and the resultsof the
1960seismicprogramof the Polar ContinentalShelfProject in the CanadianArctic
Islands.This paper will presentthe resultsof the 1961programacrossthe Sverdrup
Basin. This programwas not completedover the southernrim of the Basin due to
operationaldifficulties.A polar bear attacked one member of the crew forcing a
prematureand suddencurtailment of the program.
ICE TOPOGRAPHY AND WEATHER
Arctic sea-icein motion is an impressiveand admittedly frighteningexperience

aspressureridgesmay form quicklyand silentlysometimesto heightsof 40 to 60 ft,
and very quickly endangerlife. Newly formedpressureridgesmay be accompanied
by rafting of the ice sheet whereby the underthrustsheet may be coveredwith
water of considerabledepth. Work near pressureridgesmust always be conducted
with caution. Extensive studies of color, general appearance, etc., as related to
structureof ice,have beenmadein relation to bearingstrengthfor aircraft landings.
The entire Arctic ice pack is in motion; accordingto Decca surveys,a dynamite
cacheoff the north coastof Ellef RingnesIsland drifted about 2 milesin 36 hours.
An important consideration in offshoreArctic operationsis that after the wind has
beenblowingfrom onedirectionfor considerable time, a "back pressure"is created
to be releasedwhen the wind stopsblowing; the ice will return a certain distance
toward its earlierlocationor beyondwithout a changein the directionof the wind.
$ Presentedat the 32nd Annual Meeting, SEG, September18, 1962.
* Geophysicist,GeologicalSurveyof Canada.
** ScientificOfficer,Polar ContinentalShelfProject.
Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Arctic Islands 551
This fact must be appreciatedwhensettingup campnear an open"lead" in the ice.

The ice in the bays adjacent to the islandsis generallysmoothand stable, while
that in the wider between-island channelsand seascan be extremelyroughthough
stable. Although the thicknessof the ice that has formed over only one winter is
generally 6 to 7 ft, two locations were drilled in 1961 in which more than 9 ft of
smoothunbrokenice wasencountered.The sea-icein 1961in Deer Bay and Kristof-
fer Bay was smoothenoughto permit operationsby land vehicles.Reindeer Bay
was very rough and land vehiclescould not travel exceptwith extremedifficulty.
South of Ellef Ringnes Island there was very little open water in June, 1961, a
distinctcontrastto June, 1960, whenthere wasan estimated75 percentopenwater.
Weather conditionswere considerednormal for 1961. Severalworking days were
lost due to whiteout conditionsparticularly on the profilesadjacent to or over the
Arctic Ocean. Severe icing conditions were encounteredin late May; this same
weather phenomenonwas experiencedabout the same time of the 1960 season.
TRANSPORTATION
Conventionaltrackedvehiclessuchas Bombardiersor motor tobogganscouldnot

be usedin 1961 on the sea-icenorth or west of Cape Isachsen.In general,the me-
chanical and natural physical difficulties of working with tracked vehicles in the
Canadian Arctic Islands under extremely adverse conditions are not insurmount-
able to the persistentoperator but are certainly not conduciveto an efficient, pro-
ductive, and safe operation. An S-55 helicopterwas usedon all profilesshot in 1961
by the recordingand shootingcrew with a DeHavilland Otter beingusedfor supply
and major moves.
NAVIGATION SYSTEM
The sameDecca 9f Lambda Survey Chain usedin 1960 was employedfor regional
navigation in 1961. The Master station was at Cape Isachsen on Ellef Ringnes
Island, Red Slave on the north shoreof Borden Island, and Green Slave on Meighen
Island. Positive lane identification was not included on the instruments.
It has been concludedthat the accuracy of the Decca chain is not sufficient for
long-rangeseismicrefraction surveying.This is emphasizedparticularly if there is a
bend in the line of detectors, becausedistancesof shotpoint to detector cannot be
determined with sufficientaccuracy. A Tellurometer was used in the 1962 survey
tying into the existing Shoran and Tellurometer network. A sky-wave interference
reflected by the ionospheremay also add to the inaccuraciesof the Decca Survey
systemduring certain eveninghours. The authors hasten to point out however that
while the Decca Systemis a dependablenetwork for many navigational and survey
requirements,the Decca Companyitself hasnever claimedthat their systemis suffi-
ciently accurate for seismicsurveying.
Referencing of the Decca instruments to a known location should be done while
the aircraft is stationary. If the Decca equipment is mounted in a helicopter, the
rotor bladesshouldbe rotating as before take-off to balanceout instrumental phase
shift and so eliminate the proximity of a rotor blade being randomly near to or far
from the Decca antenna.
AREAS SURVEYED
Figure 1 indicatesthe seismicprofilesshot in 1961. All profilesare reversedrefrac-

tion profileswith the exceptionof that in Deer Bay and the most southerlyprofile
in Belcher Channel. These latter two profiles were unreversed.
EXPLOSIVES AND SHOTHOLE PREPARATION
StandardGeoge160percent,2 inch by 5 lb, shippedby boat the previousSeptem-

ber, was used with No. 8 Seismocapsas detonators. Chargesvaried from 20 lb to
700 lb and were loadedinto the water through holesdrilled in the ice or into open
leads to water depthsranging between 18 and 1,285 ft. Somemisfireswere experi-
encedat water depths exceeding600 ft, but this trouble was completelyeliminated
by placingtwo capsclosetogetherin eachpackage.of dynamite. "Boosters"would
have served the same purpose.
Chargesof 80 lb or less,fast-coupledand lashedtogether, were loaded through a
6 inch hole in the ice. Chargesof 100 lb or more required a different loading tech-
nique. Originally, such chargeswere made up of 50 lb boxesloaded through holes
about 2 ft in diameter. Singleboxeswere primed and suspendedimmediately below
the ice until the desired charge size was prepared for lowering to the bottom. The
2 ft diameter hole was made by drilling a pattern of sevenholes,6 inchesin diam-
eter, the centerhole through to the water and the surroundingsix holesalmostto the
water in a hexagonalpattern about the central hole. A small charge of explosives,
about 2 lb is placed in the central hole at the base of the ice, and another similar
chargeabout midway in the hole. Thesetwo chargesare detonatedsimultaneously.
The air-filled holeson the periphery govern the final sizeof the hole.
Various improvementson this technique have been developedso that Geogelis
now orderedin 50 lb cylindricalblocks,8 inchesin diameterby 17.5 incheslong with
a 1 inch hole on the longitudinal axis.A packageof variable sizecan then be lowered
on a rope through a single10-inchhole.Up to two hoursof time can be savedat each
locationby usingthis techniquewhen chargesover 80 lb are required.Of course,an
open lead in the ice providesthe easiestaccessto the water.
The drill used for penetrating the ice was the same gasoline-drivenpower-saw
engine used in 1960 with a 20'1 worm-drive transmission-reductionattachment
driving the augerstem. It is a McCulloch chain sawmotor, model35 C/W, 3 hp. A
full-flighted auger and two unflighted extensions,all one meter long, is sufficientto
penetrate through almost all the ice drilled. Drilling progressis improved by usinga
serrated cutting blade on the auger.
RECORDING AND FIELD PROCEDURE
Twenty-four channelsof information were recorded through a Texas Instru-

ments' model 8000 "Explorer" portable seismographsystem on a model RS- 12P
recordingoscillographwith 200 cps galvanometers.All shotswere magneticallyre-
corded on a Techno model TL-551 Recorder-Reproducerat a speedof 6.5 in/sec.
The tape recording was delayed until shortly before the arrival of the refracted
energy.This delay and the slowtape speedenabledthe observerto recordall desired
553
Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Arctic Islands
AXEL
I
CAPE ISACHSEI
REINDEER
DEER
ELLEF AMUND
BORDEN
RINGNES
IS.
KRIS )FFER BAY
IACKENZIE
KING
)ELCHER
LOUGHEED IS, CHANNEL
40 MILES I
Fzo. 1. Seismicprofilesshotin 1961.
secondaryarrivals.
Onplayback thetapespeed wasincreased to 13in/secto com-
pensate,
in some measure, forincreasedattenuation of thelowfrequencies.Texas
Instruments'seven-cycle,
modelS-43geophones wereusedto detectrefractedsig-
nalsovera spreadwitha generaldetectorintervalof240ft. Thesignalwasrecorded
usingalow-cutfilterof"out"andahigh-cut filtervariable
from40to92cpsdepend-
entupontheresponse characteristics
of theareaof interest.Theinstruments were
notpermanently installed
in fabricated
racks butwerefreeforfloorinstallationin
either a tent or helicopter.
Thefirststepin thefieldprocedure
wasto house
theinstruments
in a tentat a
Decca-controlled
site.The S-55helicopter
then movedshooting
personnel,
explo-
sives,andequipment
to selected
shotpointlocations
moving
progressively
further
awayfromthegeophone spreaduntilallvelocities
downto,andincluding,
20,000
ftfsecwererecorded.
Whenthisvelocity wasobserved,
theshooting
andrecording
crews interchanged
positions.
The shooting crewthenremainedstationary
while
the instruments
and geophonespreadweremovedby the helicopter.Reversal
spreads
werelaidoutat suitable
locations
dictated primarily
bysegmentsof the
time-distance
plotsand,secondly,
bythesuitability
oftheicetopography
tolaying
outthespread.
Nocontinuousreflection
profiles,
air,orsurface
shots
wereattempted
during the 1961 program.
The charge size required to produce reliable first arrivals dependsprincipally

