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1 Pressure:
Definition
Pressure results from normal compressive force acting on an area. Where, F is the normal
force acting over the area A. Pressure is a scalar quantity; it has magnitude only and acts
equally in all directions.
The magnitude and location of the resultant force are obtained by a more general
type of analysis.
Consider the plane surface AB immersed in a liquid and inclined at angle to the liquid
surface as shown in figure above.
Consider a vertical plane surface of some arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid of mass
density as shown in Figure below:
h C.P. h
h
b
G
C
P dh
The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integrating the above expression
over the entire area P = dP = (gh)dA= g h dA Eq.(1)
But y dA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the liquid given by
hdA = Ah
Substituting in Eq.(1), we get P = gAh = Ah Eq.(2)
Solved Examples:
Q.1 A large tank of sea water has a door in the side 1 m square. The top of the door is 5 m below
the free surface. The door is hinged on the bottom edge. Calculate the force required at the top to
3
keep it closed. The density of the sea water is 1033 kg/m .
Solution: The total hydrostatic force F = sea water A h c
sea
water = 1033 x9.81 = 10133 .73 N / m 3
Given A = 1m X 1m = 1m2
1
h c = 5 + 2 = 5.5m
h (Ic )xx
C.P. = h c + Ahc
1m2
= 0.08333m 4
0.08333
= 5.5 + = 5.515m
1X5.5
Distance of Hydrostatic force (F) from the bottom of the hinge = 6-5.515 = 0.48485m
The force P required at the top of gate (1m from the hinge)
PX1 = FX0.48485 = 55735.5X0.48485
P = 27023.4 N = 27.023 kN
Q.2 Calculate the total hydrostatic force and location of centre of pressure for a circular plate of
2.5 m diameter immersed vertically in water with its top edge 1.5 m below the oil
D 2 22 h y = 2.75m
A= 4
= 4
= 4.91 m2
Assume 2.5 m C
hc = 2 .7 5 m
We know that the total pressure force is given b y F
F = o i l A h c = 8829 x 4 . 91 x 2 . 75 = 238184 N = 238 . 184 kN
Cen tre of Pressu re:
The C entre of pressure is given b y
(I )
h c x x
C.P. = h c + Ah c
R
4
1.25 4
Ig = 4 = 4 = 1.9175 m 4
1.9175
h
C.P. = 2.75 + 4.91 2.75 = 2.892 m
Hydrostatic Force on a submerged surface:
The other important utility of the hydrostatic equation is in the determination of force
acting upon submerged bodies. Among the innumerable applications of this is the force
calculation in storage tanks, ships, dams etc.
First consider a planar arbitrary shape submerged in a liquid as shown in the figure. The
plane makes an angle with the liquid surface, which is a free surface. The depth of water
over the plane varies linearly. This configuration is efficiently handled by prescribing a
coordinate frame such that the y-axis is aligned with the submerged plane. Consider an
infinitesimally small area at a (x,y). Let this small area be located at a depth from the free
surface. dA = dx.dy
ydm
xdm MX C MYC
M & M (XC & YC: Center of Mass)
xdA ydA
A = xc & A = yc (xc & yc: Center of Area)
r 2dm I
M (2nd moment of Mass)
A y 2dA Ix &
A x2dA Iy (2nd moment of Area)
Then,
FR = Ayc sin = ( h c )A
hc
Where : Pressure at the centroid = (Pressure at the centroid) Area
- Magnitude of a force on an INCLINED plane
- Dependent on , Area, and Depth of centroid
- Perpendicular to the surface (Direction)
Ix I xc
Ay 2
or, by using the parallel-axis theorem, c
o
IG Sin 2
h =h+
C.P.
Ah
Worked Examples
Q.4 . A rectangular plate 1.5m x 3.0m is submerged in water and makes an angle of 60 with
the horizontal, the 1.5m sides being horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of the force on the
plate and the location of the point of application of the force, with reference to the top edge of
the plate, when the top edge of the plate is 1.2m below the water surface.
