INTRODUCTION

The National Weather Service is charged with the behemoth-like task of keeping a highly
industrialized nation abreast of the ever-changing weather situation. To accomplish this task,
the Weather Service collects, processes, and transmits thousands of reports and forecasts
daily. So highly organized is this effort that a pilot can consult his local National Weather
Service forecast office and determine the present and forecast weather anywhere in the United
States and, in some cases, anywhere in the world. The weather information available to the
pilot varies from hourly reports of current weather to the earths cloud coverage as seen by the
telescopic eye of a far-ranging satellite.

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICESS AVIATION FORECASTING

SERVICES
The United States National Weather Service has hundreds of weather stations that collect and
disseminate weather information. The hub of the nations weather data processing function is
the National Weather Services National Meteorological Center (NMC), located near
Washington, D. C. This center provides guidance material such as analyses and forecasts
(prognoses) of hemispheric windflow patterns at levels from the surface to about 41,000 feet.
These charts are essential in coping with current weather-prediction problems.

The National Meteorological Center receives about 45,000 weather observations of all types
each day from all over the Northern Hemisphere. Many of the weather charts distributed
by the center are prepared by automation. Electronic data processing equipment is now
actually capable of plotting limited weather
data, analyzing windflow patterns, predicting the future patterns, and drawing the analyzed
chart and the prediction chart.

The National Meteorological Center (NMC) provides a generalized service, mostly for
National Weather Service field offices, civil government agencies, and the military services of
the United States. Most commercial broadcast station weathermen and many foreign countries
use its products.

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE FORECAST OFFICE (WSFO)

The National Weather Service Forecast Office (WSFO) weatherman is the person with whom
the pilot talks face-to-face when he goes to the weather office for a briefing and whos voice
the
pilots hear when telephoning the weather office for weather information. The WSFO is the
National Weather Services main link between the aviation community and the processing
centers. The weatherman in a WSFO is not only a briefer, but also an interpreter and analyst,
and acts as a forecaster on a limited scale.

WEATHER INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION

Weather reports and information are extremely perishable because of the constantly changing
weather picture. If the information is not distributed almost immediately, it becomes
history. To meet the speed required for distribution, weather information is sent by teletype-
writer circuits for coded material and by facsimile networks for graphic material. The aviation
operational information on this circuit (predominantly weather) consists of:

1. hourly and special observations,

2. pilot reports and summaries of pilot
reports,
3. winds aloft forecasts,
4. radar reports and summaries,
5. 12-hour terminal forecasts,
6. aviation area forecasts,
7. severe weather forecasts,
8. in-flight weather advisories (AIRMETs
and SIGMETs),
9. abbreviated hurricane advisories,
10. satellite bulletins,
11. regional weather synopses (Far West
only),
12. simplified surface analyses and
prognoses, and
13. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs).

TELETYPEWRITER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS (SEQUENCE REPORTS)
The aviation weather reports are gathered and sent hourly. To more completely explain these
reports, the hourly weather report from Greater Southwest International Airport, shown in
figure 3-1, will be analyzed.

The zeros in the illustration are open; however, many Service A teletypewriters use zeros with
a slant bar (/) running through them.

To use a common denominator, the time used in weather reports is Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT). This time is also referred to as Zulu time.

HEADING
Segment number 1 in figure 3-1 is the heading and broken down as follows:

SA29191300

SA The traffic designator which distinguishes aviation weather reports from other weather
information.

29 Circuit identification which designates the circuit over which this particular
report was sent. The complete circuit identification for 29 is 8029. All circuits are charted
on the map shown on this page. (See Fig. 3-2)

19 The report was sent on the 19th day of the month.

1300 The time of the observation was 1300 Zulu (1300Z = 0700C). The time on some hourly
report headings will indicate the specific time the weather report was printed on the
teletype circuit. For example, SA291915^6 indicates the weather report was printed on
the teletype at 16 minutes past 1300 Zulu.

LOCATION AND CLOUD COVERAGE

Segment number 2 in figure 3-1 specifies the station location (station identifier) and amount of
cloud coverage.

GSW The three-letter identifier designates the station from which the report was
sent. In this case, the reporting station was Greater Southwest International Airport,
Dallas-Ft. Worth, Texas.

S The S designates a special report because of an important change in the

previously reported weather situation

These symbols, which represent the sky cover and ceiling, designate a
scattered cloud layer at 500 feet, and a measured ceiling of 1,000 feet broken and
an overcast ceiling consisting of broken cirriform clouds at 30,000 feet. Note that the
ceiling
 Fig. 3-2. Service A Circuit Map

should not be interpreted as being at 500 feet, because scattered clouds do not constitute a
ceiling.

The sky cover symbols which are used in these reports are as follows:

= clear: less than 0.1 sky cover

= scattered: 0.1 to 0.5 sky cover
= broken: 0.6 to 0.9 sky cover
(constitutes a ceiling except when
preceded by a -
= overcast: more than 0.9 sky cover
= thin (when prefixed to above
symbols)
= partial obscuration: sky hidden by
some obstruction to visibility
= obscuration: sky hidden by ob-
struction to visibility with the bases at the surface (constitutes a ceiling)

NONCEILING CEILING
The lowest cloud cover that constitutes a ceiling will always be preceded by one of
the following symbols reporting how the ceiling was established:

E = estimated
M = measured
B = balloon
W = indefinite
A = reported by aircraft
R = radiosonde or radar
D = estimated height of cirriform clouds
V = varying ceiling below 3,000 feet

VISIBILITY
Segment number 3 in figure 3-1 reports the visibility.

11/2R-K The visibility is reported by figures representing miles and fraction of miles. The symb-
ols at the left designate a visibility of one and one-half miles with light rain and smoke
smoke.

The weather symbols used in the visibility re- ports are as follows:

A = hail
AP = small hail
E = sleet
EW = sleet showers
IC = ice crystals
SP = snow pellets
SW = snowshowers
T = thunderstorms
ZL = freezing drizzle
ZR = freezing rain
L = drizzle
R = rain
RW = rain showers
S' = snow
SG = snow grains

Intensities are noted behind the appropriate symbol as follows: (intensity symbol used as a
suffix)

- - very light light

(no sign) moderate + heavy

Obstruction to visibility symbols are as follows:

D = dust
F = fog
GF = ground fog
BD = blowing dust
BN = blowing sand
BS = blowing snow
H = haze
I F = ice fog
K = smoke
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DEWPOINT
Atmospheric pressure, temperature, and dew- point are given in segment number 4. (See Fig.
3-10.)
146/65/59

146 Pressure expressed in millibars, which in this case is 1014.6 milli- bars. (The
prefix initial 9 or 10 is omitted in the actual re- port.)

The barometric pressure readings are converted to the equivalent sea level
pressure and are stated in inches of mercury or millibars. The normal pressure
readings in millibars range from 950.0 to 1040.0. In the report, the prefix 9 or
10 and the decimal point are omitted for brevity. If the three-digit num- ber
begins with a five or more, the number 9 should be used. If the pressure figure
begins with a four or less, the number 10 should be used. The standard
pressure expressed in millibars (corrected to sea level) is 1013.2.

65 Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, which in this case is 65Fahrenheit.

59 Dewpoint in degrees Fahrenheit, which in this case is 59Fahrenheit.

WIND
Segment number 5 provides information concerning wind direction and velocity. (See Fig.3-1)

2108/

21 Direction from which the wind is blowing, which in this case is 210 true
direction. Notice that the wind is reported to the nearest 10 degrees with the last
zero being omit- ted. A calm wind is reported as 00.

