Soil Dynamics

HW-1

MEMBERS:
GABRIEL GMEZ R
GABRIELA MENA C.

2017 | UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILE

This homework has the following goals: 1) Review soil behavior knowledge, 2) evaluate
known laboratory tests, from a principal stress perspective, 3) associate principal stresses
to geotechnical problems, 4) relate the () space and (p,q) space, 5) have you more
involved with details of triaxial testing,

1. Read and summarize the following paper: Poulos, S. J. (1981). The steady state of
deformation. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 107(ASCE
16241 Proceeding). Summarize the main information in, at least, two pages. Images
and plots should be included as an appendix, in addition to the text.

The steady state of deformation

The steady state of deformation for any mass of particles, with special reference to soils, is that
state in which the mass is continuously deforming at constant volume, constant normal effective
stress, constant shear stress, and constant velocity. The steady state of deformation occurs when
all particle orientation has reached a statistically steady state condition and after all particle
breakage.

Examples of steady state of deformation:

Undrained tests on fully saturated loose sands. Once liquefaction has been achieved,
during the steady-state of deformation, a new flow structure appears after the original
structure of the specimen has been completely destroyed. Because of this, particles
become oriented such that the shear stress needed to continue deformation until it
reaches a constant value.
Drained test on sands at large strains. This deformation is slow (0.1%/min 1%/min), but
when large strains are reached a flow structure develops. If the strains are stopped, the
specimen is no longer in the steady-state of deformation, unless large shear strains are
again applied.
Clays in drained shear test. When the residual shear strength is reached at very large
strains, at this state the particles in the shear zone are oriented and the specimen have
a minimum resistance to continuous shear deformation.
Undrained test in soft clays. At very large strains, the remolded strength of undisturbed
clays could be determinated by the vane shear test, this is nearly a steady-state shear
strength.

The steady-state of deformation can be achieved in any particle mass and for any loading and
drainage condition as long as the original structure break down and a new flow structure develops
and all memory of the original structure is lost.

The initial structure of the specimen depends on the way it was prepared, it could be a laboratory
compacted or sedimented specimen or prepared in nature, However, the flow structure and the
shear strength, for a given soil or other particulate mass are not dependent on initial structure but
could be dependent only on the effective normal stress during steady-state flow and the velocity
of deformation. For a given soil with its velocity of deformation, there is a unique relationship
between void ratio, effective normal stress and shear stress during steady-state of deformation.

The steady-state exists only during shear deformation, is not a static condition. If shear
deformation is stopped, then the particles move into a different structure tan that which exists
during steady-state deformation. If the shear is started again, we can create the flow structure if
the strains are large enough.

Flow Structure

For the purpose of observing the consequences of flow structure in sands, an undrained test was
performed on a fine quartz sand called banding sand. The specimen was compacted at a high
void ratio (e=0.693) and consolidated under a very low effective consolidation pressure (0.2
Kg/cm2). These conditions were chosen so that the point representing the state of the specimen
after consolidation, point C in appendix A Fig 1(a), and shown a line passing through the point S
which represents the steady-state of this specimen. The high void ratio was chosen to observe
whether the specimen would dilate to the steady-state line, or whether the steady-state line would
be crossed.

The specimen was first slightly contractive, the pore pressure increase with a small increments of
stress. At large shear stresses the specimen became dilative, the induced pore pressure dropped
and the effective minor principal stress increased. In appendix A Fig 1(c) the first part of the stress-
strain curve exhibited a typical stiffening near point C when the effective minor principal stress
started increasing. When this specimen was dilative, the path on the state diagram crossed the
steady-state line at point S in the appendix A Fig 1(a). At point S the void ratio, the shear stress,
and the effective normal stress plotted on the steady-state line, yet the steady-state of deformation
did not occur at that stage, because the specimen at point S was not that flow structure that
permit steady-state of deformation. The structure had been dilative and it was still internally-
braced. As the shear stress was increased and dilation continued, the effective minor principal
stress increased until it rich point M, in appendix A Fig 1(d). Then the effective stress was high
enough so it began to decrease in volume. The specimen had become contractive.

The pore pressure increased and the effective stress decreased correspondingly. As the strains
increased and the effective stress was dropping, the particles had enough freedom during shear
so that they could become re-oriented under the influence of shear strains, thus causing the
process of pore pressure buildup and grain orientation to continue. Finally, when the strains were
large enough, a steady-state was reached at point S, after which there was no further change in
shear stress, effective normal stress or pore pressure. Again, at point S an S, the void ratio,
effective normal stress, and shear stress were identical. Yet the steady-state deformation
occurred at S but not at S. The difference in structure at these two points must be the cause of
the major difference in behavior that is evident at the corresponding points on the stress-strain
curve in appendix A Fig 1.

In principle, the steady state of deformation is not reached until particle breakage, if any, is
complete. Particle breakage probably causes changes in the peak shear strength. Also, the flow
structure and the corresponding steady state strength can be expected to be affected by particle
breakage.