upon wind, ice noise,compositionof sedimentarysection,and water depth. Charge
size during the 1961 program rangedbetween20 lb at one mile and 75 lb at 25 miles
for a lower limit and between 20 lb at one mile and 700 lb at 25 miles for the upper
limit. On one occasion,500 lb at 39 miles was adequate. Ten refraction stationsmay
be occupiedand shot in a normal working day if the geophonespreadis maintained
while four locationsper working day is a seasonalaverage.
METHOD OF COMPUTATION
The geographicalcoordinatesof each shotpoint and the center and both ends of
the detectorspreadwere computedfrom the Decca coordinatestabulated in the field.
The straight-line distance of each detector from every shotpoint was readily ob-
served when these coordinateswere plotted graphically. Arrival times at each geo-
phone station were plotted against distance to determine the velocities indicated
on the spread.Figure 2 is an exampleof a time-distanceplot with the reverseveloci-
ties plotted.
Two corrections,using the velocities indicated on the time-distance plots, were
applied to the total times of eachset of arrivals on eachrecord.This method of com-
putation will apply only to first arrivals of energy sincelater arrivals require a dif-
ferent set of corrections.The correctionsapplied are as follows'
(1). One correction minimizes the effect of the variable depth to the first sedi-
mentary layer underlying the water. The variable depth to this sedimentary layer
was assumedto correlatewith observedwater depths.This first correction,/xtd,is
180 160 140

,
I00
i,80 60 40
i i
20 0
FEET IN THOUSANDS
Fro. 2. Time-distanceplot example.

555
Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Arctic Islands
SPREAD
X -- SURFACE
% sP.
'
i
VI (WATER)
II WATER
AVERAGE
DEPTH
UNDEROF
la (-rE! //SHOTNS
__ _ __ .... -- --
v F
- /;a ....
V3
(SECOND
SEDIMENTARY
YER)
//// ,.
Vh
Then t = V2 fromSnell
Sin02r s
Law
and from the fundamental equation
AfA&
' = - adltan
Vn
e2r.+ 6dl
V2 cos 02rt
= Ad cos G2n
V2
= correction appliedto arrival times
Fro.3.Diagram
andderivation
ofcorrection
applied
forthevariable
depth
ofthefirstsedimentary
layer.
thecorrection
applied
to first-arrival
timesanditsderivation
isindicated
in Figure
3. It is similar to a weatheringcorrection.
Theentirewaterlayerof velocityV couldhavebeenreplaced
in thiswayby
materialof subbottom
velocityV.and,therefore,
onlyonecorrection
wouldhave
beenrequired.
However,V.mayvaryoverthelengthoftheprofile
and,therefore,
toreplace
daswellasAdbyanerroneous
velocity
V.wouldintroduce
errors
propor-
tional to AVe. and d.
(2). A second
correction
wasthenapplied.
Variations
inbottom
topography
were
corrected
to a valueofdusinga valueof V.determined
closeto thespread
andthe
shotposition
waselevated fromitsresulting
depth,d,to thesurface of theice,
(wheretheicesurface
isthedatum plane),
bya correctionwhichisindependent of
V2.Thiscorrection,
Ata,
isderived
asindicated
in Figure
4.It issimilar
toanuphole
correction.
The totalcorrection
appliedis thesumof thesetwocorrections.
Therefore,
/XT = /xta-5-/Xta
/Xd cos 0u d cos 0
= --
Vu V
All time-distance data are therefore referred to the common ice surface and the effect
of the undulating velocity discontinuityat the water-bottom interface tends to be
eliminated as much as possiblewithout detailed information on V.. These correc-
tions were applied without considerationfor dipping velocity layers, but the final
results would be modified only slightly by dips up to a few degrees.
The thicknessesof the velocity layers indicated on the time-distanceplots were
computedusingthe standardformula
x ()
V =
2d
cos
V
0
GEOLOGY
Re[erenceonly is made to such standard geologicaldescriptionsas Tozer (1960),

Thorsteinssonand Tozer (1960), and GeologicalSurvey of Canada maps (1959).
The authors will endeavor to correlate geologicformations with age within the con-
text of the paper.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Each refraction profile will be discussedwith respect to data observedand the

interpretation of that data. A water correctionfactor of 5,000 ft/sec was used
throughoutthe computationsto correctfor water depth. The observedwater veloc-
ity in 1961 was nearly the sameas the velocity of 4,725 ft/sec observedin 1960.
SPREAD SURFACE
.____ s,).
...........
ii/! APPLYING
V4 ETC.
Then
SinOn= V_L
Vn
fromSnell's
Low
andatd=-dtanO,n+ d
Vn V cos
= d cos
V
FIG. 4. Diagram and derivationof correctionto datum plane (ice surface).

The average ice-velocityobservedin 1961 was 9,370 ft/sec comparedto 9,750

ft/sec at Isachsenand 9,600 ft/sec at Borden Island in 1960.
Figure 5 showsa set of typical records, while the seismicresultsare presentedin
the crosssectionof Figure 6 with no attempt being made to correlateseismicveloci-
ties with lithology. The seismicvelocity tabulated is the resultant velocity from com-
putations employingthe reversedspreadprocedure.
Cape Isachsen--locationsI and 2

Location ! is approximately 30 miles north of the northern extremity of Ellef
RingnesIsland, and location 2 is immediately west of Cape Isachsen.Both profiles
were reversed.First arrivals of energy are generally fair to good on these profiles
with some of excellent quality being recorded at location 2. The data recorded at
location ! were correctedto a mean water depth of 650 ft, while thosefrom location 2
were correctedto 740 ft. Location ! was shot over a distanceof 48,000 ft, while loca-
tion 2 was spreadover 26,400 ft. Shotswere fired in 1,235 and 1,285 ft of water at
location 1.
These two locationsappear to be outsidethe northern rim of the Sverdrup Basin
and reveal two lower-velocity refracting horizonswhich are not recorded within the
Basin itself. The 6,200-ft/sec layer is probably the Beaufort Formation of the Arctic
Coastal Plain. Other sedimentswithin the Basin, probably post-Jurassicin age and
representedby the 7,200-ft/secvelocity,are in seismicallyundetectablethicknesses
at the localitiessurveyedwithin the Basin. The peculiar thinning of the 14,500-ft/
seclayer at location2 may be the result of a facieschange.The surfacerepresented
by the 14,500ft/sec to 17,000ft/sec interfacemay be an unconformitywhich may
pinch out to the center of the Basin as indicated at locations6 and 7. The strata
representedby velocitiesfrom 7,200 ft/sec to, and including,17,000ft/sec may be
Tertiary in age.
Reindeer-DeerBays Area--locations 3 and 4

Location 3 is a reversedprofile over a spreaddistanceof 37,200 ft, while location
4 was unreversedover 33,900 ft. Location 3 was correctedto a mean water depth
of 780 ft and location 4 to a depth of 490 ft. First arrivals of energy on both pro-
fileswere goodto excellentin quality.
The Isachsen-Deer Bay profile of 1960 and the adjacent velocity information
indicate a dip of 4 degreessouthon the !7,500-ft/sec horizon.This profile is south
of location 4.
These two locationsare on the broad rim of the Sverdrup Basin as indicated on
the crosssectionby the nearestapproachto surfaceby the 20,000-ft/seclayer. The
!7,500-ft/sec layer appearsto pinch out or becomeseismicallyundetectableon the
rim. The rim also marks the southern facies change of the Beaufort Formation and
probablyof the post-Jurassic
sediments.On shorenear theselocations,outcropis of
the Lower CretaceousIsachsen Formation or the Upper JurassicDeer Bay Forma-
tion. These may not be presentoffshore,and, consequently,Jurassicbeds may lie
immediately under the sea-floorsediments.
558
Case Histories
of Refraction
Methods
2 3 4 5 5 6 7
_ ..I/5,ooo', .5,ooo.
_. -_ I /5-,000
k',,_ 9,000J<,,
9,000J<,,
_2 oo'(,__. -" lo.ooo,, -,'qo,000,,
.200, /' ",12,500,
_:,] ,6.--./_.
- ........
....
,4,aoo,,
'u5.,00020,500
. 14,500,,
14,500Y,
,'"'"'""_...- _ .--,v.e . ,, --
15,000, ------ -,
)OUU II I ; --e I
:' ,, .o,ooo,,
\ /e,soox,
e,soox,
2O-
o,ooox,
?
40-
2o,oooX,
50
o 3o
I m . m I
6o
zO. . esu]ts: Seismic coss section om e]che Channel to the