08 Speed of the wind, which in this case is eight knots. This value ex- presses the
average wind speed over a short period of time. If the wind is calm, the speed
value will be shown as 00.

A G and the following numerals represents the peak gust during the 15
minutes prior to the observation time. A Q in lieu of the G indicates that
squalls are in con- junction with the gust conditions.

ALTIMETER SETTING
The altimeter setting is shown as segment number 6 in figure 3-1.

996 Altimeter setting expressed in inches of mercury, which in this case is 29.96
inches (the prefix initial 2 or 3 is omitted in the actual report).

REMARKS
Segment number 7 is the remarks section which includes unusual weather, cloud heights,
runway visual range, frontal activity, etc.

R13VR48 These symbols represent the run- way visual range (RVR located on runway
13) which in this case is 4,800 feet. Note that the last two zeros are omitted in
the actual report.
 This Is a Plots weather report (PIREP) which indicates that the top of the broken
layer is at 5,500 feet MSL.

The portion of the remarks section indicates that the rain began at 46 minutes
past the previous hour (1246Z).

This remark notes that the cloud layer is broken variable to overcast.

This remark is the National Weather Service shorthand meaning line of

thunderstorms in the Southwest to the Southeast quadrants, moving
northward.

NOTAM information concerns Greater Southwest International. The horizontal

arrow notes the beginning of the NOTAM. The second arrow refers to currency
of the NOTAM.

11/7 The NOTAM was published during the eleventh month (November). This
NOTAM is the seventh NOTAM to be published at GSW during November.

AP To interpret these letters, refer to Part 1 of the AIM. Any FSS or National
Weather Service personnel can also give a proper interpretation. AP means
that the NOTAM concerns a VOR station.

1. The aviation weather reports are the most detailed of the

weather reports and forecasts. In all reports, the same
symbols are used for cloud cover, weather, and
restrictions to visibility. The means of measuring the
ceiling is included in the hourly reports. The most
commonly used means of measurement are identified
by their first letter, such as:
Aircraft Radiosonde
Measured Balloon
Estimated

2. This report, means

A R
M B
E

3. This report, means

1,500 scattered
Measured
2,500 broken

4. The order of the hourly report is the same as the terminal

forecast. This report, means:

Measured 2,000
132 is millibar pressure. If the first two digits are less Broken, 5.000
than 56, prefix the number by 10. 132 would be 1013.2. overcast
If the first two digits are 56 or more, prefix the number by
a 9. 573 would be 957.3.
5. Translate this report:
Airplane reported
2,500 overcast,
Three miles visibility
78 is temperature in Fahrenheit. 70 is dewpoint With rain

6. Translate this report:

Estimated 2,500
Broken, six miles
Visibility with
Smoke, millibar
2714G20 is surface wind from 270 at 14 knots with Pressure 1013.0
gusts to 20 knots.

7. Translate this report:

balloon 3,000 broken, 6,000
overcast, five miles visibility
with haze, millibar pressure
1013.1, temperature 60 F.,
The last three digits, 893, are the altimeter setting. If the dewpoint 56F.
first digit is eight or nine, prefix 2; if it is zero or one,
prefix 3. 893 would be 28.93.

8. Translate this report:

measured 4,500 overcast,
three miles visibility, light rain,
pressure 957.9, temperature
72F., dewpoint 71F., wind
320, five knots

9. In the sequence ,the ceiling is

indefinite ceiling 300 feet
obscured, one-half mile visi-
bility, ground fog, pressure
1014.8, temperature 69F.,
dewpoint 69F., wind calm,
altimeter setting 29.94

2,500 feet
AREA FORECASTS (FA)
Area forecasts are put out every six hours (four times a day) by National Weather Service
forecast offices. They represent the anticipated weather for the area around the station and
are primarily used to determine enroute weather conditions. An area forecast is sometimes
also useful for determining anticipated weather at airports for which no terminal forecasts are
prepared.

An area forecast includes specific information for a 12-hour period, and a general outlook for
an additional 12-hour period. These forecasts give information on predicted cloud tops, icing,
turbulence, and other weather phenomena that are generally important to consider during pre-

Fig. 3-3. Area Forecast Boundaries

flight planning. An area forecast is broken up into six categories: synopsis, in-flight advisories,
clouds and weather, icing, turbulence, and outlook.

The United States is divided up into several areas for which area forecasts are prepared. A
National Weather Service forecast office in each area is responsible for preparing the area
forecast for its area. The map in figure 3-3 illustrates the areas covered in area forecasts. A
plain-language interpretation is given for the sample forecast in figure 3-4.

1. HEADING The area forecast was prepared in Denver by the National Weather
Service forecast office. The forecast was made on the 29th day of the month at 1840Z.
The valid time of this area forecast is from 1900Z Tuesday to 0700Z Wednesday. The
geographical area covered is Colorado, Wyoming, and the Nebraska panhandle. All
heights in this area forecast are above sea level (ASL) unless noted. Weather forecasts
which are prefixed with CIG or a C are stated as AGL altitudes.

2. SYNOPSIS The weak trough and front north of Garden City (Kansas) to south of
Pueblo and to north of Montrose (Colorado) is continuing slowly southwestward. (A
high pressure) ridge extends into western Wyoming.
3. SIGMETs and AIRMETs A fairly recent addition to the area forecast is the section
including SIGMETs and AIRMETs which is explained as follows:

SIGMET Possible afternoon severe thunderstorms 1900Z to 2300Z north-

east Colorado and Nebraska panhandle.

AIRMET Moderate turbulence 1900Z to 2500Z over and near the mountains.
A CLOUDS AND WEATHER - Wyoming. 10,000 to 13,000 scattered; 17,000

4. CLOUD AND WEATHER Wyoming 10,000 to 13,000 scattered; 17,000 broken.

Lower clouds locally broken with

Fig. 3-4. Area Forecast

few widely scattered showers. Chance of afew thunderstorms developing eastern third
of Wyoming after 2100Z. Shower activity is forecast to be ending by 05Z.

Nebraska Panhandle. 3,000 to 5,000 scattered cloud layer which will be occasionally
broken. Clouds are 3,000 to 5,000 feet above ground level (AGL) with variable mid and
high clouds. Scattered thunderstorms developing in the afternoon 21Z with tops to
greater than 40,000 feet. Locally, ceilings 1,000 feet overcast with two miles visibility in
thunderstorms, rain showers, and hail. Wind gusts to 45 knots. Colorado. 13,000 to
15,000 scattered; 20,000 scattered variable to broken. Widely scattered afternoon
 thunderstorms in the mountains and eastern points. Tops to greater than 35,000 feet.
Possible severe thunderstorms extreme northeastern Colorado. Clearing western
points by 0400Z. Thunderstorms ending eastern points after 0600Z.

5. ICING. None except moderate to severe in thunderstorms. Freezing level 11,000 north-
west Wyoming to 14,000 in Colorado.

6. TURBULENCE. Moderate over and near mountains below 16,000 feet. Moderate to
severe in thunderstorms. Chance moderate clear air turbulence from 24,000 to 39,000
feet in western Wyoming, northwestern Colorado near high-level jetstream.