Steady State and Critical State

The soil and other granular materials, if continuously distorted until they flow as a frictional fluid,
will come into a well-defined critical state. This state is viewed as an ideal state in which the
particulate mass deforms continuously but has not preferred structure, also particle breakage is
neglected. In appendix A Fig 2, the graphic shown the relationship between critical state and
residual strength of clay. The critical state as defined by Scholfield and Wroth is shown to lie
between the peak and the residual, at a point at which steady-state of deformation is not
occurring.

No particle mass can achieve continuous deformation at constant volume, at a constant state of
effective stress, and at constant velocity without having a preferred orientation of grains, in
example, a flow structure. In addition, the shear resistance at large strains, during steady-state
deformation, is greatly affected by the development of this special steady-state flow structure.

In a drained test the critical voids ratio state can be defined as the ultimate stress of a sample at
which any arbitrary further increment of shear distortion will not result in any change of voids ratio.
In an undrained test the sample remains at a constant void ratio, but the effective stress p will
alter to bring the sample into an ultimate state such that the particular voids ratio, at which it is
compelled to remain during shear, becomes a critical void ratio. If the results of drained and
undrained test show that there is, in fact, one unique line to which all loading paths in (p,q,e)
space converge, then this will be called the critical voids ratio line (CVR). The drained and
undrained yield surfaces will then coincide along the CVR line.
One difference between the steady-state line and the critical voids ratio (CVR) line is that the
steady-state does not exist unless deformation occurs at constant velocity. In contrast, the
implications of the description of critical state in the aforementioned drained case is that, if shear
is stopped, after the critical state is reached, the specimen remains in the critical state.

Several practical applications of the concept of steady-state deformation are the determination of
the effects of various parameters, such as soil composition, void ratio, sample preparation
technique, and effective stress, on stress-strain curves can be more easily understood when
viewed in terms of the concept of steady-state. Another practical application is the meaning of
pore pressures measured in-situ before, during and well after a failure, and the use of those
measurements to analyze the failure can be more clearly to understood.

In conclusions, the steady state-state deformation requires a constant velocity of deformation and
the steady-state exists only so long as deformation continues, it also can be achieve only after
grain orientation (in sand as well as clays) and grain breakage, if any, are both complete. And the
continuous shear after the residual strength is reached in drained tests on clays or sands are
examples of steady-state deformation.

Appendix A

Fig 1. Stress-Strain properties of loose specimen of Banding Sand in Triaxial Compression

Fig 2. Relationship between Critical State and Residual Strength of Clay
2. This section is about tests and principal stresses. In this context:

a. From a principal stresses perspective (Mohr Circle; (p,q) analysis), describe in

detail each of the stages of the following tests:
Odometer and triaxial Consolidation
Direct shear Triaxial shearing in compression.
Triaxial shearing in extensin.
Triaxial shearing with p constant.
Relate each of the stress analysis involved in the tests to a field condition

Odometer and triaxial Consolidation

The triaxial test is one of the most versatile and widely performed geotechnical laboratory tests,
allowing the shear strength and stiffness of soil and rock to be determined for use in geotechnical
design. Advantages over simpler procedures, such as the direct shear test, include the ability to
control specimen drainage and take measurements of pore water pressures. Primary parameters
obtained from the test may include the angle of shearing resistance , cohesion c, and undrained
shear strength cu, although other parameters such as the shear stiffness G, compression index
Cc, and permeability k may also be determined. The Triaxial shearing in compression and
extension can be applied to a field condition, Figure A. Gives an example of the engineering
application of the test here triaxial compression provides strength information at the top of a cut
slope, whilst triaxial extension allows parameters for soil elements at the slope base to be
determined.

The triaxial test typically involves placing a cylindrical specimen of soil, ranging from 38mm to
100mm diameter, into a cell that can be pressurised. Most specimens have an approximate 2:1
height-to-diameter ratio, and are sealed within a rubber membrane. Following this initial
preparation the specimen is saturated, consolidated, and sheared, allowing the soil response to
be observed under conditions that may approximate those insitu. During the shear stage the soil
is loaded axially, either in compression, or less-commonly in extension. The general set-up of a
triaxial specimen inside a triaxial cell is shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1 General set-up of a soil specimen inside a triaxial cell.

There are three primary triaxial tests conducted in the laboratory, each allowing the soil response
for differing engineering applications to be observed. These are:

Unconsolidated Undrained test (UU)

Consolidated Undrained test (CU)

Consolidated Drained test (CD)