Solution:
1.2 60
h= + 1.5 = 1.386 + 1.5 = 2.886m 1.2m
sin 60
h
A = 3m X 1.5m = 4.5m2
h = y sin 60 = 2.886 sin 60 = 2.499m x
CP 3.0m
32
h = 2.886 + = 2.886 + 0.260 = 3.146 m
C. P . 12 2.886
From the top edge of the plate, a 3.146 1.386 1.760m
3
y b L bL
L
x 2 , 2 0 bL
12
b
y
4
x
2R 0,0 R 0 R2
4
L b L bL3 b 2L2 bL
y
x 3, 3 36 72 2
b
y 4R 4 8 R 2
a x 0,a R 0
R 3 8 9 2
s
2
3 b b2s L
L bL 1
y L a bL
x 3 36 72 2
b
y R 4R 4 1 4 R 2
4 4
x a R R
3 16 9 8 9 4
b
1
h b 2b 3 2 2
y 1 h b 4 bb 1 b1 h
x a 0 b b1
h
3 b b1 36 b b1
2
b
Fh = FH
F =W +W + W
v air 1 2
From this force balance, the basic rules for determining the horizontal and vertical
component of forces on a curved surface in a static fluid can be summarized as follows:
The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on the plane
area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane normal to
the component.
Lecture-1
INTRODUCTION:
Fluid Kinematics is primarily interested in the flow fields like velocity v f ( x, y, z, t ) , acceleration etc
and mass flow field m f ( x, y, z, t ) while accompanying rotations effects.
Fluid kinematics is a branch of fluid mechanics, which deals with time and space
relationship like Displacement, velocity, accelerations, rotation of fluid particles, without the concern
of forces/energies causing them (like pressure energy, kinetic energy or potential energy) and
describes the motion of fluids without necessarily considering the forces and moments that cause the
motion. I.e. fluid kinematics tries to describe flow processes in field variables.
The motion of fluids can be described by two methods namely Lagrangian method and
Eulerian method. Lagrangian method analyses any particular selected fluid particle, through out its
motion in space, where as Eulerian method analyses any fluid particle in space, at that point of
location of fluid particle.
In this chapter, we adopt Eulerian method and introduce several kinematic concepts related to
flowing fluids. We discuss the description of fluid flows and various ways to visualize flow fields
streamlines, streak lines, path lines etc.
Fluids when in motion has several parameters coming into action, having time and space
relationship like Displacement, velocity, accelerations and rate of rotation of fluid particles etc which
need to be analyzed for knowing the types of fluid and their behaviors, which is done in Fluid
kinematics. To simplify the analysis, Fluid kinematics does not consider the forces and energies that
cause these parameters behavioral aspects and their impacts.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATIONS OF A FLUID IN MOTION:
As the velocity is a function of space and time, the components u, v, w with respect to time, can
u f x, y , z , t
be given as v f x, y, z , t (4.0)
w f x, y , z , t
u u u u
du x dx y dy z dz t dt
v v v v
dv dx dy dz dt (4.1)
x y z t
w w w w
dw dx dy dz dt
x y z t
dx dy dz
u ,v ,z (4.2)
dt dt dt
So velocity vector V and magnitude V with respect to its components can be written as
V ui vj wk (4.2a )
V u 2 v 2 w2 (4..2b)
Acceleration is a measure of how the velocity of an object is changing over time. It can be found by
computing the difference in velocities at initial and later times and dividing that by the difference in
time.
du dv dw
ax , a y , az (4.3)
dt dt dt
u dx u dy u dz u dt
ax x dt y dt z dt t dt
v dx v dy v dz v dt
ay
x dt y dt z dt t dt
w dx w dy w dz w dt
az
x dt y dt z dt t dt
u u u u
ax u x v y w z t
v v v v dx dy dz
ay u v w (4.4) sin ce u ,v , z
x y z t dt dt dt
w w w w
az u v w
x y z t
From Eq:(4.4) it can be generalized that the spatial tangential acceleration vectors and magnitude
V V
as V s t
as as (4.5)
a a a a
2 2 2
s x y z
Or
V V V V
as u x v y w z t
(4.5a)
as a x a y a z
2 2 2
V V
Where V is Convective acceleration and is local acceleration.
s t
V V V 2
I.e. Total acceleration a V (4.7)
s t r
Example.4.1: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 3xy 2i 2xyj 2zy 3t k . Find
magnitudes and directions of translation velocity and acceleration at point P 1, 2,1,3 .