7. OUTLOOK. Outlook from 07Z to 19Z Wednesday. A high pressure is building over
Wyoming and northern Colorado as the weak front moves beyond district by 12Z.
Possibly weak upslope stratus clouds in Nebraska panhandle and northeastern Colo-
rado from 12Z to 15Z. Upper trough moving over Wyoming by 12Z with scattered
showers in the mountains. Otherwise, little change.

TERMINAL FORECAST (FT)

Terminal forecasts are prepared for specific terminal areas every six hours. The terminal fore-
casts are prepared for a valid period of either 12 hours or 24 hours. Both the 12-hour and 24-
hour forecasts are included in the same format group which is circulated on the teletypewriter
circuit. Generally, the last 12 hours of the 24-hour forecasts are not as accurate as the 12-
hour forecast, because many kinds of weather phenomena cannot be forecast accurately that
far in advance.

The symbols in a terminal forecast are the same as those in aviation weather reports
(sequence reports), and they appear in the same order. The forecast ceiling, though, is always
designated by the letter C preceding the altitude of the cloud base. Cloud heights and sky
cover are provided in the same way as in the hourly weather report. A forecast of the visibility
is included only if the visibility is expected to be eight statute miles or less. A wind forecast is
included only if the wind is expected to be 10 knots or greater. The weather described at the
beginning of the terminal forecast shows what is forecast for the beginning of the forecast
period. Significant forecast weather changes are written into terminal forecasts along with the
times at which the changes are expected to occur. (See Fig. 3-5.)

The terminal forecasts included in figure 3-5 are typical of the format published by the National
Weather Service. In the illustrated format, both of the 12-hour and 24-hour forecasts are in-
cluded within the same forecast group. The following paragraphs include a discussion of the
terminal forecast. The numbers in the ball flags
 Fig. 3-5. Terminal Forecast

in the illustration refer to the numbers preceding the beginning of each new paragraph.

1. The letters ZCZC are included at the beginning of each terminal forecast to program
the National Weather Service computer which distributes the terminal forecasts on the
many teletypewriter circuits. The letters DEN represent the three-letter identifier for
the National Weather Service forecast office (WSFO) located at Denver, Colorado. The
letter Z following the three-letter identifier is an additional computer code. The letters
FT are the standard code indicating that this teletype information is a terminal
forecast. The date-time group for the terminal forecasts are included with each
individual station rather than in the terminal forecast heading.

2. The terminal forecast for Denver is valid on the 29th day of the month from 1700Z to
1700Z on the following day. This date and time information is represented by the
numbers 291717. The time from 1700Z to 1700Z indicates the forecast for Denver is
a 24-hour terminal forecast.
The weather forecast for Denver beginning at 1700Z is 8,000 scattered, 14,000
scattered with a wind forecast to be from 350 at 10 knots. This forecast is valid until
the time of 2200Z, at which time the weather is forecast to be 8,000 scattered, ceiling
at 14,000 broken with a chance of the ceiling to be 8,000 broken with light rainshowers
or thunderstorms with light rainshowers. This forecast is valid until 0800Z, when the
weather is forecast to be clear until the end of the forecast period. Since no visibility is
included in the Denver forecast, the visibility is forecast to be greater than eight statute
miles.

3. The terminal forecast for Colorado Springs is valid on the 29th day of the month from
1700Z until 0500Z. Note that the terminal forecast for Colorado Springs is valid for a
12-hour period. At the beginning of the terminal forecast for Colorado Springs, the
weather is form 360 at 15 knots. Beginning at 2000Z, the weather is forecast to be
7,000 scattered, 14,000 scattered. At 000OZ, the terminal forecast indicates the
weather at Colorado Springs will have a ceiling of 7,000 feet broken with a chance of
thunderstorms and light rainshowers.
 4. The terminal forecast for Casper, Wyoming is valid on the 29th day of the month from
1700Z until 1700Z on the following day. At the beginning of the terminal forecast period,
the weather is forecast to be 5,000 scattered, 10,000 scattered. At 2100Z, the weather
is forecast to be 6,000 scattered, ceiling broken with occasional ceilings at 6,000
broken with light rainshowers or thunderstorms and light rainshowers. At 0600Z, the
ceiling is forecast to be broken. At 1000Z, the forecast is a ceiling at 6,000 feet broken,
with another broken layer at 12,000 feet.

5. Sheridan, Wyomings terminal forecast is valid for a 12-hour period from 1700Z until
0500Z beginning on the 29th day of the month. At the beginning of the 12-hour terminal
forecast for Sheridan, Wyoming, the weather is forecast to be scattered, 10,000
scattered. At 2000Z, the forecast includes 5,000 scattered, ceiling at 10,000 broken
with a few cumulonimbus clouds.

AMENDED TERMINAL FORECASTS

When the National Weather Service forecast office receives information from weather sources
indicating that the weather included in terminal forecasts will be considerably different than
indicated in the original forecast, amended terminal forecasts are issued on the teletypewriter
circuit to include the most current forecast conditions. The amended terminal forecast in figure
3-6 is an example of a more current forecast for Denver, Colorado.

The amended terminal forecast for Denver corrects the terminal forecast that was originally
issued for the 29th day of the month, valid from 1700Z until 1700Z on the following day. The
amended terminal forecast illustrated in figure 3-6 was issued at 1945Z. The

6. The restrictions to visibility are given with letters. The first

letter of the word denoting the restriction used, except for ceiling
smoke which uses K. The letter for: 2,500 broken
haze is dust is seven miles
fog is ice fog is visibility
ground fog is smoke is

7. Blowing restrictions are indicated by B and the first letter

of the word denoting the restriction except sand, which is H D
an N. The letter for: F IF
blowing dust is blowing sand is GF K
blowing snow is

BD BN
BS

WIND AND TEMPERATURE ALOFT FORECASTS (FD)

A wind and temperature aloft forecast (FD) is prepared by a computer and is issued by the
National Meteorological Center at Suitland, Maryland. It shows the forecast wind direction and
speed at various heights, and the forecast temperature in degrees Celsius. The FD forecasts
are based on data observed at 0000Z and 1200Z. They are valid for periods of 12, 18, and 24
hours after those times. When necessary, and unscheduled, amended FD may be prepared
by a flight advisory weather service office.

Depending on station elevation, wind forecasts are issued for the following levels: 3,000, 6,000,
9,000, 12,000, 18,000, 24,000, 30,000, 34,000, and 39,000 feet. (See Fig. 3-7.) The first level
for which an FD is issued for a particular station is 1,500 feet or more above the station eleva-
tion. The temperature is forecast in Celsius for all wind levels that are 2,500 feet or more above
the station, with the exception of the 3,000-foot level. The minus signs are deleted preceding
the temperatures at the 30,000-, 34,000-, and 39,000-foot levels.

An explanation of the wind and temperature aloft information shown in figure 3-7 is as follows:

1. Note that the first line after the heading begins with FT (feet), denoting the levels for
which the forecast is made.

2. Denver (DEN) has no forecast for 3,000 feet because that MSL height is below the
surface around Denver. No 6,000-foot value is given for DEN because, although the
6,000 level is above the surface, it is not quite 1,500 feet above the surface. Surface
friction would make winds aloft forecasts meaningless at the lower levels.

3. The temperature is forecast for all levels except 3,000 but is never forecast for any
altitude less than 2,500 feet above the surface.