The unconsolidated undrained (UU) test is the simplest and fastest procedure, with soil
specimens loaded whilst only total stresses are controlled and recorded. This allows the
undrained shear strength cu to be determined, which is suitable for assessing soil stability in the
short-term (e.g. during or directly following a construction project). Note this test is generally
performed on cohesive soil specimens. The consolidated drained (CD) test on the other hand is
applicable to describing long-term loading response, providing strength parameters determined
under effective stress control (i.e. and c). The test can however take a significant time to
complete when using cohesive soil, given the shear rate must be slow enough to allow negligible
pore water pressure changes. Finally the consolidated undrained (CU) test is the most common
triaxial procedure, as it allows strength parameters to be determined based on the effective
stresses (i.e. and c) whilst permitting a faster rate of shearing compared with the CD test. This
is achieved by recording the excess pore pressure change within the specimen as shearing takes
place.
The stresses applied to a soil or rock specimen when running a triaxial compression test are
displayed in Figure 2. The confining stress c is applied by pressurising the cell fluid surrounding
the specimen it is equal to the radial stress r, or minor principal stress 3. The deviator stress
q is generated by applying an axial strain a to the soil the deviator stress acts in addition to the
confining stress in the axial direction, with these combined stresses equal to the axial stress a,
or major principal stress 1. The stress state is said to be isotropic when 1 = 3, and anisotropic
when 1 3.

Figure 2 Specimen stress state during triaxial compression.

 Note the principal stress directions rotate by 90 when a triaxial extension test is performed in
such a case the radial stress corresponds to the major principal stress direction, with the axial
stress providing the minor principal stress.

General triaxial test procedure

Specimen & System Preparation

The test specimen itself must firstly be prepared from a sample of soil before placing into the
triaxial cell. For cohesive soils this may involve trimming undisturbed specimens extruded from
Shelby tubes or cut from block samples, whilst for granular soils the specimen may require
preparation directly on the pedestal using a split-part mould. In the case of cohesive specimens
such as that shown in Figure 3, a membrane suction stretcher can be used to place the rubber
membrane around the soil once in position on the pedestal. Note that disturbance to the specimen
should be kept to a minimum during preparation.

Figure 3 Trimmed cohesive specimen (left); membrane suction stretcher (middle); spilt-part
mould for granular specimen preparation (right).

Saturation

The saturation process is designed to ensure all voids within the test specimen are filled with
water, and that the pore pressure transducer and drainage lines are properly de-aired. This may
be achieved by firstly applying a partial vacuum to the specimen to remove air and draw water
into the transducer and drainage lines, followed by a linear increase of the cell and back
pressures. The latter process is shown in Figure 4, during which a constant effective stress should
be maintained at no point should the effective stress increase above the value required for
shearing, as this leads to specimen over-consolidation. To assist the specimen in reaching full
saturation, the following steps may be taken:

Use of de-aired water to fill specimen voids.

Increase of back pressure to force air into solution.

Note that a significant period of time, and/or back pressures in the range of 700kPa or above,
may be required to fully saturate a specimen, particularly if de-aired water is not used.
 Figure 4 Specimen saturation by increasing back pressure.

To check the degree of specimen saturation is sufficiently high before moving to the consolidation
stage, a short test is performed to determine Skemptons B-value. This is called a B-check, and
requires specimen drainage to be closed whilst the cell pressure is raised by approximately
50kPa. Figure 5 details this test, with B 0.95 typically used to confirm full specimen saturation.
Note however that B is soil-dependent, so whilst a normallyconsolidated soft clay will produce B
1.00 at full saturation, a very dense sand or stiff clay may only show B 0.91, even if full
saturation has been reached.

Figure 5 B-check to confirm specimen saturation.

Consolidation

The consolidation stage is used to bring the specimen to the effective stress state required for
shearing. It is typically conducted by increasing the cell pressure whilst maintaining a constant
back pressure (often equal to the pore pressure reached during the final saturation B-check), as
shown in Figure 6. This process is continued until the volume change V of the specimen is no
longer significant, and at least 95% of the excess pore pressure has dissipated. The consolidation
response can also be used to estimate a suitable rate of strain when shearing cohesive
specimens.

Figure 6 Consolidation of test specimen.

Shearing

The soil is sheared by applying an axial strain a to the test specimen at a constant rate through
upward (compression) or downward (extension) movement of the load frame platen. This rate,
along with the specimen drainage condition, is dependent on the type of triaxial test being
performed.

Specimen response during the shear stage is typically monitored by plotting the deviator stress q
or effective principal stress ratio 1/3 against the axial strain a. The stage is continued until a
specified failure criterion has been reached, which may include identification of the peak deviator
stress or peak effective principal stress ratio, observation of constant stress and excess pore
pressure / volume change values, or simply a specific value of axial strain being reached (for
example a = 20%). Generalised response for a normally-consolidated clay is presented in Figure
7, including the excess pore pressure generated during a CU test, and observed specimen
volume change during a CD test. The figure also displays a cohesive specimen after completion
of the shear stage, with the plane of failure highlighted (i.e. the plane in which the majority of
shear strain occurs).

Figure 7 Generalised specimen response during shear for a normally-consolidated clay (left);
cohesive specimen post-shear showing failure plane (right).

Oedometer Test

The standard oedometer test, also referred to as consolidation test or one-dimensional

compression test, is a classical laboratory test that allows characterizing the soil stress-strain
behavior during one-dimensional compression or swelling. Carried out on saturated soil
specimens, this test can be used to determine consolidation and swelling parameters. The
standard oedometer test is one of the most commonly used tests in geotechnical laboratory
testing program. Fig 1 describe the general set-up of a odometer test.