ctc Oceannorth o Cpe schsen.
Thequestion
arises
whether
theupliftindicated
at locations
3 and4 occurred
at
the time of the suggestedunconformityor whether it was there before such an un-
conformity and thereby a sourceof the sedimentson both sidesof the Basin rim.
The unconformitymay, therefore,be an important feature in the developmentof the
Sverdrup Basin itself, for the solution of this question may have a bearing on
whether similar sedimentarymaterials and conditionsmay occurinside and outside
the Basin. This in turn will have an influenceon the probable extent of potential
petroleum provinces. More geophysicaland stratigraphic information is required
before the initial questioncan be answered.
In this general area, Hobson (1962) recordsthe presenceof a material of low
velocity, 6,100 ft/sec, immediatelyunder the water asrecentlydepositedsediments
and alsoa velocity of 22,600 ft/sec asa secondaryarrival. Neither of thesevelocities
was observedin 1961, so that a further evaluation of their presencecannot be at-
56O Case Histories of Refraction Methods
tempted. However, analysisof the results of the 1960 program indicates the pres-
ence of a 7,000-to-8,000-ft-thick layer at Isachsen below what was then termed
"basement."If this layer indicatedby the 22,600-ft/secvelocity be extrapolatedto
the Kristoffer Bay profile of 1961, there may be approximately 64,000 ft of unmeta-
morphosedsedimentswithin the Sverdrup Basin. This extensionof sediment thick-
nessfrom the 1960 estimate of 40,000 ft is made possibleonly through information
at hand from the Dome et al. Winter Harbour no. 1 well (personalcommunication).
The gamma-soniclogs run in this hole indicate generally high sectional velocities
with recognizedformational and lithologicalcontactscorrespondingto large velocity
discontinuities.The average interval velocitiesobservedin the Winter Harbour hole
correspondvery favorably with those indicated in Figure 6 of this paper. An ex-
tremely high interval velocity averaging 22,500 ft/sec was recordedin the Lower
Cape Phillips and/or Cornwallis carbonateformation of Ordovician age at depth in
the Winter Harbour hole. Based on this velocity information the thicknessof the
unmetamorphosedsedimentswithin the Sverdrup Basin is probably in excessof
60,000 ft of which only 40,000 ft may be a sourcefor petroleum.
Kristoer Bay--location 5
Location 5 appearsto be near the center of the Sverdrup Basin. This profile was
reversedover a spreadof approximately 170,200ft using500 lb of explosivesin 775
ft of water. Fair to poor first arrivals of first energy were recordedat this distance,
whereasgood to fair first breaks were observedout to about 136,200 ft usingonly
75 lb of explosives.Shooting this profile in reverseproduced no indication of dip
north or south lending further weight to the conclusionthat this profile is near the
center of the Basin.
Since Permian formations are present at the surface within the domal structures
east and south of Kristoffer Bay, Jurassicformations are probably presentat depth
and it is suggestedthat the 10,000-ft/seclayer shownon the sectionmay correspond
to theseJurassicbeds. There is no evidenceon which to correlate the 12,500-ft/sec
layer with a known geologicalformation, but it is suggestedthat this horizon is
probably Triassic in age.
Cape Nathorst--locations 6 and 7

These two locations are off the south coast of Ellef Ringnes Island. Location 6 is
an extensionof the incomplete1960 profile in that location (South Ellef Ringnes
Island profile) and was shot in the samemanner so that a reasonablyaccuratecor-
relation could be made between the data of the two seasons.The reversed profile,
shot over a distanceof 130,500 ft, reveals about 2 degreesof north dip onthe
16,500-ft/seclayer. It must be pointed out that there may be discrepancies in the
computation of the data observedon this profile through the inaccuraciesof the
Decca locations sinceseveral of the shotson this line were offset considerablyfrom
the extensionof the geophoneline. This was unavoidablesincethe profile was com-
mencedin August, 1960, when ice conditionsin HasselSoundand Belcher Channel
were not conduciveto a proper selectionof shotpointlocations.At that time of the
year, and operating from a helicopterit was desirableto shoot from ice floeswhich
are seldom found where desired.
An interestingphenomenonis displayedon this profile by considerabledisplace-
ment of a segmentof the time-distancecurve. It can be interpreted as a fault, but,
usinga body velocity of 20,000 ft/sec, it could be an intruded dyke, about 2,000 ft
thick. This latter interpretation is reasonablesince such intrusions are known to
exist on Ellef RingnesIsland.
Location 7 is an unreversedprofile in Belcher Channel south of Ellef Ringnes
Island and very closeto location 6. In fact, the southernmost shotpoint of location
6 is the northernmostof location 7. If the time-distanceplot of location 7 is com-
pared with that of location 6 there is a distinct similarity. However, the data ac-
cumulatedfrom location7 are toosparseto allowa rigorousinterpretation.This pro-
file wasshotearly in June, 1961,and operationaldifficultiespreventedthe recording
of data from a sufficientnumber of locationsfor a meaningfulinterpretation. Profile
7 was unreversedover approximately 100,400 ft over water depthsranging from 350
to 845 ft. Extensive movement of the ice prevented the recording of sharp first
arrivals. A reflection velocity survey was attempted in this area but was unsuccess-
ful.
The crosssectionat locations6 and 7 indicatesa noticeabledecreasein velocity
within the 17,500-ft/seclayer. This may be due, as suggestedearlier, to a disappear-
ance of the suggestedunconformity at the top of the 17,500-ft/sec layer.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1. The 1961 seismicprogram has outlined the northern rim and the center of the
$verdrup Basin.
2. The thicknessof the unmetamorphosedsedimentswithin the $verdrup Basin,
from seismicrefraction data and interval velocity data from Dome et al. Winter
Harbour no. 1 well, may be approximately 64,000 ft with probably 40,000 ft of that
sectionbeing a potential sourceof petroleum. The lower sedimentsare probably too
dense to be reservoirs.
$. A crosssectionexpressedin seismicvelocitiespresentsthe results of the 1961
program acrossthe $verdrup Basin. No direct attempt has been made to correlate
seismicvelocitieswith lithology due to the scarcityof geologicaldata at depth within
the area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The data discussedin this paper were the direct result of a cooperativeeffort on
the part of the authorsand G. W. Sander,W. Tyrlik, and J. Parkhill. Their coopera-
tion in the field is gratefully acknowledged. Information by Dome Petroleum
Limited and their partners in the Winter Harbour hole is alsoacknowledged.E. F.
Roots, as coordinator of the Polar Continental Shelf Project, has an untiring inter-
est in the seismicprogram. R. Thorsteinsson,of the GeologicalSurvey of Canada,
advisedin the correlationof the seismicvelocitieswith lithology. Acknowledgments
are due H. A. MacAulay who checkedthe computations and many others who con-
tributed to the successof the program.
REFERENCES
GeologicalSurvey of Canada, 1959, Ellef Ringnes,Amund Ringnes,Cornwall and LougheedIslands,

District of Franklin, Northwest Territories: Map 14.
GeologicalSurveyof Canada,1959,BathurstIslandsGroup,District of Franklin, NorthwestTerritories:
Map 18.
Hobson,GeorgeD., 1962,Seismicexplorationin the CanadianArcticIslands:Geophysics, v. 27, p. 253-
273.
Thorsteinsson,
R., and Tozer, E. T., 1960,Summaryaccountof structuralhistoryof the CanadianArctic
Archipelago sincePrecambriantime: Geol.Surv., Canada,Paper60-7.
Tozer, E. T., 1960,Summaryaccountof Mesozoicand Tertiary stratigraphy,CanadianArcticArchipel-
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Section
8
OF REFRACTION
PAPERS
Section 8
Bibliography of Refraction Papers
This bibliographyis dividedinto the followingfour categories'

(A) The first categoryincludesthosepaperspublishedin SEG accordingto the
SEG Bibliographyof 1963 and additionsmade from the USGS Geophysical
Abstracts.
(B) The secondcategorycoversother U.S. Bibliographywhich includesrefrac-
tion articlesfrom all other U.S. publicationsagain as determined from the
USGS GeophysicalAbstracts.
(C) The third list includesall articlesp/blishedoutsidethe United States men-
tioning refractionwork in the title or abstractslisted in the USGS Geophysi-
cal Abstracts.
(D) CompagnieGnrale de GeophysiqueBibliographieis a bibliography,pre-
paredby CGG for this volume,of all their foreignarticles.An efforthas been
madeto try to eliminateduplicatedentriesbetweenthe two foreignbibliogra-
phies,generallyusingthe Englishtranslation.
The first two bibliography lists were classifiedaccordingto refraction subject
categoriesaslisted on page571. From this a numericalcrossreferenceis usedto find
papersunder each of thesecategories.
564
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF REFRACTION PAPERS
A. SEG BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Agocs,W. B., 1949,Curvesfor the rapiddeterminationof refractionseismograph velocityintervals