4. Note that the group of numbers adjacent to Richmond, Virginia (RIC) for the 3,000-foot
level are 2508. The

Fig. 3-6. Amended Terminal Forecast

amended terminal forecast illustrated in figure 3-6 was issued at 1945Z. The amended
information forecasts that the weather at 1945Z will be 4,000 scattered, with a ceiling
at 8,000 broken with a chance of the ceiling to be 4,000 broken with light rainshowers
or thunderstorms and light rainshowers. By comparing this portion of the amended
terminal forecast to the original terminal forecast, it can be seen that the conditions are
expected to include a lower ceiling than initially anticipated. Both the original terminal
forecast and the amended terminal forecast indicate the weather at 0800Z should be
clear.

1. The ceiling in an area or terminal forecast is indicated

by the letter .

2. The height of the ceiling is given in hundreds of feet with

the last two zeros omitted. When the cloud cover is thin
and does not constitute a ceiling, a - follows the height
value and precedes the cloud cover symbols. C15 C
means .
3. Types of sky cover are given by symbols. is for ceiling
1,500 feet

4. The symbol for clear is ; for cirriform

clouds that do not constitute a ceiling, but are reported
as broken, the height is given followed by overcast
.

5. Visibility is given is statue miles after cloud cover.

would be

Visibility is omitted if over eight miles.

Fig. 3-7. Winds Aloft Forecast

first two numbers, 25, represent a true wind direction of 250. The last two numbers,
08, stand for a wind speed of eight knots. Thus, at 3,000 feet MSL above Richmond,
the winds are forecast to be from 250 at eight knots. The winds over Richmond at
30,000 feet are forecast to be from 260 at 79 knots, and the temperature will be -44
Celsius. Note that the minus sign is deleted for the temperatures above 30,000 feet,
and that no temperature is forecast for the 3,000-foot level. The winds over Richmond,
Virginia at 39,000 feet are forecast to be from 250 at 108 knots with a temperature of
-58 Celsius. When the winds are forecast to be greater than 100 knots, the number 5
will be added to the first digit of the wind direction so that the same number of digits
may be used in the tele-type report. A wind from 330 at 125 knots would be entered
on the teletype report as 8325.

5. Wind aloft forecasts and reports always use true directions rather than magnetic.

6. It may be necessary to interpolate the winds aloft forecast for a flight altitude not stated
on the winds aloft forecast. Note that an interpolation of the winds aloft for 21,000 feet
over Dallas, Texas would* give a wind forecast from 325 at 14 knots. The temperature,
through interpolation, is forecast to be minus 22 Celsius.

7. When the winds are forecast to be light and variable, the numbers 9900 are used in
place of the usual four numbers that denote the wind direction and velocity.
1. Translate the following winds aloft forecasts:
a) 3050-13
b) 3515+05
c) 3224
d) 3465-26
a)
b)
c)
d)

2. In figure 3-7, the wind direction at 6,000 feet over HOU is

and the velocity is a) 300 at 50 knots -13C.
b) 350 at 15 knots +5C.
c) 320 at 24 knots
d) 340 at 65 knots -26C.

variable
calm

IN-FLIGHT ADVISORIES
In-flight weather advisories are provided by the National Weather Service in order to give pilots
advance knowledge of potentially hazardous weather conditions. An advisory may be either of
two types, depending upon the severity of the weather SIGMETs for very severe weather
and AIRMETs for less severe weather. SIGMETs and AIRMETs are distributed by teletype
circuits and are broadcast on the voice facility of VOR stations by flight service stations.

SIGMETs
SIGMET advisories pertain to weather of concern to pilots of both large and small airplanes.
SIGMETs are issued when one or more of the following weather conditions is known to exist,
or is expected within two hours. (See Fig. 3-8.)

1. Tornadoes
2. Heavy icing
3. Large hail
4. Lines of thunderstorms (squall lines)
5. Severe or extreme turbulence
6. Widespread duststorms or sandstorms that reduce visibility two miles or less

SIGMET advisories are broadcast by all flight service stations within the affected area every
15 minutes, starting on the hour. The 15-minute broadcast is made a part of the scheduled
weather broadcasts.

The sample SIGMET shown in figure 3-8 was issued by the National Weather Service in
Denver, Colorado. The heading information is similar to those of the other teletype reports.
The FL stands for in-flight advisories, DEN is the originating station. The advisory was
issued on the 17th day of the month at 2230Z and is effective for a period from 2300Z on the
17th of the month to 0300Z on the 18th day of the month. The identification SIGMET Bravo
1 is used to distinguish this advisory from others which might be issued during the same time
period.

Fig. 3-8. In-Flight Advisory (SIGMET)

The plain-language interpretation of the SIGMET shown in figure 3-8 is as follows:

Over eastern fourth of Colorado and southern Nebraska panhandle, few severe
thunderstorms with tops to 50,000 feet. Conditions continuing beyond 0300Z.

AIRMETs
AIRMET advisories pertain to weather of concern to pilots of light aircraft only. These
advisories are issued when one or more of the following weather phenomena are known to
exist or are expected within two hours. (See Fig. 3-9.)

1. Moderate icing
2. Moderate turbulence
3. Winds of 40 knots or more within 2,000 feet of the ground
4. The initial onset of ceilings of less than 1,000 feet or visibility of less than two miles

AIRMET advisories are broadcast by flight service stations in the area with which the AIRMET
is concerned every half hour, starting at 15 minutes past the hour.

The sample Salt Lake City (SLC) AIRMET, shown in figure 3-9, reads like this:

Local area ceilings less than one thousand feet above ground and/or visibilities less
than three miles in fog and/or smoke in the valleys of northeastern Nevada, north-
western Utah, and the extreme southern border areas of southeastern Idaho.
Continuing beyond 0600 Zulu.

Fig. 3-9. In-Flight Advisory (AIRMET)

The National Weather Service and the FAA have recently changed the policy of issuing
SIGMETs and AIRMETs. Instead of being issued separately, the in-flight advisories are now
issued as part of the area forecast. Even though the distribution policy was changed, there is
no change in the criteria for SIGMET and AIRMET conditions. The following two paragraphs
are excerpts from the new policy issued by the NWS.

When AIRMET category weather is expected to occur during any portion of the full 12
hour FA period, a paragraph headed AIRMET will be inserted following the synopsis
(or following a SIGMET paragraph if one is included). The paragraph will contain a brief
 statement of the phenomenon or phenomena expected, describing its general location
and duration. Unforeseen AIRMET category conditions that develop during the first 6
hours of the FA valid period will be covered by an individual AIRMET issuance.

1. Special reports of hazardous conditions in a general area

are called and

2. AIRMETs are broadcast at and

Minutes after each hour. AIRMETs
SIGMETs

15
45

PILO T REPORTS, OR PIREPS (U A)

Since weather observers on the ground cannot always determine weather conditions at
altitude, the weather service and air traffic control facilities always encourage airborne pilots
to provide reports on weather phenomena aloft.

These reports greatly aid in the control of air traffic and in advising other pilots of prevailing
conditions. A PIREP is especially useful when unforecast weather develops between reporting
stations or over remote regions.

Although pilots are not trained weather observers, they usually have the advantage of being
in the right place at the right time to see the weather as it occurs and changes. If a pilot ob-
serves weather that looks as though it could be of concern, or even hazardous, to other pilots
in the vicinity, it should be reported to the nearest flight service station or ATC facility.