Fig 1. Schematic drawing of the 20 cm2 oedometer cell

Description and procedure

The standard oedometer test is carried out on a cylindrical specimen of saturated soil with the
dimension of usually 75 mm diamater and 14-20 mm thick. The soil sample is enclosed in a
metal ring and is placed on a porous stone. The loading cap has also a porous stone, so the
sample is sandwiched between two porous stones. When preparing the sample, filter papers
are added between the soil and the porous stones. The sample is then mounted in the
consolidation cell and the loading unit. Water is added into the cell around the sample, so the
sample remains saturated during the test. The two porous stones at the top and bottom of the
sample allow a two-way drainage of the sample.
The test involves applying increments of vertical static load to the sample and recording the
corresponding settement. Increments of vertical static load are usually applied using dead loads
and a static loading system. The change in the thickness of the sample against time is recorded
during each loading increment. The duration of the application of each load depends on the soil
ans its consolidation characteristics. Once equilibrium reached for a loading step, the next
incremendt is applied. The load is doubled at each increment until reaching the maximum
required load, e.g. 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 kPa. The range of applied stress depends on the
range of effective stress which is needed in the consolidation analysis of the case under
consideration.

When the full consolidation at the maximum applied load is rechaed, the sample is unloaded in
one or several stages and the swelling of the sample is recorded. At the end of the test, the
sample is carefull yremoved and its thickness and water content is measured.

The consolidation test results include the presentationo of stress-void ratio in a semi-logarithmic
scale. From the changes in thickness at the end of each loading step, one can determine
the Swelling Index (Cs), Compression Index (Cc) and, Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
(mv). The coefficient of consolidation (cv) and the rate of consolidation can be also measured
using the results of the thickness changes of the sample against time during a load step.

Example applications of oedometer test

Fig 2. Applications of odometer test

Direct shear

The Direct Shear Test is used for determination of the consolidated drained (or undrained) shear
strength of soils. The test is performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled rate on or near a
single shear plane.

To achieve reliable results, the test is often carried out on three or four samples of undisturbed
soil. The soil sample is placed in a cubic shear box composed of a upper and lower box. The limit
between the two parts of the box is approximately at the mid height of the sample. The sample is
subjected to a controlled normal stress and the upper part of the sample is pulled laterally at a
controlled strain rate or until the sample fails. The applied lateral load and the induced strain are
recorded at given internals. These measurements are then used to plot the stress-strain curve of
the sample during the loading for the given normal stress.
 Fig. 1 Schematic Drawing of Direct Shear Apparatus

Trimming the Sample

The soil sample is extruded from the sampling tube. The extruded sample must typically be
trimmed to fit into the shear box. The soil cannot conveniently be trimmed directly into most direct
shear devices because the shear box is typically too large and heavy to be handled conveniently.
Instead, a special trimming ring is used. The trimming ring has a height that is standard for that
laboratory. If a thinner sample is desired, then after the soil has been trimmed into the ring and
one face has been trimmed, a spacer plate is used on the surface just trimmed, to push the soil
up into the ring an appropriate distance, and then the other face is trimmed (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Trimming a Specimen to a Height Less Than That of the Trimming Ring

The trimmings can be used to obtain an initial water content but they tend to dry out so fast that
such water contents usually turn out to be significantly too low. It is better to weigh the soil in the
trimming ring, subtract out the known weight of the ring, and then dry the sample after the test,
being sure not to lose any of the sample.
Apparatus Assembly

The shear box is then assembled with the top and the bottom halves of the box screwed (or
otherwise rigidly attached) together. The inside of the shear box is typically lightly greased to
minimize side friction, just as for consolidation tests. The lower porous stone is placed in the
shear box. Sometimes spacer disks are placed below this stone to adjust the elevation of its top
to accommodate soil samples of different thicknesses. The trimming ring is then carefully
aligned with the top of the shear box. Sometimes the trimming ring and top shear box have
been machined so the ring fits into the shallow slot in the top of the shear box, to provide proper
alignment. The sample is then slowly extruded into the shear box by pressing on its top surface,
typically using the top porous stone or a suitable disk. The upper porous stone and loading cap
are placed in the shear box, and the system to apply the normal-toad is brought into place and a
small normal load (seating load) is applied.

Consolidation Stage

A dial indicator, or other suitable device for measuring the change in thickness of the sample, is
quickly mounted and a zero reading taken. A consolidation pressure is then added to the top of
the sample using the load-application system of the apparatus (typically a lever arm or a
pneumatic system). The consolidation stage proceeds as for a standard incremental
onedimensional consolidation test. Loads are typically applied with a load increment ratio of
one, to minimize problems with soil extrusion. Readings of settlement or expansion are taken as
a function of time to allow appropriate calculation of consolidation coefficients and to ensure that
the sample has come to equilibrium prior to the start of shear.