Direction of translation velocity will be V 3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k
V 1,2,1,3 3*1* 4i 2*1* 2 j 2*1* 2 3*3 k
V 1,2,1,3 12i 4 j 5k
V V V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t
V
3xy 2 i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 3 y 2i 2 yj
x x
V
3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 6 xyi 2 xj 2 zk
y y
V
3xy 2 i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 2 yk
z z
V
3xy 2 i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 3k
t t
as 3xy 2 3 y 2i 2 yj 2 xy 6 xyi 2 xj 2 zk 2 zy 3t 2 yk 3k
as 9 xy 4i 6 xy 3 j 12 x 2 y 2i 4 x 2 yj 4 xyzk 4 zy 2 k 6tyk 3k
as 9 xy 4 12 x 2 y 2 i 6 xy 3 4 x 2 y j 4 xyz 4 zy 2 6ty 3 k
u 10 xy, v 5 x 2 , w z xt 2
V 1,2,1,3 10*1* 2i 5*1*1 j 3 1*1*1 k
V 1,2,1,3 20i 5 j 4k
V V V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t
V
x x
10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k 10 yi 10 xj t 2 k
V
y y
10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k 10 xi
V
z z
10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k k
V
t t
10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k 2txk
So spatial acceleration will become
as 10 xy 10 yi 10 xj t 2 k 5 x 2 10 xi z xt 2 k 2txk
Example.4.3: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 4x3 yi 10x2 y 2 j 2tz k . Find
magnitudes and directions of translation velocity and acceleration at point P 1, 2,3, 2 .
u 4 x3 y, v 10 x 2 y 2 , w 2tz
Direction of translation velocity will be V 4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k
V 1,2,3,2 4*1*2i 10*1*4 j 2*2*3k
V 1,2,3,2 8i 40 j 12k
V V V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t
V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 8 x 2 yi 20 xy 2 j
x x
V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 4 x3i 20 x 2 yj
y y
V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 2tk
z z
V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 2 zk
t t
as 4 x3 y 8 x 2 yi 20 xy 2 j 10 x 2 y 2 4 x 3i 20 x 2 yj 2tz 2tk 2 zk
as 32 x5 y 2i 80 x 4 y 3 j 40 x5 y 2i 200 x 4 y 3 j 4t 2 zk 2 zk
as 32 x5 y 2 40 x5 y 2 i 120 x 4 y 3 j 4t 2 z 2 z k
u 3x 2 y , v 2 z 3x 2 , w 2t 3z
Direction of translation velocity will be V 3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k
V 1,1,1,4 3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 3*1 2*1 i 2*1 3*1 j 2*4 3*1 k
V 1,1,1,4 5i 5 j 5k
V V V V
c.) Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t
V
x x
3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 3i 6 xj
V
y y
3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 2i
V
z z
3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 2 j 3k
V
t t
3x 2 y i 2 z 3x j 2t 3z k 2k
2
as 9 x 6 y 4 z 6 x 2 i 18 x 2 12 xy 4t 6 z j 9 z 6t 2 k
as 1,2,1,3 9*1 6*2 4*1 6*1 i 18*1 12*1*2 4*3 6*1 j 9*1 6*3 2 k
As the velocity do not change its magnitude with respect to time, so it is Uniform flow.
Example.4.5: The velocity distribution at an entry to a pump intake is inversely proportional to the
square of the radial distance from the inlet to the suction pipe. If the velocity at a radial distance of
2.5m is 0.99m/s, determine the acceleration of flow at 1m, 1.8m from the inlet. Assume the
streamlines to be radial and steady.