and criticaldistances:Geophysics, v. 14, no. 3, p. 361-368. D
2. Allen,T. L., 1938,Useof recordcharacterin interpretingresultsand its effecton depthcalculation
in refractionwork (Trans.): Geophysics, v. 3, p. 42. Alsoin Early geophysicalpapers,p. 372. D
3. Allenby,RichardJ., Jr., 1962,The importanceof reflectedrefractionsin seismicinterpreting:Geo-
physics,v. 27, no. 6, pt. 2, supp.,p. 966-980. H
4. Bader,G. E., 1947,Geophysical historyof the Anahuacoil field, ChambersCounty, Texas: Geo-
physics,v. 12, no. 2, p. 191-199. F
5. Banta, H. E., 1941,A refractiontheoryadaptableto seismicweatheringproblems:Geophysics,
v. 6, no. 3, p. 245-253. K
6. Barthelmes,A. J., 1946,Applicationof continuous profilingto refractionshooting:Geophysics,
v. 11, no. 1, p. 24. G
7. Behrmann,R. B., 1948,Geophysical
historyof the Reitbrooksaltdomeandoil fieldnearHamburg,
northwestGermany,in Geophysical
casehistories:v. 1, p. 619-626,Tulsa,Soc.Expl. Geophysicists.
F
8. Blundun,G. J., 1956,The refractionseismograph
in theAlbertafoothills:Geophysics,
v. 21, no.3,
p. 828-838. F
9. Coryn,F. R., 1949, Geophysical historyof the Apachepool, CaddoCounty, Oklahoma,in Geo-
physicalcasehistories:v. 1, p. 312-318,Tulsa, Soc.Expl. Geophysicists. F
10. Cram,I. H., 1949,Casehistory,Cumberlandoil field,Bryanand MarshallCounties,Oklahoma,in
Geophysical casehistories:v. 1, 1948,p. 327-333, Tulsa, Soc.Expl. Geophysicists. F
11. Cram,Ira H., Jr., 1961,A crustalstructurerefractionsurveyin SouthTexas:Geophysics, v. 26,
no. 5, p. 560-573. F
12. Dix, C. H., 1939,Refractionand reflectionof seismic waves,part 1, Fundamentals: Geophysics,
v. 4, no. 2, p. 81-101. H
13. 1939,Refractionand reflectionof seismicwaves,part 2, Discussionof the physicsof refrac-
tion prospecting:Geophysics,v. 4, no. 4, p. 238. H
14. 1941,Notesonrefractionprospecting: Geophysics, v. 6, no.4, p. 378-396. H
15. Dobrin,M. B., 1942,An analyticalmethodof makingweatheringcorrections: Geophysics,
v. 7,
no. 3, p. 336. K
16. Duska,Leslie,1963,A rapidcurved-path methodfor weathering anddrift corrections:
Geophysics,
v. 28, no. 6, p. 925-947. K
17. Evison,F. F., 1952,The inadequacyof standardseismictechniquesfor shallowsurveying:Geo-
physics,v. 17, no. 4, p. 867-875. A
18. 1956,Seismicwaves froma transducer at the surfaceof stratifiedground:Geophysics,
v. 21,
no. 4, p. 939-959. J
19. Ewing,Maurice,and Crary, A. P., 1940,Studyof emergence angleandpropagationpathsof seismic
waves(Trans.):Geophysics,
v. 5,p. 154,alsoin Earlygeophysical
papers.,
p. 814. D
20. Fu, C. Y., 1946,Reflection
andrefractionof planewaves,studiesonseismic
waves:Geophysics,
v.
11, no. 1, p. 1. H
21. Gamburtsev,G. A., (condensed by L. W. Gardner),1946,Correlationof refractionshooting:Geo-
physics,11,no. 1, p. 59-65. B
22. Gardner,L. W., 1939,An areal plan of mappingsubsurface structureby refractionshooting:
Geophysics, v. 4, p. 247. D,G
23. 1949, Seismograph determination of salt boundaryusingwell detectordeepon domeflank:
Geophysics, v. 14,no. 1, p. 29-38. G
24. Gillin,J. A., andAlcock,E. D., 1946,The correlationrefractionmethodof seismicsurveying:Geo-
physics,v. 11,no. 1, p. 43. B, G
25. Gillin, J. A., Shock,Lorenz,and Alcock,E. D., 1942,An applicationof seismicsurveyingto the
locationof bauxitein Arkansas:Geophysics, v. 7, no.4, p. 400-405. A
26. Goguel,J. M., 1951,Seismic refractionwith variablevelocity:Geophysics, v. 15,no. 1, p. 81-101. D
27. Gough,D. I., 1952,A newinstrument for seismic exploration at veryshortranges:Geophysics, v.
17,no. 2, p. 311-333. K
28. Hagedoorn, J. G., 1964,The elusivefirstarrival:Geophysics, v. 29,no.5, p. 806-813. H
29. Hall, D. H., 1964,Convertedwavesin refractionsurveysovermarkerswith variabledepth:Geo-
physics,
v. 29,no.5,p. 733-744. j
30. Harris,SidonA., 1935,Semi-graphical
methodof determiningdepthsof multilayer,dippingstrata
from seismic time-travelcurves:Transactions,
v. 5, p. 121;alsoin Early geophysical papers,
p. 781. D
31. Harris,Sidon,andPeabody,
Gwendolyn,
1946,Refraction
exploration
in WestTexas:Geophysics,
v. 11,no.1,p. 52. A, B, F
565
566 Bibliography of Refraction Papers
32. Hawkins, L. V., 1961, The reciprocalmethodof routine shallowseismicrefractioninvestigations:

Geophysics, v. 26, no. 6,p. 806-819. G
33. 1962, Discussionby J. G. Hagedoornon Hawkins' paper "The reciprocalmethodof routine
shallowseismicrefractioninvestigations," (Geophysics,Dec. 1961,p. 816-819): Geophysics, v. 27,
no. 4, p. 534-535. Reply by author to precedingdiscussion: ibid, p. 535. D
34. 1962,On techniques with seismicintervaltimers:Geophysics, v. 27, no.6, pt. 1,p. 887-889. G
35. Heelan,PatrickA., 1953,On the theoryofheadwaves:Geophysics, v. 18,no.4, p. 871-893. H
36. Higgins,G. E., 1959,Seismicvelocitydata from Trinidad, B. W. I., and comparison with the Carib-
beanarea:Geophysics, v. 24,no.3, p. 580-597. F
37. Hobson,GeorgeD., 1962,Seismicexplorationin the CanadianArcticislands:Geophysics, v. 27, no.
2, p. 253-273. F
38. Hodgson,J. H., 1948,A seismic surveyof the Canadianshield(abstract):Geophysics, v. 13,no.3, p.
501. F
39. Holtzscherer,Alain Joset,et Jean-Jacques,
1953,Greenland:RapportsScientifiques desExpeditions
PolairesFrancaises,No. N. III. 2 SondagesSismiquesau Groenland. Premidre Partie: Etude des
vitessesde propagationdesondessismiques sur l'Inlandsisdu Groenland:Annalesde Giophysique
v. 9, no.4, p. 329-344.Reviewby PaulWuenschel,Geophysics, v. 20, no.4, p. 957. F
40. Innes,Arland I., 1953,The seismichistoryof southwestern New Mexico:Geophysics, v. 18,no. 1, p.
142-159. F
41. Kamen-Kaye, M., 1940, Seismic-refraction studiesin the Orinocobasinof deposition,Venezuela:
Geophysics, v. 5, no.4, p. 385-392. F
42. Kane, M. F., and Pakiser,L. C., 1961,Geophysical studyof subsurface structureinSouthernOwens
Valley, California:Geophysics, v. 26, no. 1, p. 12. F
43. Khalevin, N. P., 1956,Contributionto the evaluationof the precisionof the interpretationof data
from the refractionmethod (in Russian):Izvestiya Akad. Nauk SSSR.Ser. Geofizicheskaya, no. 8,
p. 912-919. Reviewby Carl H. Savit, Geophysics, v. 24, no. 2, p. 383. D
44. Kilczer, J., Computationof anticlinal datas from refractionaltravel-time curves:GeofizikaiKozle-
menyek,II, 3. Review by Nelson C. Steenland,Geophysics,v. 19, no. 3, p. 565. D
45. Knox, W. A., 1958, A sliderule for near-surfacerefractionproblems:Geophysics, v. 23, no. 1, p.
154-163. C
46. Krey, Theodor, 1961, An approximatecorrectionmethodfor refractionin reflectionseismicpros-
pecting:Geophysics, v. 26,no.3, p. 468. D
47. Layat, C., Clement, A. C., Pommier,G., and Buffet, A., 1961, Sometechnicalaspectsof refraction
seismicprospecting in the Sahara:Geophysics, v. 26, no. 4, p. 437-446. Letter to the editor by
FrancisCampbell,v. 26, no. 6, p. 825.Replyby R. F. Hagemann,v. 26, no. 6, p. 825. A, D, F, G
48. Lester,O. C., Jr., 1947,A suggested methodof approachfor determinationof salt domeoverhang.
(PaperNo. 2;) in Early geophysical papers:p. 11. D
49. Lester,O. C., Jr., andWilcox,StanleyW., 1947,A universaldip chart for seismicmethodof geophys-
icalprospecting (refractions),in Early geophysical papers:p. 3. D
50. Linehan,Daniel, S. J., 1956,Seismicsurveyfor Deep Rock Tunnel, ColumbiaCircleto Deer Island,
Boston,Massachusetts, in Geophysicalcasehistories:v. 2, p. 641. A, F
51. 1956, Seismicsurvey of Martin's Creek, Pennsylvania,in Geophysicalcasehistories:v. 2,
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52. 1956, Seismicproblemin St. Peter'sBasilica,Vatican City, Rome, Italy, in Geophysicalcase
histories:v. 2, p. 615. A
53. Linehan, D., S.J., and Murphy, V. J., 1962, Engineeringseismologyapplicationsin metropolitan
areas:Geophysics, v. 27, no. 2, p. 213-220. A
54. Lyons,Paul L., 1962,Nomogramfor simpletwo-layerseismicrefractionproblem:Geophysics, v. 27,
no.4, p. 962. D
55. McCollurn, Burton, and Snell, F. A., 1932, Asymmetry of soundvelocity in stratifiedformations
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56. McDermott, Eugene,1931, Geologicalapplicationof seismography: Transactions,v. 1, p. 5. A
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Officer,Jr. (Geophysics, Oct., 1953,p. 805-819): Geophysics, v. 28,no.3, p. 492. J
58. Meidav, Tsvi, 1960,Nomogramsto speedup seismicrefractioncomputations:Geophysics, v. 25,
no. 5, p. 1035-1053. D
59. Melchior,LouisF., 1953,The geophysical discoveryand developmentof the Bayou CoubaDome:
Geophysics, v. 18,no. 2, p. 371-382. F
60. Mooney, Harold M., and Kaasa, Robert A., 1958,New refractionseismograph. Review of scientific
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method:Geophysics, v. 19,no. 2, p. 242-254. D
62. Musgrave,Albert W., Woolley,W. C., and Gray, Helen, 1960,Outliningof salt masses by refraction
methods:Geophysics, v. 25, no. 1, p. 141-167. D
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REFRACTIONSUBJECTCATEGORIESFOR SEG;AND OTHER U.S. BIBLIOGRAPHIES