Preparation for the Shearing Stage

During the consolidation stage, the upper and lower halves of the shear box have been tightly
screwed together (Fig. 3) to prevent the soil from extruding out from between the boxes.
Typically, only two locking screws are used. Prior to shearing the sample, the upper half of the
box is typically raised to provide a small separation between the boxes and ensure that the
shearing and normal stresses are actually transmitted through the soil rather than from box to
box. The boxes are usually separated before the final shearing stage by removing the locking
screws, and then using screws that are threaded through the top box but not the bottom box, to
lift the upper box (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Assembly Drawing of Direct Shear Box

For normally consolidated samples, of the order of 5-8% of the applied load has been
transferred into side shear in the, upper half of the box so lifting the box momentarily reverses
the side shear and causes a small amount of sample disturbance, thus causing a small amount
of additional time-dependent consolidation. Prior to starting the shearing stage, the screws used
to lift the top box must be withdrawn so the full applied stress plus the weight of the upper half
of the shear box, acts on the soil in the potential failure zone, and another stage of a small
amount of consolidation begins. If the top half of the shear box is heavy, and not
counterbalanced, and the sample is soft, a significant amount of additional consolidation may
result. To minimize the time during this stage of the test, the top half of the box is usually raised
and then it is released at once; and then readings of sample thickness are continued until the
sample has come back to equilibrium.

Shearing Stage

The shearing stage is usually performed at a constant rate of deformation. Methods of selecting
the deformation rate will be discussed subsequently. A rate is selected and the shearing stage
begin. Readings are taken of horizontal displacement, vertical movement of the top cap, and
shearing force, as a function of time. Stress conditions in the sample become increasingly
uncertain as deformation continues so the test is usually stopped at a horizontal deflection of
about 0.25 inch even if the shearing stress has not reached a peak value.

After the experiment is run several times for various vertical-confining stresses, a plot of the maxi
mum shear stresses versus the vertical (normal) confining stresses for each of the tests is
produced. From the plot, a straight-line approximation of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
curve can be drawn.

Figure 1. Direct shear test in sand: (a) schematic diagram of test equipment; (b) plot of test
results to obtain the friction angle,

b. Regarding the Mohr Circle, what is the origin of the poles? Provide a detailed
description and procedures of calculations regarding this important concept.

Using the Mohr circle one can find the stress components on any other plane with a different
orientation that passes through point P. For this, we can used the approach that involves the
determination of a point on the Mohr circle called the pole or the origin of planes. Any straight line
drawn from the pole will intersect the Mohr circle at a point that represents the state of stress on
a plane inclined at the same orientation (parallel) in space as that line. Therefore, knowing the
stress components and on any particular plane, one can draw a line parallel to that plane
through the particular coordinates n and n on the Mohr circle and find the pole as the
intersection of such line with the Mohr circle. As an example, let's assume we have a state of
stress with stress components x , y, and xy, as shown on Figure 1. First, we can draw a line
from point B parallel to the plane of action of x, or, if we choose otherwise, a line from
point A parallel to the plane of action of y. The intersection of any of these two lines with the
Mohr circle is the pole. Once the pole has been determined, to find the state of stress on a plane
making an angle with the vertical, or in other words a plane having its normal vector forming an
angle with the horizontal plane, then we can draw a line from the pole parallel to that plane (See
Figure 1). The normal and shear stresses on that plane are then the coordinates of the point of
intersection between the line and the Mohr circle.

Figure 1. Mohr's circle for plane stress and plane strain conditions (Pole approach). Any straight
line drawn from the pole will intersect the Mohr circle at a point that represents the state of
stress on a plane inclined at the same orientation (parallel) in space as that line

There is only one fundamental rule in the pole method, which is, a straight line drawn in any
direction from the pole will intersect the Mohrs circle at a point representing the state of stress
on a plane with the same orientation in space as the line. This rule is more clearly explained by
the following three sub-rules:

1. The pole, also known as the origin of planes, can be found by drawing a straight line from
one of the points on Mohrs circle for which the state of stress (, ) is known, in the direction
of the plane on which (, ) acts. The point where this line intersects the Mohrs circle is the
pole.

2. The state of stress for a plane of any orientation can be found by drawing a line from the
pole in the direction of orientation of the plane. The point where this line intersects the Mohrs
circle represents the state of stress acting on that plane.

3. There is only one pole for any Mohrs circle.

In conclusion, when answers are to be determined graphically, the pole method is generally
easier to use because the direction of any line from the pole is the same as the orientation of
the plane represented by that line.
c. Propose a problem that involves principal stresses and the Mohr Circle. The
problem must include the solution. Please point out why the problem is relevant,
and what do you seek to measure with the question you are proposing.

Consider the following stress

matrix referenced to the
laboratory basis:

We wish to use Mohrs circle to determine the stress matrix for this stress state as seen by an
observer who is rotated counterclockwise from the laboratory orientation. In other words, we want
to determine values for the question marks in the above figure. SOLUTION: The matrix of Eq.
corresponds to the following H and V points:

H: (4,-4)

V: (-2,4)

from which Mohrs circle is constructed as shown. To find the stress state
corresponding to =15 measured counterclockwise from the horizontal,
we must measure 2=30 counterclockwise from the H-point on Mohrs
circle. If you have a protractor, this is a relatively easy task to do
graphically, which explains why Mohrs circle was such a popular tool in
the days before calculators.