V V
Acceleration a as an V 0 sin ce an 0
s t
V
a as an V 0 0 sin ce steady & Radial
s
a V
V C
r
2 *
r r
C
r2 aC
C
r r r
2
2
2C 2 76.4
r5
5
r
76.4
Hence acceleration at r=1m, will be ar 1 76.4m / s 2
15
76.4
r=1.8m, will be ar 1.8 4.04m / s 2
1.85
4.1.1.1. Lecture-2
When a fluid is flowing from one point to another, the flow behavior may be of any type like
dV dp d
I.e. 0 (4.8b)
dt dt dt
ROTATIONAL or IR-ROTATIONAL FLOW: When a fluid flowing, having its fluid particles
rotating, about their mass center, as shown in figure.4.3, then the flow
is said to be rotational flow. E.g. Motion of fluid in a rotating tank,
Flow near the solid boundaries are of rotational.
If the fluid flow does not have rotation of fluid particles about
their mass centers, then it is said to be having Ir-rotational flow.
UNIFORM and NON-UNIFORM FLOW: In a uniform flow, the velocity of fluid particles at any
given time does not change in magnitude and direction, from point to point.
dV
I.e. cons tan t where s represent any direction. E.g.: Flow through a straight pipe with
ds
constant diameter.
Where as in non-uniform flow the velocity changes in magnitude and direction, at any given
dV
time, i.e. cons tan t . E.g.: Flow through a curved pipe with constant diameter, Flow through a
ds
non-prismatic conduit.
LAMINAR and TURBULENT FLOW: In laminar flow, each and every fluid particle moves in a
E.g.: Flow through capillary tube, flow of blood, under ground flow, Flow of oil in measuring
instruments, Rise of water in plates through their roots, Flow past tiny bodies.
In Turbulent flow, each particle does not move in a consistent path and they try to over lap with other
fluid particles making the flow circulate with eddies formation and due to which each the particles do
not move in well-defined paths, as shown in figure.4.5. And its existence can be predicted by the
dimensionless number like Reynolds number Re (if Re 4000 then the flow is said to be turbulent, in
a pipe).
E.g.: Flow through water supply pipes, sewers.
When a fluid cannot be compressed, due to which the density changes (i.e. cons tan t ) from point to
point, then the fluid is said to be Incompressible fluid.
When a fluid is flowing, the fluid particles follow a path as they travel from point to point. And the
flow paths may be of several differing types, like
STREAM LINES: Stream lines are the imaginary lines with in the fluid flow, such that the tangent at
any point on the stream lines indicates
the velocity at that point, as shown in
figure.4.7.
dx dy dz
(4.8c)
u v w
Example.4.6: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
i. u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
velocity components as passing through point P(3, 0) .
ii. u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 x
dx dy
4 xy y 2
6 xy 3x
6 xy 3x dx 4 xy y 2 dy
3x 2 y 3
3x 2 y 2 xy 2 c
2 3
27
Hence stream line equation at point P(3, 0) , will be c
2
3x 2 y 3 27
3x 2 y 2 xy 2
2 3 2
2 y3
6 x 2 y 3x 2 4 xy 2 27
3
ii.) for u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 x
dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v
dx dy
2x y
2 2
4 x
4 x dx 2 x 2 y 2 dy
y 3 2 x3
2x2 c
3 3
y 3 2 x3
2 x 2 36
3 3
Example.4.7: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
y x
velocity components as u 2
, v 2 passing through point P(a,0) .
b a
dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v
dx dy
y x
2 2
b a
x y
2 dx 2 dy
a b
x2 y2
2
2 c
2a 2b
x2 y 2
2c
a 2 b2
1
Hence stream line equation at point P(a,0) , will be c
2
x2 y 2
1
a 2 b2
Example.4.8: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V axi ayj 2az k . Find equation
of stream line at point P 2, 2, 4 .
dx dy dz
Equation of a stream line for 3 dimensional
u v w
dx dy dz
ax ay 2az
dx dy
Consider expression of dx and dy only, we have
ax ay
dx dy
ax ay
dx dz
Similarly consider expression of dx and dz only, we have
ax 2az
dx dz
ax 2az
1
log e x log e z log e c
2
c
x
z
4
Hence at point P 2, 2, 4 , will be c 4 x
z
4
Therefore we get the stream line equation as x y
z
Example.4.9: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
velocity components as u 2 x3 3 y 2 , v 3x3 4 y 2 passing through point P(2,0) .