A PIREP contains just the weather information that the pilot who made the report considered
to be pertinent. When the PIREP is redistributed by teletype, the aircraft type is affixed to the
end of the report so other pilots can take that into consideration when interpreting the PIREP.

The sample teletype summary of PIREPs shown in figure 3-10 was put out by the National
Weather Service at Denver. The UA is the code for PIREPs; the date and time group are the
same as for the other teletype reports. In plain language, these PIREPs would read as follows:

Over Lewiston, Montana, (LWT), light mountain wave and light chop. Wind 280 at 60
knots at flight level 370 (37,000 feet). Smooth at flight level 390. The report was made
by a Saberliner a North American Model 65.

The second report was made by the pilot of a PA30 aircraft flying from Denver, Colorado (DEN)
to Lander, Wyoming (LND). He reported good VFR conditions, and light and variable winds at
12,500 feet.

The third PIREP reports a tailwind component of 85 knots, observed by the pilot of a Cessna
172 flying from Pueblo, Colorado (PUB) to Gage, Oklahoma (GAG).

THE PICTORIAL WEATHER CHARTS

Most National Weather Service offices and some flight service stations are now equipped
with facsimile machines. These machines reproduce charts that are transmitted by wire from
central locations, where they are drawn periodically by specialists or plotted by computers.
The pictorial weather charts enable pilots and briefers to see graphic illustrations or pictures
of weather conditions.

Weather charts of any kind are most effective when used only to learn large-scale weather
trends and general patterns a briefer who is familiar with local aviation weather should be
consulted for details and local variations

Fig. 3-10. Pilot Report

Fig. 3-11. Surface Analysis Chart
To complete many of the following exercises, refer to the surface analysis chart in figure
3-11.

1. The surface analysis chart figure 3-11 is based on

whether data that existed at Zulu.

2. The surface analysis chart is issued every

hours. 1200

3. A circle that is half black and half white indicates that the
cloud coverage is -tenths of the sky. three

4. The speed of the wind is indicated by lines and flags. The

velocity of the wind is given in . five
knots, m.p.h

5. The surface temperature is given in degrees

Fahrenheit, Celcius knots
6. The type of front extending through southern Idaho is a
front. fahrenheit

7. The barometric pressure in the low pressure area over

eastern Montana is milibars. cold

8. The front extending through South Dakota is a

front. 1007

9. The isobar through Utah represents a barometric

pressure of millibars. stationary

10. It can be assumed that the close the isobars, the higher
the wind . 1012

velocity

THE SURFACE ANALYSIS CHART

The surface chart in figure 3-11 is of fundamental importance to the pilot. Issued every three
hours, it shows wind velocity and direction, temperature, dewpoint, and other specific data. In
addition, it provides a general picture of atmospheric pressure patterns at the surface by
showing the positions of highs, lows, and fronts.

The location of each reporting station is printed on the map as a small circle. The weather
information is arranged around the station circle in a standard pattern called a station model.
Figure 3-12 shows a station model with an explanation of the symbols and their arrangement.

Atmospheric pressure is shown at each station and the map has isobars lines which connect
points of equal pressure. Isobars also serve another purpose: they can be used to indicate the
relative velocity of surface winds. Where the isobars are close together, the pressure change
is rapid and the winds will be strong; where the isobars are far apart, the wind will be light.
The wind direction and speed is shown in each station model by an arrow. The station circle
is the arrowhead and points in the direction the wind is blowing. Each feather on the arrow
represents a wind speed of 10 knots and each half feather represents five knots. A flag on the
arrow means a 50 knot wind. An arrow with two and one-half feathers indicates a wind of 25
knots.

WEATHER DEPICTION CHART

The weather depiction chart shows a simplified picture of aviation weather over the contermi-
nous 48 states. (See Fig. 3-13.) Much information is presented by use of only a few symbols.
All areas with ceilings of less than 1,000 feet and/or visibilities of less than three miles are
enclosed by a smooth, solid line. Normally, only instrument flights can be conducted within
those areas. Areas with marginal weather are enclosed by a scalloped line, and within those
areas, ceilings are greater than 1,000 feet but less than 5,000 feet; visibilities are three miles
or greater. The lines may enclose only one station or several states. No lines are drawn around
areas with better weather.

At each station on the chart, the sky coverage, cloud height above ground, visibility, and pre-
cipitation are given, along with any important observed weather. The circle around each station
is marked to symbolize the sky coverage of the lowest clouds, such as: clear conditions
scattered broken overcast overcast with breaks or obscured . Cloud base
height is given just below each station circle in hundreds of feet. Immediately to the left of each
circle, a one-letter or two-letter code shows the precipitation and significant weather, if any,
such as rain showers (RW). Farther to the left is the visibility in miles. No visibility value is given
if the visibility is greater than six miles. The weather depiction chart legend in figure 3-14 should
be studied so the chart can be read and interpreted easily.

The weather depiction chart is released every three hours, one and one-half hours after the
hourly weather reports. The two charts should be used together and the latest aviation weather
reports should be consulted to get an up-to-date weather picture, since the latest chart may
be as much as four and one-half hours old.

1. Any briefing facility receives the pictorial weather charts if

the facility is quipped with machines.

2. A weather depiction chart shows a picture of

Observed, forecast facsimile
weather condition
3. These chart are issued every hours
and they are only large-scale, simplified weather
depictions. observed

4. The ceilings and visibility within an area enclosed by a

smooth, solid line are equal to less than
Feet and miles (either or both conditions three
may exist).

5. Scalloped lines enclose areas of VFR

weather, with ceilings between 1,000 and 1,000
feet, and visibilities of three miles or more. three
6. The information given at each station consists of sky
Cloud height above marginal
visibility, and , along with important 5,000
observed weather.

7. The cloud height is that of the lowest significant cloud

layer and is always given in of feet coverage ground
above the station. precipitation

8. If 5RW appears just to the left of a station, the visibility

is , and the hundreds
weather observation includes

9. If no numbers or letters appears to the left of the station

or below it, then the visibility is greater than five miles
miles and the clouds are above feet. rain shower

10. Since a weather depiction chart may become several

hours old before it is replaced, an up-to-date briefing six
should be obtained by reading 5,000
aviation weather reports and other data.

velocity
Fig. 3-12. Symbols Used on Surface Analysis Chart
Fig. 3-13. Weather Depiction Chart
 Fig. 3-14. Weather Depiction Chart Symbols

LOW-LEVEL PROGNOSTIC CHARTS

Low-level prognostic charts show pictorial forecasts for the 48 conterminous states. Each chart
contains four panels. A prognosis, or forecast, for a time 12 hours after the data collection time
is pictured in the left-hand panels. The right-hand panels depict the weather outlook for a time
24 hours after the data collection time. (See Fig. 3-15.)

The two upper panels portray cloud coverage, forecast locations of the freezing level (altitude
above MSL where the temperature is exactly zero degrees Celsius), and clear air turbulence
(CAT) areas. The two lower panels picture the predicted positions of major weather systems
such as fronts, highs, and lows, as well as precipitation areas.

Low-level prognosis charts are issued four times a day, or every six hours. The valid time of
each panel appears in the lower left-hand corner of that panel. For example, the weather
picture in a left-hand panel containing VT1800Z MON APR 24 1970 represents a prediction
of the weather situation that is expected to exist at 6:00 p.m. Zulu time on the twenty fourth
day of April, 1970.