1
A. Applications: 17, 25, 31, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 76, 96; 10, 22, 42, 55, 56, 59, 69, 74, 76,
94, 102, 107, 109
B. Correlation: 21, 24, 31
C. Instrumentsfor: 45, 60, 91; 26, 31, 4S, 46, 75, 106
D. Interpretation: 1, 2, 19, 23, 26, 30, 33, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54, S8,61, 62, 71, 75, 78, 79, 82,
86, 90, 94, 97; 6, 21, 110
F. Surveys,by Area: 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 47, S1, S2, 59, 66, 69, 73, 77, 88,
91, 92; 1, 2, 3, 4, S, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28,
30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 47, 48, 50, S1, S3, S4, S8, 61, 62,
x Separatedby semicolons.
57'2 Bibliography of Refraction Papers
63, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 91, 95, 97, 98, 99,
100, 101, 103, 104, 108, 112
G. Techniques: 6, 22, 23, 24, 32, 34, 47, 63, 65, 70, 83; 49, 52, 66, 78, 82, 90, 92, 96, 105,111,113
H. Theory: 3, 12, 13, 14, 20, 28, 35, 72, 79, 80, 84, 87, 93; 17, 29, 60, 64
I. Velocity: 67, 68, 74, 81, 89, 95; 64, 86, 93
J. Waves: 18, 29, 57, 85
K. Weathering: 5, 15, 16, 27, 57, 65, 68
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290. Sollogub,V. B., Chekunov,A. V., Pavlenkova, N. I., and Khilinskiy, L. A., 1964, Nature of the
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291. Spinicci,Gian Luigi, 1962,Aspectsand problemsof the refractionsurveyin the dunearea of the
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292. Starodubrovskaya,S. P., 1957, Experiencesfrom an attempt to locatethe buried faults through the
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293. Sterlyagova,G. V., 1964, Structure of the southeastpart of the CaspianSea accordingto data of
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294. Szenas,Gyorgy, 1960, Someproblemsof the developmentand applicationof the seismicmethod
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295. Szenas,Gyorgy, and Geresben,Laszlo, 1955, Application of seismicrefraction measurementsto
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296. Taanila, P., 1963,A profilecalculationmethodin seismicrefractionsurveysbasedon the useof the
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297. Tal'virskiy, D. B., 1959,Seismicprospectingof the basementin the southernpart of the Tobol zone
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298. Tateishi, Tetsuo, 1951, Seismicprospectingat Toyosuto Coalfield,Hokkaido: Geol. Survey Japan
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299. Telyakova, Z. Kh., 1961,Resultsof investigationsof the crustin the southpart of West Siberian
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300. T'eng, Chi-Wen, 1963, Dynamic features of seismicwaves propagatingin model mediumswith
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301. Teupser, Christian, and Olszak, Gerd, 1960, A contributionto the techniqueand applicationof
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302. Teplitskiy, V. A., 1961,Someresultsof seismicprospectingoperationswithin the Bukharo-Gazly
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303. Thomas,Erich, 1960,Structuralelementsin the northern German Democratic Republic according
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304. 1961, Structural elementsin the eastMecklenburgand northeastBrandenburgarea on the
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305. Timofeyeva,N.M., 1962,Investigationsof tectonicdislocations by seismicmethods:Akad. Nauk
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306. Tregub, F. S., and Pushkarev,N. K., 1963, A variation in the constructionof the tape-drawing
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310. Troyanskiy,V. T., and Komissarchik,B. S., 1963, Use of the refractionmethodfor studyingthe
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311. Tseng, Chung Sheng,Ho, Chuan Da, and Kan, Jung Chu, 1961, Refracted wavesand multiple
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317. Uhlmann,Manfred, 1963,Undergroundseismicinvestigations in the southHarz potassiumsalt
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323. 1953, Geophysicalinvestigations for a dam on the lake of Molveno (VeneziaTridentina):
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333. Weber, J. R., Sandstrom,N., and Arnold, K. C., 1961, Geophysicalsurveyson Gilman Glacier,
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INDEX
Index
The Index was made by requestingthe authors to contribute an index for each
article, which was then compiledand supplementedby the Editor.
The Index is divided into two parts, "Name and Place Index" and "Subject
Index."
The "Name and Place Index" includes both names and locations felt more
important or pertinent to the Indexers. The "Subject Index" includes important
words and phrasesthat occurredin each individual paper. Page numbers are listed
usuallyfor the first or more important occurrenceof the word or phrase.Multi-word
phrasesare sometimeslisted under several important words.
,596
NAME AND PLACE INDEX
Agassiz,glacial lake, 199 Mexia, Texas, 5

Alberta, Canada, 198 MississippiRiver, 483
Ambronn, R., 341 Mountain South, 539
AnadarkoBasin,western,247 Nettleton, L. L., 324
Ansel,E. A., 374 Newlands, M., 21
Arabian shield, 493 New Mexico, southeast,469
AssiniboineRiver, Manitoba, Canada, 198 Newmont Exploration, Ltd., 528
Barthelmes, 250 North Central Rocky Mountain Region, 199
Basin and Range Province,539 North Ogden, Utah, 539
Baumgarte,J., 374 Nova Scotia, Canada: velocity of glacial drift, 198
Birch, F., 496 Ogden,Utah, 539
Black Mountain, Arizona, 529 Olhovich, V. A., 326
British Columbia, Canada, 198 Oliver, J., et al, 15
Cagniard, L., 22 Oman Mountains, 493
Canberra, Australia, 198 Orchard Dome, Texas, 5
Cerbat Mountain, Arizona, 529 Orinoco River, 483
Deer Bay, 551 PeaceRiver, Alberta, Canada, 198
deHoop, A., 22 Persia, southwest,9
DelawareBasinof West Texas, 237, 248, 473 Persian Gulf, 493
deSegonzac,P. D., 496 Ponca City, Oklahoma, 4
Dix, C. H., 22 Press,F. et al, 474
EdwardsPlateau, Texas, 130, 247 Reindeer Bay, 551
Emerald Isle Mine, 528 Revaha, 5! 7
Gardner, L. W., 384, 426 Rocky Mountains, north central region, 199
GoldenLane reef, 397 Rub 'al Khali Basin, 493
Hadramut Plateau, 493 SaharaDesert of Algeria, !71
Hagedoorn,J. G., 366 San Joaquin Valley, California, 199
Hales, F. W., 374 Sand Mountain area, Arabia, 494
Heelan, P., 17 Saskatchewan,Canada, 198
Heletz-Negba, Israel, 505 Saudi Arabia, 493
Illinois, 198 Schenck,F. L., 384
Isachsen, Ellef Ringnes Island, 551 Slotnick, M. M., 305, 511
Jeffreys,H., 17 Souris, Glacial Lake, 199
Jerome,Yavapai County, Arizona, 532 SverdrupBasin, Canadian Arctic Islands,550
Jones, J. H., 341, 481 Tarrant, 511
Kansas, 198 Thornburgh,H. R., 371, 416
southern, 198 Tomasopo Ridge, Mexico, 5
Kingman, Mohave County, Arizona, 528 United Verde Mine, 528
Kristoffer Bay, 551 Utah, southern,198
Laherrere,J., 496 Vajk, R., 305
Lapidoth Israel Petroleum Co., 505 VermilionBay Salt Dome, Louisiana,8
LaRue, Wilton, W., 426 Wasatch Range, 539
Louisiana Gulf, 430 Wasatch trench, Utah, 539
Manitoba, Canada, 198 Williston Basin, North Dakota, 198
McCollum, Burton, 426 Yemenesehighlands, 493
McDonal, F. J., et al, 57 Zacamixtle Field, Mexico, 4
SUBJECT INDEX
Absorption,95 Amplitude, factorscontrollingrecorded,86