Solution: Given data: Stream line passing through point P(2,0) and velocity components as
u 2 x 3 3 y 2 , v 3x 3 4 y 2
dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v
dx dy
3
2x 3 y
3 2
3x 4 y 2
3 x3 4 y 2 dx 2 x 3 3 y 2 dy
3x 4 2 y4 y3
4 y2 x 3 c
4 4 3
3x 4 y4
y3 4 y 2 x c
4 2
3x 4 y4
y3 4 y 2 x 12 0
4 2
Example.4.10: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
velocity components as u x 2 y 2 , v x 2 y 2 passing through point P(3,3) .
Solution: Given data: Stream line passing through point P(3,3) and velocity components as
u x y , v x2 y 2
2 2
dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v
dx dy
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
x 2 y 2 dx x 2 y 2 dy
x3 y 3 x3 y 3
c
3 3 3 3
2 y3
c
3
Hence stream line equation at point P(3,3) , will be c 18
y 3
STREAM TUBE: Steam tube is a group of stream lines bounded on a fluid mass and so the shapes of
steam tube vary with respect to the fluid mass flow. As the stream tube is
comprised of steam lines only, the fluids have only tangential velocity
component and no chance of having normal velocity components and
hence there will be no obstacle for a fluid to enter or exit from a pipe.
STREAK LINE: A Streak line is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through a
prescribed point in the flow and so Streak lines are the curves which
shows the instantaneous picture of the location of the fluid particles,
passed through a given point.
Note: For steady flow, streamlines, path lines and streak lines are identical.
CONTINUITY EQUATION: Continuity equation is based on the conservation of mass (i.e. mass
can be neither be created nor destroyed). Continuity equation states that The mass of fluid is same
at any section, along any length of a pipe, unless some fluid is added or removed from the pipe.
Consider a pipe of non-uniform diameters D1 , D2 at the inlet and outlet respectively and length
of the pipe be L .
Let 1 , A1 ,V1 and 2 , A2 ,V2 be density, cross section area, velocity of fluid respectively at inlet section
11 and outlet section 2-2
respectively, as shown in
figure.4.10.
I.e. 1 AV
1 1 2 A2V2 (4.9)
Eq:(4.9) is applicable to compressible fluids like gases, due to the reason that the density is not
constant for gases (i.e. 1 2 ) .
If density is constant (I.e. 1 2 ) as in case of incompressible fluids like liquids, then Eq. :( 4.9)
1 1 A2V2 AV cons tan t .
reduces to AV
i.e. Q AV (4.10)
Where the product of area and velocity is termed as Discharge or volume rate of flow Q and has
3
units m s .
Example.4.11: Assuming no losses, determine the diameter of a water jet traveling a height of 5m
vertically, from an exit of a vertical nozzle having exit diameter of 0.04m and the velocity of jet
leaving the nozzle is 15m/s.
Solution: Given data: d1 0.04m,V1 15m / s, h 5m
Hence the taking the velocity of jet from the nozzle as the initial velocity, we have
V 2 V12 2 gh
V 2 152 2*9.81*5
V 17.97m / s
AV
A 1 1
V
*0.042 *15
*d2 0.001048
4 4*17.97
d 0.065m
Example.4.12: A pipe line 60cm in diameter has water flow in it at a velocity of 4m/s and it suddenly
expands to a pipe diameter of 80cm up to some length and then the flow Bifurcates to a Y-junction
into two branches 40cm and 30cm diameter (as shown in figure.4.11) such that the velocity of flow in
branched pipe of 30cm diameter has 7.5m/s, determine the discharge through the 40cm diameter pipe
and also velocity of flow in the 40cm diameter pipe.
Solution: Given data: d1 0.6m, d2 0.8m, d3 0.4m, d4 0.3m,V1 4.0m / s,V4 7.5m / s
As the discharge through the 60cm diameter pipe is let to flow into the pipe diameter of 80cm, the
discharge Q2 Q1 1.1m3 / s
*0.32 *7.5
Similarly as per continuity equation, we have Q4 A4V4 0.529m3 / s
4
*0.32
Q3 A3V3 *7.5 0.529m3 / s
4
1.1 0.529 Q4
Q4 0.57 m3 / s
Q4 0.57 * 4
V4 4.54m / s
A4 *0.42
Hence the discharge and velocity through 40cm diameter pipe are 0.57m3 / s, 4.54m / s respectively.