Lets do this one analytically. From the known coordinates of the points H and V, we observe that
the center of the Mohrs circle is located at

The radius of the Mohrs circle is

We also need the two angles marked and . Based on the

coordinates of H, we see that

Referring to the figure, differs from by 30, so that

A simple geometrical inspection of the preceding figure shows that the coordinates of the points
A and B are

Consequently, the stress matrix and stress element as seen by an

observer who is rotated counterclockwise from the horizontal are now
known. First we draw the stress element and, from there, we construct
the matrix:

Even though this result was derived analytically, the Mohrs circle nevertheless provides an
excellent means of visually verifying that analytical results are indeed reasonable. You can look
at the drawing to see that the computed coordinates for A and B appear to be accurate.
3. What are the relations between the parameters of the general failure envelope in the
Mohr-Coulomb Space ( , ) and (p,q) space?. State the expressions for both 2D
and 3D.

The stresses at a point may be represented by the conceptual, infinitely small, element A shown
in Figure 1. If these three stresses, x, y, and xy, are plotted in the shear-normal stress space,
with the same scales used for each axis, the circle drawn through these two points is known as
the Mohr circle of stress. All combinations of x, y, and xy, for any plane passing through this
point A, must lie in the Mohr circle.

Figure1.

In order to reduce the number of variables describing the stress on a defined plane from three,
the principal stresses 1 and 3, may also used to define the stress regimen at this point. The
principal stresses are the maximun and minor values defined by the Mohr circle. The planes on
wich these orthogonal principal stress act are similarly defined as the major and minor principal
planes.

As the maximum and minimum points of the Morh circle in the -axis correspond to zero shear
stress, only normal stresses (1 and 3) will act on the principal planes which will be ariented in
the direction show in figure 1.

Morh-Coulomb failure criterion

The failure criterion is commonly used to describe the strength of soils. It main hypothesis is
based on the premise that a comnination of normal and shear stresses creates a more critical
limiting state that would be found if only the major principal stress od maximum shear stress were
to be considered individually.
 Figure 2.

Figure 3.

In terms of principal stresses is obtained:

1 3 1 + 3
= +
2 2
Morh-Coulomb envelope in p-q space

The Morh-Coulomb envelope may also be plotted in a slightly different configuration within a p-q
space, defined by:

Figure 4.

In this configuration, the equivalent Morh-Coulumb envelope is know as the failure line Kf, as
shown in figure 4. The main adbantaje of the p-q space is that Mohr circle can be represented by
a point corresponding to the p,q coordinates.

The parameters used to define Kf line can be readily derived from the conventional Morh-Coulumb
parameters, c and , using the following:

In 3D case we have to consider only:

1 + 2 + 3
=
3
1 + 23
=
3
1 + 23 3
=
3
4. Read appendix B from the book: Jefferies, M., & Been, K. (2015). Soil liquefaction: a
critical state approach. CRC press, which describes details and procedure of the
triaxial test. Summarize the main information in, at least, one page. Images and plots
should be included as an appendix, in addition to the text.

Laboratory Testing to determine the critical state of sands

B.1. Overview
The preferred method of determining the critical state line is a series of triaxial compression tests
on loose samples. Loose samples do not form shear planes and do not have the tendency to
localization that is normal in dense sands.
Undrained tests are more convenient and should always be the starting point because the strains
required to reach the critical state are into the limits of triaxial equipment for loose samples. In the
other hand drained tests on loose samples, the sample move to the critical state at a much slower
rate and displacements to the limits of the triaxial equipment are required.
Successful critical state line testing is dependent of getting certain details of the triaxial testing
correct:

Uniform sample must be prepared in an appropriately loose state, at a predetermined

void ratio.
Samples must be fully saturated
The void ratio must be known accurately
The measurement system must be capable of measuring low stresses and pore
pressures at a high rate.
B.2. Sample preparation
Much of the concern with sample preparation has been its major effect on the behavior of the
sample during the test. The main concern for specimen preparation in critical state line testing is
therefore that uniform samples are obtained at predetermined void ratios. Figure B.2 in appendix
illustrates methods.
Sample preparation methods for clean sands are detailed below:
B.2.1. Moist Tamping Method
The principle of moist tamping is that the sand specimen is prepared at a moisture content of
about 5%. This moisture content results in capillary forces and allows bulking of the sand density
that will not be achievable with wet or dry samples.
The first step in specimen preparation is to calculate the target void ratio of the test and then work
back to the target preparation void ratio based on estimates of volume changes during the
saturation and consolidation. From the target void ratio and size of the specimen mould the dry
density and dry weight of sand for the sample is calculated.
Once the target dry weight of the sample has been computed, the specimen is prepared as
follows:

Preweight six equals portions of oven dried sand material into six preparation dishes.
Mix the material in each dish with distilled water to give a moisture content of 5-6% and
allow to cure for several hours.
Tamp the first layer into the membrane lined mould. A technique is needed to ensure that
the layer is not over compacted; it should end up being exactly one-sixth of the sample
height.
Scarify the top of the tamped layer gently to avoid a smooth planar surface between
layers.
Repeat the layer deposition and tamping process until all six layers are formed.
B.2.2. Wet Pluviation
Moist tamping results in a specimen fabric or structure that is dissimilar to that which will be
obtained in nature, and therefore pluviation techniques of sample preparation are preferable. It is
no doubt true that moist tamping is not representative of natural sand deposition.
Is important to mention that Pluviation in the quiescent laboratory conditions is unlikely to be
similar to underwater deposition in rivers and sea beds. Nevertheless, wet pluviation is a useful
sample preparation technique when samples without any pre-consolidation due to capillary
tension, or samples with a different fabric from moist tamping, are required. It is however, difficult
to control the ultimate void ratio of a pluviated sample. The steps for sample preparation by wet
pluviation are:
Calculate the total dry weight of sand for the target void ratio
Weigh out a single oven dried sample of the correct amount
Place dry sample in a long necked flask
Add de-aired water to fill the flask
Apply a vacuum to the top of the flask to ensure saturation of the sample
Leave sample to cure for several hours
Fill the membrane lined sample mould with de-aired water
With a thumb over the neck of the flask, invert the flask and insert the neck into the water
in the mould to approximately 25 mm above the bottom of the mould
Remove thumb. The sand will now gradually flow out of the flask under gravity, and
excess water will flow up into the flask to replace the sand.
Allow the sand to pluviate like this while moving the neck of the flask slowly and
continuously in a circular motion. The neck should be kept a constant height of about 25
mm above the top of the forming sample.
Remove flask when all the sand has pluviated out.

It is important to note that wet pluviation does result in some fines loss from the sand, roughly
50%. Thus a sample that starts with 2% fines may end up with only 1% fines after pluviation into
the mould. This should be accounted for in the density and dry weight calculations and it is also
advisable to check the final fines content of the sample after the test.

B.2.3. Slurry Deposition

The slurry deposition method was developed mainly to overcome the problem of particle
segregation in poorly graded or silty sand samples. First, the silt or clay fines must be separated
from the sand. The coarse and fine fractions are then mixed with water and boiled to de-air the
mixtures.
The steps for sample preparation are:
Prepared the sample in a mixing tube with a slightly smaller diameter than the final
sample.
Poured fines mixture into the mixing tube and the fines allowed to settle before pluviating
the sand mixture.
Tube full of water sealed closed. The bottom of the tube should initially have been sealed
with a rubber stopper which the top is covered with a porous stone (de-aired), a thin metal
plate and a stretched rubber membrane. The porous stone will ultimately be placed on
the bottom platen of the triaxial cell
The sample is then mixed by vigorously rotating the mixing tube for about 20 minutes
until a completely homogenous sample is obtained.

The sample can be densified by gentle vibration or tapping as described above for pluviation and
the cell assembly completed as usual.

B.2.4. Dry pluviation

Dry pluviation it is a commonly used and reliable method to achieve a uniform density in clean
sands. By close control on the rate of deposition and the drop height of the sand a range of
densities can be achieved with the technique. This sample preparation method needs more
sophisticated equipment than moist tamping or wet pluviation, and there are therefore many
variants of the method.
The principle of dry pluviation is that the correct dry weight of sand is contained in a hopper of the
same diameter as the sample mould. Pluviation rate is controlled by the size and number of holes
in the bottom of the hopper.
While dry pluviation results in the most uniform sample compared to wet pluviation and moist
tamping, its application is limited. Sands with plastic fines cannot be prepared this way as the
drying process coagulates the fines. It is also difficult to prepare very loose samples with this
technique. Finally, as with moist tamping unmeasurable volume changes may occur during
saturation of the samples.

B.3. Sample Saturation

Saturation is important, in that constant volume (or undrained) conditions cannot be assumed
unless the sample is fully saturated.
The degree of saturation is checked by carrying out a B-test, in which a step increment in total
cell pressure (3) is applied with the sample undrained and the corresponding increment in pore
pressure (u) is measured. Skemptons B value is then determined as

=
3
In a fully saturated sample where the water is incompressible compared to the soil skeleton, B
should be 1.
Sand samples are not as compressible relative to water as clay samples. Therefore, a B of about
of 0.97 is achievable and recommended as a target to indicate full saturation. In general, the
larger the grain size of a sand and the less fines it contains, the easier it is to saturate.

B.3.1. Carbon dioxide treatment

One method to reduce the time and back pressure for saturation is to bubble CO2 through the
sample prior to saturation. The CO2 is vented through a thin tube from the top platen which is
best left with its open end under water to observe the bubbles.
Failure to vent the CO2 will result in a pore pressure buildup and collapse of the sample. Too
large a flux of CO2 will result in the CO2 piping and flowing up preferential pathways through the
sand, rather than displacing the air.
An additional trick is to start the CO2 bubbling process during specimen preparation. The sand is
tamped, or pluviated, into a sample mould that essentially contains CO2 rather than air.