Acoustic velocity log, 272 of refraction, 21
Air wave, 7 residual, 101
Amplifiers, 541 seismic, 96, 153
water-break, 485 Amplitude spectrum,158
598 Subject Index
Anhydrite refractors,496 Center-pointcomputation,251

Anisotropy,apparent, 409 Charge,limiting weight of, 155
appearanceof, 409 sizelimitation, 487
measurement of, !82 Chart, coincidentrefraction, 314
of layered media, 463 depth, 341
velocity, 496 F factor, 318
Anomaly, amplitude, 24 G factor, 313
Antisymmetricmodes,143 generalpurposerefraction, 3!8
Antisymmetricvibrations, 142 refraction calculation,220
Aplanatic curve, 383 wavefront, 290, 296, 430
Aplanatic locus method, 422 Check time break, 489
Aplanatic method, 384 Chi function,324
Apparent draping effect, 282 Climatic cycles,effectuponnear-surfacevelocities,
Apparent intercept, 349 198
Apparent velocity, 354, 462, 489, 512 Coefficientof residualattenuation, 110
refractor, 274, 500 Coincidenceprinciple, 422
Arc profile, 481 Coincident (critical) refraction distance, 318
Arc shooting,9, 340 Coincident time surface, 370
Assumptions,errorsdue to, 463 Combining,reflectionand refractiondata, 388
Asymmetricalanticline, 281 Common emergence,340
Attenuated modes, !45 Complementaryprinciple, 419
Attenuation, 57, 126, 272 Complementaryshots, 190
along a thin refractor, 149 Complementarytargeting, 418
coefficientof residual, 110 Compressional-to-shear energy conversions,33
coefficientsfor refractions, 149 Compressionalwaves, 22
of energyalong screeninglayer, 477 Computation form, 334
residual, 101 Computerprogram,277
Attenuation factor, 139, 146 Computingaids for refractionproblems,209
Automatic gain control (AGC), 508 Computingdevices,304
Auxiliary marker, 190 Constantdistancecorrelation,179
Average velocity, 268 Constant velocity, 351
method, 330 Continuousincreaseof velocity with depth, 207,
217
B-F Table, 231 Continuousprofilemarker, !72
Banta's function, 218 Continuousprofilingdelays,174
Basement, 1!0 Continuousrefractor, 171
Beaufort Formation, 557 Continuousvelocity logs,247
Bisectorconstruction(for depth), 461 Continuouslyevaluated, 340
Blastphone,7 Convergencecurve, 177, 189
Blind zone, 370 Correcting,for deepshotholes,227
Blondeau Weathering Method, 231 for shallow velocity variations, 344
Bombardiersor motor toboggans,551 velocity errors, 423
Bouguer anomaly, 542 Correction method, interpretation procedurefor,
Bow wave, 366 346
Broadsideor arc shots,340 Cretaceous,495
Broadsideprofiling,267 Critical angle, 351
Broadsideshooting,340 Critical distance, 104, 171, 461
Bubble pulses, !66 Critical raypath, 352
Bullard modification, 542 Critical reflectiondistance,307, 318
Buoy location,erroneous,483 Crosssectionin seismicvelocities,599
Buried erosional surfaces, 199 Cumulative refraction interferences,251
Buried low-velocity zones, 198 Curvature, radiusof, 291
Curve, aplanatic, 383
Cable, continuous,277 averagerelative delay-time, 343
Cable drift, 489 average relative time, 356
Cagniard's method, 22 convergence, 177, 189
Calcareoussandstone,505 inverse relative, 178
Cartesian oval, 399 relative, 174
Cavernousdolomite, 505 relative time, 356
Cenozoicage, 539 time-distance,353, 461
599
Subject Index
Curvedpathrefraction
charts,320 Emergence-angle
raypathtracing,524
Curvedray, 217 Emergentoverburden
wavefront,420
Curvedraypaths,294 Emergentpoint, 298, 340
Curvedtime-distanceplot, 217 Emergentwavefronts, 416
Curved-ray
problem,nomogram,
296 Energy,partitionof, 168
Cycloidalraypath,430 releaseof seismic,161, 165
shingling,469
Data averaging,501 Energyconversions,
compressional-to-shear,
33
Data errors, 459 Eocene, 493
Datum plane, 348 Eocene-Senonian,514
Decay, theoretical,149 Epoxy resin, 79
DeccaLambda Surveychain,551 Equipment,special,485
Deepcontinuousrefractor,
171 Equivalentparabolic
methodfor linearvelocity,
386
Deeprefractions,
identification
of,480
DeHavilland Otter, 551 Equivalent
radiator,
153
Delaytime,172,338,348,483 Erosinalsurfaces,buried, 199
absolute, 343 Errors, buoy location,483
definition,172 due to incorrectassumptions,
463
versusdepth,356 in data, 459
Delay-time
curve,average
relative,
343 in overburdenvelocity, 463
determinationof, 342, 343 refractor velocity, 423
final absolute, 343 refractor-velocitydeterminations,419
relative, 343 Explorationphase,426
Delaysin continuous
profiling,
174 Explosion
cavity,radiusof, 156
Depthanddipcomputations,510 Explosion
efficiency,
486
Depth chart, 341 Explosions,
surface,167
Depthpointdeterminations,
524 underground,152
Depth to refractor,
beneathVz--Vo+kZ,324 underwater, 164
beneathVz= Vo(t-t-kz)
', 326
Depthversus
delaytime,341 F factor chart, 318
Depth-distance
andtime-distance
plots,272 Facies change, 518
Desiredin-line position,483 Family of velocitydepth-functions,
290
Detectability
of secondary
refractions,
489 Fan shooting,5, 267, 526
Detector location,483 Fault example,282
Development phase,426 Faulting, 343
Diagonalplot, 272 Basin and Range, 539
Differencesignal,67 Fermat's principle, 339
Diffraction,401,513,527 Field procedure,proposed,81
to checkoverburdenvelocity, 411 Filter, phase-velocity,
68
Dilatation, 139 velocity,67
Dilatation head wave, 150 Final absolutedelay-timecurve,343
Dilatation potential, 140 First arrival, 340, 353
Dimensional scaling, 155 time lag technique,524
Dip anddepthcomputations,
510 First breaks, 544
Dip angle,268 First motionapproximation,22
Dip determinations,
relative,340 Flatten an event, 490
Dip errors,251 Flexiblevelocityfunction,217
Directed wavefront, 365
Forerunner,476
Discontinuous
profiling,503 Fossildrainagechannels,197
Domalmass,outlining,456 Fossilweatheredlayers, 198
Dominantperiod,71
Fourierspectrum,140
Drainage
channels,
fossil,197 Frequencies,
predominant,163
Drainage
ofwater-saturated
sandlayers
related
to Fresh sea water, 483
velocitychanges,
207
Elasticity,linearlawsof, 140 G factor chart, 313

Electric logs, 514 GardnerMethod, 171
Electroniccomputercomputations,
501 Generalpurposerefractionchart, 318
General wavefront method, 363
Emergence, common,340
Emergence
angie,524 Geologicmodel, 130
6OO Subject Index
Geometric construction, 304 Interface, undulating, 526