On the upper chart panels, an area that is expected to have showers will be enclosed by a line
of dots and dashes. If precipitation is expected to be more persistent (continuous or
intermittent), a solid line is used and the enclosed area will be shaded. Arrows may be used to
show the predicted direction of movement of a front. The speed of the front (in knots) is often
shown near the arrows. Symbols are used to show where fog, turbulence, and thunderstorms
are expected. Cloud bases and tops are sometimes shown by a horizontal line with the forecast
heights of the cloud tops written above the line and the cloud base heights below the line.
Heights are given in hundreds of feet, as in most other reports and forecasts. For example,
130-140 stands for forecast tops of
Fig. 3-15. Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart
 Fig. 3-16. Low-Level Prognostic Chart Symbols

13,000 feet to 14,000 feet above MSL. In this case the cloud bases are not forecast.

On the two lower panels, small scalloped lines enclose areas where a ceiling is expected to
be lower than 5,000 feet above ground level (AGL). A ceiling is still defined here as the lowest
cloud layer covering six-tenths or more of the sky, except for thin layers or partial obscurations.
A large scalloped line is drawn around an area with a forecast ceiling more than 5,000 feet
AGL. The points of the scalloped lines always point toward the area with the forecast ceiling.
Cloud types are sometimes given in two-letter codes.

A solid line broken only by the figure 32 indicates the predicted location of the freezing
isotherm at the surface. An isotherm is a line of equal temperature (just as an isobar is a line
of equal pressure). This freezing isotherm is a line north of which all temperatures are below
freezing at the earths surface. The broken lines represent heights, in hundreds of feet, of the
forecast freezing level. That is, a line broken by a 40 shows where the freezing level will be
at 4,000 feet MSL. All air temperatures will be below freezing at altitudes above 4,000 feet at
all locations along the broken line. A pilot planning to fly in the vicinity of 4,000 feet north of
that line should expect to encounter icing if flying in a visible moisture.

Symbols are used to portray forecast fog or low stratus clouds and to depict areas of
turbulence. A spike with BLO 160 printed below the spike means that moderate
turbulence is predicted below 16,000 feet MSL in the area of the spike symbol. Figure 3-16
shows the weather symbols used on the low-level prognosis chart.

1. The valid time on each panel is the time when the

predicted weather conditions are expected to

2. Shower are expected to occur with an area enclosed by a

line of and exist
3. If continuous or intermittent precipitation such as drizzle is
forecast, the area will be enclosed by a dots
line. dashes

4. The symbols on a prog chart represent

forecast , and
solid

5. if 120 appears on a prog chart as a cloud height, freezing

level, or turbulence height, that altitude should be read as fog
feet. turbulence
thunderstroms

6. Scalloped lines on the upper panels enclose areas

forecast to have . 12,000

7. A line of large scallops would surround an area where the

ceiling is expected to be higher than ceilings
thousand feet.

8. Altitudes above which all air will be colder than 32

Fahrenheit are shown by lines of dashes and are called Five
, or freezing levels.
9. A 40 printed on a broken line shows that temperature
freezing are predicted above and altitude of isotherm
feet.

10. A heavier, solid line marked 32 shows where the

freezing level is expected to be at the . 4,000

11. All surface locations to the of the 32

north, south surface
degree surface isotherm will be colder than freezing.

north

THE RADAR SUMMARY CHART

Another excellent weather briefing aid is the radar summary chart, which is a graphic illustra-
tion of weather observed by radar. (See Fig. 3-17.) Special Weather Service radar is used to
detect and track thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. These storms contain very heavy
concentrations of liquid moisture that reflect radar signals back to the antenna. The echoes
are then analyzed and plotted on the chart.

Any weather symbols noted on this chart are very important to pilots because the conditions
that cause strong echoes are often associated with heavy rain, hail, severe icing, and severe
turbulence. (See Fig. 3-18.) Most of the reporting stations are located east of the Rockies,
since most weather of this nature occurs in that region.

Sixteen radar summary facsimile charts and hourly plain-language radar summaries are pre-
pared each day in Kansas City, Missouri. This information, from a 90-station network of
weather radars mostly east of the Rockies plus a network of ARTC center radars west of the
continental divide, is transmitted on Service A teletypewriters and to subscribers on the fac-
simile circuit.

Areas of echoes are surrounded by scalloped lines. Speed and direction of movement of the
echo area or individual cells are given. One of the most important features of the radar
summary is that it shows the height of cloud tops. However, some weather phenomena such
as thunderstorms can change so rapidly that the radar summary cannot be depended upon for
details like cloud tops. Echo tops of 40,000 feet would be shown as 400.

Symbols resembling the cloud-cover symbols from other charts are used on the radar
summary chart to indicate echo density. A <D symbol means the echoes cover .1 to .5 of the
area, shows .6 to .9 and shows .9 or more of the area is covered. Any important surface
precipitation is given, along with its intensity and any observed tendency to increase or de-
crease. Thus, RW+/NC means heavy rain showers, no change in intensity, and Retranslates
as very light rain, increasing slowly.

UPPER AIR CHARTS

CONSTANT-PRESSURE CHARTS
Horizontal analyses of the upper atmosphere are made for selected constant pressure
surfaces (irregular, nearly horizontal surfaces in the atmosphere where the atmospheric
pressure is anywhere equal). Data from rawinsonde (radio wind and sounding) observations
are plotted on a chart for each of the selected constant-pressure levels. (See Figs. 3-19 and
3-20.) Plotted data on each chart is in the format of a standard station model. Station models
for the various constant pressure charts are similar in that height, temperature, and wind are
always plotted; however, there are variations in the plotting of dewpoint and height change
values. The maximum wind axes are plotted on the 300 and 200 mb analysis charts.

CONSTANT-PRESSURE ANALYSIS
Upper air analysis charts are transmitted twice daily for the following constant pressure sur-
faces: 850, 700, 500, 300, and 200 millibar levels. (See Fig. 3-21.)

Measurements of temperature, humidity, pressure, and wind in the upper atmosphere are
furnished primarily from rawinsonde observations. These are obtained by sending a balloon
aloft with miniature weather observing gear. In the United States, rawinsonde observations are
taken almost exclusively by the National Weather Service and are scheduled twice daily at
0000Z and 1200Z. Supplementary upper wind observations are taken in a few locations at
0600Z and 1800Z. Upper air observations provide the raw data for analysis of the upper
atmosphere. These analyses, in turn, serve as the basis for prognostic charts and forecasts.

CONSTANT-PRESSURE PROGNOSTIC CHARTS

Forecasts of the upper air conditions are called prognostic charts and are distributed on fac-
simile charts through the National Weather Service circuits.

Twenty-four-hour prognostic charts for the 850, 700, 500, 300, and 200 millibar levels are pre-
pared twice daily based on analyzed data. (See
Fig. 3-17. Radar Summary Chart
 Fig. 3-18. Radar Summary Chart Symbols

Fig. 3-21.) A constant-pressure prognostic chart (commonly called a prog chart or prog) shows
the expected height pattern at a specified future time. Forecast values of other elements such
as isotachs (lines of equal wind velocity) and isotherms (lines of equal temperatures) may be
superimposed. Prog charts resemble analyzed charts. Contours are drawn and labeled in the
same manner as the analysis.

The progs show forecast positions of high and low centers. They show wind speed for the
same intervals as the analysis. The 300 mb prog has isotherms; there are dotted lines with
temperature label circles. The 500 and 200 mb progs do not have isotherms. Axes of maximum
wind do not appear on constant-pressure prognostic charts.