Example.4.13: A pipe line 60cm in diameter Bifurcates at a Y-junction into two branches 40cm and
30cm diameter. If the rate of flow in main pipe is 1.5m3/s and mean velocity of flow in 30cm
diameter pipe is 7.5m/s, determine the rate of flow in the 40cm diameter pipe.
Solution: Given data: d1 0.6m, d 2 0.4m, d3 0.3m, Q1 1.5m3 / s,V3 7.5m / s
4*1.5
V1 Q 5.3m / s
A1 *0.62
*0.32
Q3 A3V3 *7.5 0.529m3 / s
4
1.5 Q2 0.529
Q2 0.97 m3 / s
Solution:
d1 0.5m, d 2 0.4m
Given data: d3 0.25m, d 4 0.3m
V1 1.5m / s,V4 2.0m / s
Consider a small elemental parallopiped of dimensions dx, dy, dz , as shown in figure.4.11 and let the
velocity components along x, y, z axes be u, v, w respectively.
Let the mass rate entered into the parallopiped from the face ABCD along x-axis be m x . I
i.e. m xI x AxVx
mxI dy * dz u (4.11a)
Let the mass rate leaving the parallopiped from the face EFGH along x-axis be m x . o
i.e. m xO x AxVx
x
x AxVx dx
Where
x
x AxVx dx is the mass already existing in
the parallopiped.
* dy * dz * u
m xO dy * dz u dx (4.11b)
x
Hence total mass accumulated per unit time along X-axis be m x m xi m xo
u
mx dx * dy * dz (4.12a)
x
Similarly the difference in mass rate left and entered into the parallopiped from the faces
v
BCEF , ADGH along Y-axis respectively is m y dx * dy * dz (4.12b)
y
Similarly the difference in mass rate left and entered into the parallopiped from the faces
w
ABEH , DCFG along Z-axis respectively is m z dx * dy * dz (4.12c)
z
So, Total gain in fluid mass per unit time along the three X, Y, Z axes be m
Where m is equal to sum of all the equations Eq :(4.12a) +Eq:(4.12b)+Eq:(4.12c)
u v w
i.e. m dx * dy * dz (4.13)
x y z
m
Let Rate of change of mass of parallopiped be
dt
m * dx * dy * dz m
i.e. (4.14) Since * volume
dt dt dt dt
* dx * dy * dz u v w
i.e. dx * dy * dz
dt x y z
* dx * dy * dz u v w
dx * dy * dz 0 (4.15)
dt x y z
u v w
(4.16)
dt x y z
Eq :(4.16) is the General equation for Continuity in three dimensional form and is applicable for
any type of flow. And hence any possible flow should satisfy the continuity equation.
d
If the flow is steady 0 , 3-Dimensional and incompressible flow cons tan t then we get
dt
u v w
0 (4.16a)
x y z
d w
If the flow is steady 0 , 2-Dimensional 0 and incompressible flow cons tan t then we
dt dz
u v
get 0 (4.16b)
x y
d v w
If the flow is steady 0 , 1-Dimensional 0 and incompressible flow cons tan t then
dt y dz
u Q
we get 0 u cons tan t ,
x A
Example.4.15: A conical pipe diverges uniformly from 125mm to 210mm diameter of length 1.5m.
Determine acceleration at the mid section, when the rate of flow is 0.16 m3 / s and is constant through
out.
d d1
d x d1 2 x
L
d x 0.125 0.0567 x
Q 4Q 0.203
We know velocity Vx
Ax 0.125 0.0567 x 2
0.125 0.0567 x
2
As this problem is of one dimensional and steady state, we have spatial acceleration as
V
as u
x
0.203 0.203
as
0.125 0.0567 x
2
x 0.125 0.0567 x 2
0.0412 1
as *
0.125 0.0567 x
2
x 0.125 0.0567 x 2
1 1
as 0.0824*0.0567 0.00467
0.125 0.0567 x
5
0.125 0.0567 x
5
1
Acceleration at mid section as x 0.75 0.00467 35.46m / s 2
0.125 0.0567 *0.75 5
Example.4.16: For steady, incompressible flow, verify whether the following values of u and v are
possible:
i. u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
ii. u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 xy
Solution: Given data: Steady, in-compressible flow.