B.3.2. Saturation under Vacuum

A more complicated, but nevertheless effective, sample saturation technique is to conduct the
flushing process under a vacuum.
The sample and two de-aired water containers are all attached to the same vacuum line. Water
then flows under gravity from the container connected to the lower platen to the upper platen.
A disadvantage of this system is that the sample is in effect over consolidated by the effective
stresses induced by the applied vacuum to the sample. This is not a major problem as test
consolidation pressures are usually well above the maximum vacuum induced stress
(theoretically about 100 kPa).

B.4. Void Ratio Determination

Measurement of void ratio of sand samples in the triaxial test can be subject to potentially large
errors, especially for loose samples. Volume changes during sample saturation and consolidation
(membrane penetration effects) that can lead to large errors if they are ignored.

B.4.1. Volume changes during saturation

Samples undergo strains during saturation as a result of the changes in effective stresses.
Effective stress changes are induced by changes in the external applied stresses and by the
release of surface tension effects in moist sands.
An error in terms of void ratio of about 0.04 is quite possible and this represents an error in relative
density of about 10 %.
Solution to the problem of sample volume changes during saturation are:
Measure the sample volume directly after saturation, using a pi-tape for diameter and Vernier
calipers for height.
Another method is to measure the sample volume change by the change in the triaxial cell
volume. This is achieved by applying the cell pressure through a burette.
One of the best ways to deal with volume change during saturation is to measure the sample
volume at the end of the test.

B.4.2. Membrane Penetration Correction

When pressure during consolidation is applied to a sample of sand through a rubber membrane,
the membrane deforms and is pushed into the pore spaces between the grains. volume change
during consolidation must be corrected for membrane penetration when void ratio is calculated
membrane penetration can be quantified in terms of a normalized membrane penetration:

=
1
log( )
2

For sands, m is primarily dependent on grain size, assuming other factors such as membrane
thickness and modulus are constant.

Because the membrane penetration correction is so dependent on sand type and testing
equipment, it is advisable in each laboratory test program to measure membrane penetration
directly. There are at least 3 methods to do this relatively simply:
Volume change due to membrane penetration can be calculated approximately from
measurements of axial strain and total volume change made during the reboundnportion
of the test.
Prepare a cylindrical sand sample around a steel insert with a diameter of about 6 mm
less than the full sample. the volume change on unloading and reloading can be assumed
to be small, compared to membrane penetration. This special sample is then
consolidated in the normal way in the triaxial cell, but the measured volume change is
due entirely to membrane penetration effects.
Prepare a sample in the normal way but replace the fine material in the sample structure
by cement

B.5. Additional Test Details

There is no discernable difference between the critical state determined from load or strain rate
controlled tests. Strain rate controlled testing is easier and less susceptible to dynamic effects
during liquefaction and is therefore the recommended method of loading.
Pore pressure measurement is an important detail in undrained testing to determine the steady
state line, especially in load controlled tests where the strain rate can be very high.
Load measurement should use an internal load cell to avoid friction in the piston bearings
affecting the results. This is especially important for loose sand samples where the deviator stress
at the critical state may be in the order of 1 to 5 kPa. An alternative to internal load cells, is to
locate the load cell under the sample.
An area correction to the deviator stress is also essential for critical state line testing, because
measurements are important at large strains (about 20%) rather than small strains. In order for
the area correction to be reasonably accurate at large strains, lubricated end platens are
necessary.
For sand testing, lubricated end platens are essential to reduce the influence of platen restraint
on stresses in the sample and on uniformity of strains.
Membrane penetration effects frequently need to be considered. membrane penetration
affected the determination of void ratio prior to testing. A potentially greater problem is the issue
of what would be the pore pressures measured in the test if there were no membrane compliance
effects.
A simple correction can be applied to critical state line tests, based on the fact that the sample
has obtained a steady state in terms of pore pressures and effective stresses at the end of the
test. This means that at the end of the test the membrane penetration has again resulted in a
defined volume change, which in this case must be compensated for by an equal and opposite
change in void volume of the sample.
5. Bibliography

Abramson, L. W., Lee, T. S., Sharma, S., & Boyce, G. N. (2002). Slope Stability and Estabilization
Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Brannon, R. (2003). Mohrs Circle and more circles.

Lawton, E. C. (2008). DRAWING AND USING MOHRS CIRCLE TO SOLVE. 1-7.

Olson, D. R. (1989). Direct Shear Testing. Department of Construction Engineering Chaoyang

University of Technology, 1-14.

Olson, D. R. (1989). Introductory Shear Strength. Department of Construction Engineering

Chaoyang University of Technology.

Rees, D. S. (2013). INTRODUCTION TO TRIAXIAL TESTING. GDS Instruments, 1-4.

Sounak Bhattacharjee. (08 de 2017). Obtenido de http://sounak4u.weebly.com/