HIGHS AND LOWS

The centers of highs and lows are depicted in the usual manner. On a constant-pressure chart,
they represent centers of high and low height values. However, these centers coincide with
centers of high or low pressure. Height centers have the same relationship to contours on a
constant- pressure chart as pressure centers have to isobars on a surface chart.
Fig. 3-19. 300MB Analysis Chart
 Fig. 3-20. Standard Atmosphere

Fig. 3-21. Upper Air Analyses and 24-Hour Progs

The constant-pressure chart station model is basically the same as the station model used for
the surface analysis charts. (See Fig. 3-22.) The wind arrow is the most conspicuous item and
indicates the direction of the wind source. A pennant on the arrow represents 50 knots, the
full-tick line represents 10 knots, and the halftick line represents five knots.

Fig. 3-22. Constant Pressure Chart Symbols Station Model

On computer-prepared analysis charts, the wind arrow indicates direction only. The wind veloc-
ity is stated in knots in the lower right quadrant, in that case. The station model varies slightly
from one constant-pressure chart to the next.

VALID TIME
The time of the upper air observations is indicated on the lower left portion of the chart in Zulu
time on charts that are prepared by hand. This information is at the top and bottom margins
on the computer-prepared constant- pressure charts. (See Figs. 3-19 and 3-23.) All analysis
charts will be either 0000Z or 1200Z. The valid time on the upper air progs is the time at which
the forecast conditions are expected to exist. The prog charts are forecast for 12, 24, 36, 48,
and 72 hours after the observation time, and the number of hours is indicated on each prog
chart.

CONTOURS
Contours are lines of constant height on a constant-pressure chart and connect areas of equal
pressure. (See Fig. 3-24.) The method used to determine pressure difference on a constant-
pressure chart is to indicate the altitude of the pressure level rather than the change in the
amount of pressure from one location to
 Fig. 3-23. Constant Pressure Chart Tittle Heading

another. Contours are drawn at intervals of 60 or 120 meters and are depicted by solid lines.
Intermediate contours (long-dashed lines) may be included in areas of a weak gradient.

Contour heights are plotted in thousands, hundreds, and tens of meters on the constant-
pressure charts. For example, on the 500 mb chart, 564 represents the height of 5,640
meters. Similarly, on the 300 mb chart, 930 represents the height of 9,300 meters. (See Fig.
3-19.) The last digit (always a zero) is eliminated for ease of reading, and on the 200 mb chart,
the first digit is also eliminated.

ISOTHERMS
Isotherms, lines of equal temperature, are drawn at five degree Celsius intervals and are
depicted by short-dashed lines on all constant-pressure analyses. The 300 mb prognostic chart
is the only prog which has isotherms and they are plotted as dotted lines with the temperature
label circled. (See Fig. 3-24.)

ISOTACHS
Isotachs, lines of equal wind speeds, are on all analyses of constant-pressure levels except
500 mb. They are drawn for 25-knot intervals up to 150 knots, and at 50-knot intervals above
150 knots. Isotachs are dotted lines and are labeled with encircled wind speeds and values on
each analysis chart. Isotachs are labeled on the prog charts as dashed lines of equal wind
speed. The value of an isotach on a prog chart is not circled, as on the analysis, but is followed
by the letter K for knots. (See Fig. 3-24.) Note that isotachs are depicted on the 500 mb prog,
whereas they do not appear on the 500 mb analysis.

DEWPOINT
The spread between the temperature and the dewpoint is plotted, but not the dewpoint itself.
For example, if the temperature is 15 Celsius and the dewpoint is nine degrees Celsius, the
difference of six degrees would be plotted rather than the nine degrees dewpoint temperature.
The dewpoint in all cases will be colder than the temperature. (See Fig. 3-22.)
 Fig. 3-24. Constant-Pressure Chart Symbols

Figure 3-19 is a 300 millibar chart which shows conditions near the 30,000-foot level and repre-
sents average troposphere conditions. These charts, when used with wind arrows, show the
anticipated movement of weather systems and most favorable winds. Weather at this level is
most important for aircraft capable of cruising at these altitudes.

FLIGHT PLANNING WITH CONSTANT-PRESSURE CHARTS

DETERMINING WIND DIRECTION
Up to this point in the discussion of high altitude facsimile charts, only the interpretation of the
symbols on the charts have been discussed. The following section will contain an explanation
of using these charts to determine the type of answers required on the written examination.

Before proceeding into the discussion of wind directions and velocities, it should be understood
that the left and right margins of the facsimile charts do not represent north-south lines. To
determine the true north line, it is necessary to use the nearest line of longitude to determine
the exact north-south alignment. On the polar stereographic projections which the National
Weather Service uses for the facsimile charts, the lines of longitude are not parallel to each
other, but all intersect at true north. On many facsimile charts, the longitude lines do not run
through the contiguous United States; therefore, true north can be determined by projecting
meridians, or by using the north-south state boundaries.

In figure 3-25, the wind directions represented by arrows 1, 2, and 3 are parallel to the lower
margin of the chart, but the wind at arrow 1 is from 250, the wind at arrow 2 is from 270, and
the wind at arrow 3 is from 290. All winds on the facsimile charts are in reference to true north
and the speeds are shown in knots.
On many facsimile charts, the wind direction is included at the locations of many National
Weather Service offices, but for the wind direction at other locations, it is necessary to use the
contour lines to determine the wind direction. To determine the direction for any point along a
contour line, a compass rose, or protractor as illustrated in figure 3-26, can be used similar to
determining the true course on a sectional chart. The location of the desired wind direction and
velocity in figure 3-26 is at 50N, 90W.

After finding the latitude-longitude location, a straight line should be mentally or physically
drawn tangent to the contour line. The navigation plotter is then used in a conventional manner.
After finding that the 90 longitude line lies under the navigation plotter indicating a wind from
either 126 or 306, it is necessary to locate a low- or high-pressure area to determine the
direction of the wind.

In figure 3-26, the low-pressure area is near the North Pole which would indicate that the wind
in the above example is from the west at 306. This direction is in relation to true north. With a
little practice, it is possible to determine the wind direction without the aid of the navigation
plotter.

Fig. 3-25. Non Parallel Line Of Longitude

DETERMINING WIND SPEED FROM IS0TACHS

In figure 3-27, it can be seen that the wind velocity at the location indicated by arrow 1 is 100
knots. The dashed line pointed to by arrow 1 is the 100-knot isotach. The wind velocity at arrow
2 points to the 7 5-knot isotach. To determine the winds at 50N, 90W, it is necessary to
interpolate between the wind velocities indicated at arrow 1 and arrow 2. Since the 50N, 90W
location is approximately midway between the two arrows, it can be determined that the wind
velocity is approximately 88 knots.

All of the high-level analysis and prognosis charts have isotachs with the exception of the 500
millibar analysis chart. When determining the wind velocity on the 500 millibar chart, it is
necessary to interpolate between station locations.

DETERMINING TRUE ALTITUDE

When flying at an altitude above 18,000 feet, the altimeter is set to a barometric pressure of
29.92 in. Hg. and the altitudes are then referred to as flight levels. If the pressure is lower than
standard, the aircrafts actual altitude will be less than 24,000 feet if the pilot is flying at FL 240
with the altimeter set to 29.92. If the pressure is higher than standard, the airplane will be at a
higher true altitude than indicated on his altimeter.