For steady, in-compressible flow to be possible, the continuity equation must be satisfied and hence
u v
0
x y
a.) for u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
u v u v
4 y, 6 x and so 4 y 6x 0
x y x y
b.) for u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 xy
u v u v
4 x, 4 x and so 4 y 4x 0
x y x x
Example.4.17: The u and v components of velocity in a three dimensional flow are given by
u x 2 z 2 , v y 2 z 2 . Find the simplest z component of velocity that satisfies the continuity
equation.
u v w
For satisfying 3-D continuity equation 0
x y z
u v u v w w
And hence 2 x, 2 y and so 2x 2 y 0
x y x y z z
w
2x 2 y
z
w 2 x 2 y z
w 2 xz 2 yz
Example.4.18: The v and w components of velocity in a three dimensional flow are given by
v ax3 by 2 cz 2 , w bx3 cy 2 az 2 x . Find the simplest u component of velocity that satisfies the
continuity equation.
v ax3 by 2 cz 2 , w bx3 cy 2 az 2 x
u v w
For satisfying 3-D continuity equation 0
x y z
v w
And hence 2by, 2azx
y z
u v w u
So 2by 2azx 0
x y z x
u
2by 2azx
x
u 2by 2azx x
azx 2
u 2bxy
2
azx 2
Hence the U-component of velocity is u 2bxy
2
Example.4.19: Given u xy, v 2 yz . Examine whether these velocity components represent 2-D or 3-
Dimensional Incompressible continuity flow. If it is 3-Dimensional, determine the third velocity
component.
u v
For 2 dimensional flows, the continuity equation will be 0
x y
u v u v
And hence y, 2 z and so y 2z 0
x y x y
u v w
For satisfying 3-D continuity equation 0
x y z
u v u v w
And hence y, 2 z and so 0
x y x y z
w
y 2z 0
z
dw y 2 z dz
w yz z 2
z3
u x3 y 3 z 3 , v y 3 z 3 , w 3x 2 z 3 y 2 z .
3
z3
Solution: Given data: u x3 y 3 z 3 , v y 3 z 3 , w 3x 2 z 3 y 2 z
3
u v w
For satisfying 3-dimensioanl continuity equation 0
x y z
u v w
And 3x 2 , 3 y 2 , 3x 2 3 y 2 z 2
x y z
u v w
0
And x y z
3x 2 3 y 2 3x 2 3 y 2 z 2 0
Consider an intersection point of the closed curve and a fluid element in space ds on any
one stream line and let this point be named as P. The stream lines will have a tangential velocity
V, which can be resolved into two components, like one component along the velocity of stream
line like V cos and other component along tangential velocity to the stream line element ds, like
V sin , where is angle between tangential velocity of stream line and tangential velocity to
element.
V cos ds (4.19)
If a rectangular fluid element having edges CD, DA, AB, BC and
having velocity components u, v along edges CD.CB and
u v
DA u y , AB v x along edges DA, AB
dy dx
respectively, as shown in figure.4.12a be considered, then
circulation of the rectangular element becomes
AB BC CD DA (4.20)
u v
By substituting the velocity components u y , v x , u, v along the rectangular fluid
dy dx
u v
element edges AB, BC , CD, DA in Eq :(4.18), we get u y , v x , u, v
dy dx
v u
x * y (4.19)
dx dy
VORTICITY : Vorticity is defined as Circulation per unit area enclosed. And is denoted by
.