usingaverageincident angles,316 velocity, 513
Geometricalspreadingof refractions,124 Interference, 248
Geophone,plant, 87 cumulativerefraction,251
streamer, 483 sky-wave, 551
Gila conglomerate,529 Interfering refraction arrivals, 67
Glacial drift, 197 Interfering refractions,251
velocities, 198 Intermediate near-surfacevelocities, 198
Glacio-lacustrinesilts, 199 Interpretation, refraction, 249, 294
Graben, 539 Interpretation method, 493
Graphicaldetermination,331 Interpretation model, 115
Graphicalmethodby Hales,268 Interpretation procedure for the correction
Gravimeter, Worden, 541 method, 346
Gravity, anomalies,518 Intersection method, 398
profile, 542 Inverse relative curve, 178
results,539, 547 Inverse relative intercept, 178
values, reduced,542 Irregular or undulant refractor, 335
GroupVelocityTragedy,147 Isopachs,267
Isovelocitylayers,296
Hales graphicalmethod, 268
Half-refractions, 395 Jeeppickup truck, 542
Hayford-Bowiemethod,542 Jung graticule,two-dimensional,544
Head wave, 92, 150 Jurassicbeds,557
Head wave coefficient, 95 Jurassic, Upper, 493
Helicopter,S-55, 551
Hidden layer, 411 Karr radio-telephones,
541
Hidden (masked)layersfrom refractiontraveltime
graphs, 198 Laboratory demonstrations,
73
Later arrivals, 340
High relief structures,401
refraction, 30
High-frequencychannel,485
Lateral velocitiesin near-surfacelayers, 199
High-frequencyfirst arrivals,207
Lateral velocity variation, 344
High-speedbed selectivity,411
Layer stripping, 413
High-speedlayer embeddedin lower speedmate-
Least-squaresapproximation,461
rial, 138
Leg jumping, 253
High-velocity beds, 505 Limiting stress,155
High-velocity dynamite, 542 Limiting weight of charge, 155
High-velocity formations, 198 Line source, 366
High-velocity stringers,209 Linear increaseof velocity, with depth, 352
HooperHot Springs,548 with time, 352
Huygens'principle,366, 416 Linear laws of elasticity, 140
Hydrographic Manual, 430 Linear velocity, equivalent parabolic method for,
Hydrophones,485 386
Linear velocity constantsfrom refractions, 321
Ice topographyand weather,550 Linear velocity function, 353
Imaginary ray, 222 Location problems, 482
Incompetentrefractors,496 Long distanceoffset, !71
In-line profile, 340 Lower Upper PrecambrianMineral Fork, 539
In-line profiling,267 Low-velocitylayer, 197, 505
In-line refraction method, 5 Low-velocity lenses,198
In-line reversedcontrol, 248, 250, 340 Low-velocityzones,buried, 198
Instrument response,128
Instrumentation, 541 Magnetic recording,192
Intercept, 173, 350 Magnetic tape, 272, 488
inverse relative, 178 drum for, 488
relative,174 Marine refraction work, 482
unoffset, 347 chargesizein, 487
Intercept curve, 173 high cost of, 485
in offsetposition,174 Marker .... followed, 340
Intercept time, 150, 354, 462 Marker horizon, 341
601
Subject Index
Marker velocity,assigned,
341 Offset, 351
Maximum
propagation
velocity,
217 versusdepth,356
Mean relativecurve,176 Offsetdistance,351,489
Metal miningapplications,
523 versusdelaytime, 341
MiddlePrecambrian
Farmington
Canyon,539 One-layer
refractions,
nomograph
for, 308
Midpointmethod,260 One-wayrefractions,
378
Minimum trajectory,419 One-waytargeting,420
Miningexploration,
522,523 Optimum
distances,
274
Mobile augerdrill, 542 Ordovicianage,560
Model,analog,15, 74 Outlining,
saltmassby recording
in a deephole,
449
geologic,130
interpretation,
115 shalemasses
by recording
in a deephole,452
the domal mass, 456
plate, 74
Overburden,thickness,523
plexiglass
andaluminum,
469 Overburdenvelocity, 107, 498
steel and brass,471
check with diffractions, 411
two-dimensional,469
two-dimensionalanalog, 15 complex,383
errors in, 463
Modelseismogram, 17
selectionof, 408
Model studies,281 Overburden wavefront, 420
Modes,antisymmetric,
143
attenuated, 145
Pr mode, 62
symmetric,143
unattenuated, 143 Papermonitor
records,
489
Parabolic method, 367
Modifications
to standardrefraction
equations
re- Parabolicvelocityconstants
fromrefractions,
323
quired
because
of depthof shot,200 Particularapparentvelocity,489
(or)modifications
toequations
duetoshot
depth Partition of energy, 168
Moenkopiformation,198 Peakpressure,153
Monotonicvelocityincreases,
290 Period,dominant,71
Motor toboggans,
551 Permafrost lenses, 198
Moveout time, 296 Permian formations, 560
Multilayerproblem,281 Phase corrected,272
Multiple buoys,483 Phasedistortion,95
Multiplerefractions,
31, 511 Phase velocities, 139
Phase-velocityfilter, 68
n-layer
problem,analytic
solution
of,260 Plate model, 74
n layers,
refractions
through,
307,315,316 Plexiglass
andaluminum
model,469
Narrowpassband-producedringing,544 Point determinationsof depths,524
Navigationequipment,
483 Point source,365
Near-frontapproximation,
119 Post-glacial
erosion:
effectuponvelocities,
198
Near-surfacecorrections,354 Precambrianbasementrocks,527
Near-surfacevelocity variations,331 Precambrian rocks, 539
Neogene,514 Predominant frequencies,163
Nomogram,296, 336 Primaryphenomenon
relativeto the amplitude
for curved-rayproblem,296 variations, 180
for refractioncomputations,
209 Primaryrefractions,
511
Nomograph
forrefractions
through
onelayer,308 Principle
of reciprocity,
178,374
Nondispersive
propagation,
146 Prism-protractor
slopemeter,
230
Nonlinearity
ofrefracted
traveltime
graphs,
203 Profile, in-line, 340
Nonplane
refractor
beneath
linearvelocity
over- unreversed,332, 524
burden,382 Profile shooting, 340
Nonreversedshots, 174 Propagation,
nondispersive,
146
Normal knee case, 232 Propagation
characteristics,
147
Normal line, 272 Propagation
constant,
complex,
139
Normal mode equation, 142 Propagation
velocity,139
Normal sea water, 483 maximum, 217
Normal time-distancecurve, 7
Northward-trendinggraben,539 Quaternaryfill, 198
Radial refraction shooting, 11
Oblique
shooting
intoa wellsurvey,
464
802 Subject Index
Radiating wavefront, 365 results, 544

Radio surveying,429 reversedin-lineprofiling,248, 250,340
Radio transmissionof time break, 485 secondary,489, 511
Radios, 485 sourcefunction for, 126
Radius of curvature, 291 surface-to-surface,436
Radius of explosioncavity, 156 theory of, 119
Ray, imaginary, 222 throughn layers,307, 315, 316
Ray diffraction, 527 time versus distance, 231
Ray plotter, 309 true velocity,378, 390
Ray stretchingtechnique,390 Refractionwork,specialequipmentfor, 485
Raypath, 217, 354 Refractor, 348
actual and imaginary, 222 continuous,171
curved, 294 incompetent,496
cycloidal,430 irregular or undulant, 335
Raypath time, 348 velocity of, 353, 419
Raypath tracing,524 Regionof simpledilatation-wavevelocity,139
Raypath-distance, 274 Regionallateral velocitygradientin bedrock,199
Real intercept, 174 Relative curve, 174
Receiver array, 67 Relative delay-time curves,343
Reciprocalslope,269 Relative dip determinations,340
Reciprocaltime, 269, 373 Relative intercept, 174
Reciprocity,277 Relative time curve, 356
principleof, 178, 374 Residualamplitude, 101
Reconnaissancerefraction, 436 Residual attenuation, 101
Recordsectionsin refractioninterpretation,489 "Restore" the shot, 228
Recordingon magnetictape, 488 Reversed control, 340
Recordingtruck, seismic,541 Reversedfan shooting,526
Referenceinterface, 375 Reversed
in-linerefractionprofiling,248,250,340
Referenceplane, 341 Reversedknee case, 235
Reflected refraction, 31, 469 Reversed profile, 269, 464
Reflection, profile, 542 Reversedrefractionprofiling,373
pulseshape,22 Ring, or arc, shooting,9
results, 545
shooting,505
wide-angle,411
Salinityand temperaturevariations,484
Salt domes, 426
Reflectionsand refraction data, combining,388
delineation of, 384
Reflector location with intersecting wavefronts,
372 Salt mass,outliningby recording
in deephole,449
Refracted reflections, 31 Salt proximity profiles,444
Refracted traveltime graphs,207 Salt velocity,437
Refracted wavefronts, 416 Sand terrain, 502
Refracting horizon, 348 Screeninglayer, 469
Refracting layer, 348 Sea water, fresh, 483
Refraction, amplitude of, 21 normal, 483
amplitudeover structure,24 Secondarrivals, 544
calculation chart, 220 Secondaries,pickability of, 489
computation,nomograms for, 289 Secondaryarrivals, 268, 487
computationform, 334 refracted, 201
cumulativeinterferences,251 Secondaryevents, 30
events, 520 Secondaryrefractions,489, 511
identifying deep, 480 Seismicamplitude, 96, 153
in-line method, 5 Seismicenergyrelease,161, 165
interfering, 251 Seismic recording truck, 541
interferingarrivals, 67 Seismicresults, 544
interpretation,249, 294 Seismicvelocity crosssection,599
one-way,378 Seismometers,541
profile, 348, 541 Self-adjustingprocedure,252
pulseshape,17 Shalemasses,426
ray plotter, 309 outliningby recordingin deephole,452
reconnaissance 436 Shalevelocity442
Subject Index 603
Shallowrefraction,surveys,200 Tellurometer, 551