A pilot flying at 50N, 90W at the time the 300 millibar chart in figure 3-27 is valid is cros-
Fig. 3-26. Finding Winds on a Constant Pressure Chart
Fig. 3-27. Finding Wind Velocity
sing the contour line marked 918 and would be flying at a true altitude of 9,180 meters. (Re-
member that on a constant-pressure chart, an altitude of 9,180 meters is represented by the
figure 918.) By referring to the chart in figure 3-21, it can be seen that if the pressure is
standard, the altitude of the 300 millibar level will be at 9,200 meters. An altitude of 9,200
meters is equivalent to 30,000 feet. It can be seen with the chart in figures 3-21 and 3-27 that
a pilot flying at FL 300 at 50N, 90W would be flying at a lower true altitude than his indicated
altitude (assuming a standard temperature).

If the pilot in the previous example were to fly a true course of 360, his true altitude would
constantly decrease until he passed the 870 contour line north of the 70 north latitude. The
pilots true altitude when flying past the 870 contour level would be approximately 28,500 feet
(assuming standard temperature). The true altitude conversion from meters to feet can be
computed on the Jeppesen computer by setting the foot arrow (near 143) on the outside scale
over the meters arrow (near 43.6) on the inside scale, as shown in figure 3-28.

A pilot flying at FL 300 over the Wisconsin/ Illinois border would be flying near the 930 contour
line. By using the computer, it can be determined that his true altitude (assuming standard
temperature) would be 30,500 feet.

UPPER WIND AND TEMPERATURE FAX CHART

The following discussion on the upper wind and temperature forecast facsimile chart explains
the callouts found in figure 3-29.

1. Every facsimile (fax) chart is assigned a chart number which represents the chrono-
logical order of the particular chart with respect to all the other facsimile charts
produced by the National Weather Service and the National Meteorological Center in
Suitland, Maryland. Chart Number 1 is the first chart released on the facsimile network
after 00 Zulu.

2. The title of this fax chart 12HR UPPER WIND PROG indicates that the upper wind
forecast information is forecast for a valid time 12 hours after the winds aloft
observation was made. The abbreviation PROG stands for prognostic and means the
same thing as forecast.

3. This winds aloft forecast panel is one panel from a fax chart which contains a total of
six panels. This panel includes winds aloft and temperatures for 24,000 feet.

4. This forecast is to be used for a 12-hour period beginning at 00 Zulu on July 3

Fig. 3-28. Feet-to-Meter Conversion

Fig. 3-29. Upper Wind Prog Fax Chart
 1971. Even though the wind aloft and temperature forecast is to be used for a 12-
hour period, it is valid for only one moment that moment is 00Z. There are only two
winds aloft and temperature forecast fax charts issued each day so usually the
teletype forecasts should be used to obtain forecasts for flight occurring at times other
than 00 Zulu and 12 Zulu.

The station location referred to in figure 3-29 for this discussion is SGF (Springfield, Missouri).
The inset in the lower right corner is for MLT (Millinocket, Maine).

5. The temperature forecast over Springfield at 24,000 feet is -20 Celsius.

6. Two identifiers are used to indicate the wind direction. The number 29 indicates a
wind direction from 290 (true). The wind arrow also shows a wind direction from 290.
No pennant or wind ticks are used on the wind arrow to indicate velocity. Note that the
wind arrow is parallel to the bottom of the wind and temperature panel, but does not
indicate a wind from 270. The number 99 indicates a wind direction that is variable.

7. The wind velocity at 24,000 feet is forecast to be 18 knots. If the wind is forecast to be
less than five knots, no wind velocity forecast is included.

To complete the following frames, refer to figure 3-29

1. The wind at 24,000 feet over Great Falls, Montana (GTF)

is forecast to be from

2. The wind over St. Petersburg, Florida (PIE) is forecast to

be and 230

3. The wind over El Paso, Texas (ELP) at 24,000 feet is

forecast to be from . light
variable

4. The temperature over Denver, Colorado (DEN) is forecast

to be Celcius. 180

5. The wind velocity over Great Falls, Montana is forecast to

be knots -21

46

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHART (SIG WX PROG)

The following explanation of the heading found on the significant weather prognostic chart
refers to figure 3-30.

1. This chart is prepared by the National Meteorological Center in Washington, D.C.

2. The title SIG WX PROG indicates that this chart is a forecast of the significant weather

3. The altitudes included on this chart range from the 700 millibar level to the 150 millibar
level (approximately 10,000 feet to 45,000 feet).

4. The 306 states that this chart is the 306th chart to be issued after 00 Zulu.
 5. The conditions on this chart are forecast to be valid at 1200 Zulu on Saturday, July
3,1971.

6. This standard heading is included on all significant weather prog charts as an

explanatory comment.

Fig. 3-30. Heading Information on SIG WX Prog

1. The front over 43N, 30W is a front.

2. The pressure at the surface near 58N, 25W is warm

millibars.

3. The intensity of the turbulence near 46N, 65W is 1004

turbulence and is forecast to be above
feet.

4. The cloud near 48N, 30W are forecast to cover Moderate

-tenth of the sky with bases at 34,000
feet and tops to feet

Fig. 3-31. Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

TROPOPAUSE-VERTICAL WIND SHEAR CHART LEGEND
(TROP-VWS)
The following explanation of the callouts on the TROP-VWS chart refers to the chart in figure
3-33.

1. The altitude of the tropopause is expressed in millibars; 300 mb is approximately

30,000 feet.

2. Arrow points to the contour line representing the location where the tropopause is at
the 300 mb level.

3. The numbers in the square boxes represent the temperature at the tropopause in
degrees Celsius.

4. The temperature at the 150 mb level (approximately 45,000 feet in a standard

atmosphere) is expressed in degrees Celsius and is enclosed in a circle.

5. The high pressure north of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania is

millibars. Six
26,000
32,000

6. The altitude of the freezing level at 52N, 30W is

feet. 1027

7. The front near 40N. 55W is a front

10,000

8. The type of clouds near 45N, 25E are forecast to be

clouds. cold

cumulonimbus
Fig. 3-32. Significant Weather Prog Chart Legend
5. The dashed lines on the TROP-VWS chart are called isoshears and represent the
change of wind velocity per 1,000 vertical feet.

6. The 4K indicates that the wind velocity on the isoshear changes four knots every
thousand feet.

7. On charts which include an area much larger than the United States, the four- letter
identifier for station locations are included. The four-letter identifiers for U.S. stations
include the commonly known three-letter identifier plus a prefix of the letter K.

Fig. 3-33. Tropopause-Vertical Wind Shear Chart

 To complete the following exercises, refer to figure 3-33.

1. The temperature at the 150 millibar level over the North

Pole is Celcius.

2. The temperature at the tropopause near 50N, 100W is

Celcius Celcius -46

3. The wind shear near 30N, 60W is

Knots per 1,000 feet. -52

4. The altitude of the tropopause at 40N, 50W is

feet. two

5. The altitude of the tropopause at 60N, 50W is

feet. 45,000

6. The wind shear at 44N, 50W is knots

Per 1,000 feet. 30,000

7. The altitude of the tropopause at 40 N, 20 W is

approximately feet. three

8. The temperature at the tropopause at 60N, 35W is

approximately Celcius. 37,000

-48