techniques,522 Temperatureand salinityvariations,484
Shallowvelocity variations,344 Terrain corrections,542
Shearwaves,15, 125, 139 Tertiary, 247
Shift-plotsheets,277 Test shooting, 340
Shinarumpconglomerate,198 Theoretical decay law, 149
Shinglingof energy,469 Theoretical seismograms,32
Shooter'smove-dip,253 Theoretical traveltime, 509
Shooting,betweenwells, 392 Theory of refractions, 119
fan, 5, 267, 526 Thicknessof overburden,523
in both directions,176 Thickness of velocity layers, 556
reversedfan, 526 Thin bed effect,274, 477
ring, or arc, 9 Thin high-velocitylayer, 480
Shot, locationproblems,482 Three-dimensional effects, 408
nonreversed,174 Time and distance integrals, 292
restoration, 228 Time anomaly,24, 471
Shot bubble problem, 486 Time break, check, 489
Shot depth, correctionfor, 200 radio transmissionof, 485
Shot diagram, 180 Time curve, averagerelative, 356
Shotholepreparation,552 relative, 356
Shotholes,
correction
for depth,227 Time delay, 68
Shotpoint,variation at, 90 Time lead, 267
Shot-to-detector distances,340 Time loop, 269
Shot-to-geophone
distance,482 Time ties between reversed or adjacent profiles,
Sideswipe,450 482
Signal,gradient,71 Time-depthcurves,empiricalmethodof adjusting,
velocity, 149 239
Single-layersystem,222 Time-distance, 269
Sky-waveinterference,55! Time-distanceand depth-distance
plots, 272
Slopemeter, prism-protractor,
230 Time-distance curves, 353, 461
Slotnick's method, 260 Time-distanceplot, curved,217
Snell'sLaw, 263, 268, 339, 358 Time-intercept refraction equation, 200
Source function for refractions, 126 Topographicquadranglemaps,U.S.G.S., 542
Spatial filtering,67 Trace-to-tracecontinuity, 267
Specialequipmentfor refractionwork, 485 Trajectory, 338, 464, 511
Specialrefractionweathering,341 Transmission coefficients,91, 123
Spectralamplitude,158 Travel paths,classification
of, 374
Steel and brassmodel, 471 Traveltime, 353
Stepout time, 354 theoretical, 509
StoneCorral,247 vertical, 231
Structure, 15 Traveltime curve, 348
effectson later refractions,58 Traveltime graphs,nonlinearityof, 203
high relief, 401 Traveltime residualsover structure, 30
refraction amplitude over, 24 True marker velocity, 343
Subweatheringvelocity, 509 True refractionvelocity, 378, 390
Successive approximations, 300 True shallowmarker velocity, 347
Sulfidebody detection,524 Turonian-Cenomanian, 514
Summationweathering,250 Two-dimensionalanalogmodel,15
Surfaceexplosions,
167 Two-dimensionalJunggraticule,544
Surface-to-surfacerefraction, 436 Two-dimensionalmodel, 469
Surficialgeology,relationto velocities,197 Two-layer case,351
Symmetricand antisymmetricnormal modesof Two-layerproblem,277
propagation,139 Two-layer systems,222
Symmetric modes, 143
Symmetric vibrations, 141 Unattenuated modes, 143
Undergroundexplosions, 152
Take-off point, 401 Underwater explosions,164
Targeting, 399 Undulating high-speedmarker horizon,338
one-way, 420 Undulating interface, 526
wavefront, 416 Undulationof shallowmarker,345
604 Subject Index
United States GeologicalSurvey topographic Velocitylayer thicknesses,

556
quadranglemaps,542 Velocity log, acoustic,272
Unreversedprofile, 332, 524 continuous,247
Upholeand refractedtraveltimegraphs,
204 Velocityrefractor,353,419
Upholetime graphs,208 Velocityreversalwith depth,207,463
Uphole times, 509 Velocitysurvey354
Upper Jurassic,493 Velocity-depthfunctions,290
Upper Permian Blaine, 247 Verticaldepthto refractor,335
Vertical traveltime,231
Variable-areadisplays,489 Verticalvelocity,assumed, 341
Variable-densitydisplays,489 distributionof, 338
Variable-offsetscale, 490 Vibrations,antisymmetric,
!42
Velocity,apparent,354, 462, 489, 512
apparent refractor, 274, 500 Water breaks,useof, 483
assignedmarker, 341 Water table, 508
assumedvertical, 341 Water velocity,429
complex overburden,383 Water-bornewave, 484
constant, 351 Water-break amplifiers,485
continuous
increase
with depth,207, 217 Water-break times, 429
correctingerrors of, 423 Wave, compressional,22
correctingfor shallowvariationsof, 344 water-borne,484
erroneous,419 Wavefront,"complementary,"
416
errors, correcting,423 directed, 365
intermediatenear-surface,198 emergent, 416
lateral in near-surface layers, 199 emergentoverburden,420
lateral variation, 344 overburden,420
linear increasewith depth, 352 radiating, 365
linear increasewith time, 352 Wavefrontchart, 290, 296, 430
monotonic increases,290 Wavefrontconstruction,463
overburden, 107, 498 Wavefrontcurvature,92
particular apparent,489 Wavefrontmethod,363, 416
proportionalto 1/n powerof depth,231 advantagesof, 380
salt, 437 general, 363
shallowvariations,231,344 Wavefront plotter, 381
subweathering,509 Wavefront targeting, 416
true, 343,347, 378, 390 Weatheredlayer, 197, 198
true marker, 343 fossil,198
varying, 352 Weathering,
specialrefraction,
341
Velocity anisotropy, 496 Weathering
andnear-surface
velocityvariations,
Velocity changesrelated to water-saturatedsand 231
layers, 207 Weatheringcorrection,
502,544
Velocityconstants,
determination
of, 321,323 Weatheringlayer, 544
Velocity contrast between bedrock and overbur- Wellsurvey,obliqueshooting
into,464
den, 199 Well velocitydata, 341
Velocity control, 541 Wells,shootingbetween,392
Velocity decreasewith depth, 207 Wisconsintill, 198
Velocity filter, 67 Wordengravimeter,541
Velocity function,flexible,217
Velocity interfaces,513 Zero time, 370

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Downloaded 06/25/14 to 134.153.184.170. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.

Mobil Oil Corporation

All Rights Reserved

For his early and continuedinterestin refractiongeophysics

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The purposeof the RefractionVolumeis to gathertogetherthe newertechniques

Subsequently, inadequateinterpretationmay have contributedto further "lossof

REFRACTION VOLUME COMMI'I-FEE

A. W. MUSGRAVE,Chairman and Editor PAUL LYONS

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B. GRAPHS AND NOMOGRAPHSFOR REFRACTION INTERPRETATION ......... 295

The seismicmethod is divided into reflection and refraction techniques,based

The distanceparameter will be discussedfirst. In many surveys the distance be-

this information,but thereare many pitfalls; sothe velocityshouldbe established in

When the problemto be solvedrequireslargerdistances,it is normallynecessary

LIST OF SUGGESTED SYMBOLS FOR

additional points subscripted S1, S% S,

additional points subscripted Ri, R2, R,

II. Layer 1, 2,. n

III. Interface(numbercorresponds to baseof layer) 1, 2, .n

Surface(in presenceof weathering) oo

IX. Time (refraction,two-way,surface-to-surface,

One-waytime (a portionof T, not traversingbed in

XI. Dip angle(angleinterfacemakeswith horizontal) ot

Interface Otl or2,

XII. Angle of incidence i

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HISTORY OF EARLY REFRACTION

History of Early RefractionWork

Commercial exploration for minerals by seismicrefraction methods have been

EARLY REFRACTION PRACTICES

J. E. McGEE* AND R. L. PALMER**

This paper was not conceivedas a history of the refractionseismograph, but it

geophonesin a fan but mightvary asmuchasa mileor more.The distancein the

Fro.1. Fanshooting map,showing locations

was obtainedby shootinga calibrationor normalprofile (Figure 1).suchthat no

A variationof the fan shootingtechniquewasdescribedby McCollurnandLaRue

REMAINING IMPRINTS OF EARLY REFRACTION PRACTICES

LaRue, O. C. Lester, Burton McCollurn, L. L. Nettleton, and Paul Weaver. The

Barton, D.C., 1929, The seismicmethod of mapping geologicstructure' Geophys.Prosp., A.I.M.E.,

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Model studiesprovide an excellentmethod of investigatingany geophysical

ANALOG MODEL STUDIES OF THE

SIMPLE REFRACTION PROBLEM

STANLEY J. LASTER, MILO M. BACKUS,

The G.S.I. two-dimensionalanalog seismicmodel is a permanent facility built

Texas Instruments,Inc., Dallas, Texas.

Fro. 1.1 Schematicdiagramof two-dimensional

modeland is movablesoas to providecontinuousprofiling.The modelseismograms

1.2 Detailed dimensions of structural contour.

Fro. 2.1 Typical refractedpulse.Measuredat the interface.

In someinstances,it is desirableto make measurements "at depth." For this

point-sourceproblemfor two liquid layerswith a commoninterface,althoughhis

SCAL, ED FIEQqJENCY (CPS)

SO 100 IS0 200 2S0 300 3S0 400

Fro. 3.1 Typicalmodelseismogram traverserecorded with top transducer.

Fro.3.2 Typicalmodelseismogram traverse

FIG. 4. Schematicraypathsfor direct,P, reflected,Px, and refracted,P, pulses.

FIO. 5. Experimentaltraveltimecurvesfor direct,P, reflected,P, and refracted,P, pulses.

140 150 I 0 170 180 190

135 155 175

Fro. 6. Comparison of theoreticalandexperimental seismograms

(mentionedabove)is shownin Figure 6 for a horizontalsource-receiver distanceof