Circulation
Where
Elemental Area dA
v u
(4.20)
dx dy
v u
Circulation is given by * x * y
dx dy
8 y 7 x 16 y 8 x * x * y
dx dy
7 16 * 4*6 552
v u
Vorticity is given by
dA dx dy
8 y 7 x 16 y 8 x * x * y
dx dy
7 16 * 4*6 552
ROTATION OF FLUID ELEMENTS: A fluid element in addition to its linear motion has Rotation,
Linear strain and Shear strain also due to the disturbance created by the adjacent fluid elemental flow
(i.e. due to the angular momentum in the fluid flow).
Considering the fluid element ABCD in figures.4.13b & 4.13c, we observe that AAP1P is the arc
length of the fluid element rotation with an angular rotation of . And hence AAP1P is function of
the radius (AB) and rotational angle .
V
Since we know V r & t and by replacing with , we get t
r
v
1 dt (4.21a) & AB dz (4.21b)
z
v
AA1 * dz * dt (4.22)
z
w
Similarly CC1 * dy * dt (4.23)
y
v
And hence angular rotations 1 dt (4.23a) Anti-clock wise direction
z
w
2 dt (4.23b) Clock wise direction
y
As the total rotation of the fluid element comprises two angular displacements, the rotational velocity
will be the average of these two angular displacements.
1 2 (4.24)
1
i.e.
2
Taking angular rotation of fluid element in anti clock wise direction, we get
1 v w
x (4.24a) ,
2 z y
1 u w
y (4.24b)
2 z x
1 v u
z (4.24c)
2 x y
And so the rotational velocity vector and magnitude ,
can be written as
i j k
1
x i y j z k OR (4.25)
2 x y z
u v w
x2 y2 z2 (4.26)
And xV
1
where is Vorticity (refer Eq:(4.20))
2 2
1
2 xV (4.27)
2
v u
i.e. From Eq:(4.27a) or xV 0
x y 2
Example.4.22: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 3xy 2i 2xyj 2zy 3t k .
Find magnitudes and directions of Translation velocity and Rotational velocity, Vorticity at point
P 1, 2,1,3 .
Direction of translation velocity will be V 3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k
V 1,2,1,3 3*1* 4i 2*1* 2 j 2*1* 2 3*3 k
V 1,2,1,3 12i 4 j 5k
i j k
1
2 x y z
u v w
i j k
1
Rotational velocity vector
2 x y z
3 xy 2 2 xy 2 zy 3t
1 1 1
1,2,1,3 2 z i 0 0 j 0 0 k i 0 j ok
2 2 2
v u
Vorticity is given by
dx dy
v
2 y 2* 2 4
x
u
6 xy 6*1* 2 12
y
v u
So Vorticity 4 12 8
dx dy
4.2.4.1. Lecture-3
d dx dy
Hence Total differential x y
d udx vdy (4.28a)
u v w
As per the continuity equation, 0 (4.29) for steady, incompressible fluid.
x y z
So, by substituting Eq:(4.28) in Eq:(4.29), we get 0
dx dx dy dy dz dz
d 2 d 2 d 2
2 2 2 0
dx dy dz
2 0 (4.30)
d2 d2 d2
where is the Laplace operator
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
This equation is called Laplace equation in velocity potential and it indicates that the flow is
steady, incompressible and ir-rotational flow if satisfied.
Note: If the velocity potential is constant through out a stream line, then the line is called as Equi-
0 udx vdy
potential line. i.e. cons tan t . So d 0
dy u
dx v
STREAM FUNCTION : Stream function is defined as Scalar function of space and time,
such that its derivative with respect to any direction, gives the fluid velocity components at the
right angles to that direction.
i.e.
d dx dy
Hence Total differential x y
d vdx udy (4.31a )
u v
As per the continuity equation, 0 (4.32) for steady, two dimensional and
x y
incompressible fluid.
So, by substituting Eq:(4.31) in Eq:(4.32), we get 0
dx dy dy dx
2 2
0 (4.33)
dxdy dydx
1 v u
I.e. For the flow to be rotational z 0
2 x y
1 2 2
Substituting Eq:(4.31) in z , we get z (4.34)
2 x 2 y 2
Eq:(4.34) is equation is called Poisson equation.
1 2 2
For ir-rotational flow z 0 , i.e. z 0
2 x 2 y 2
2 2
2 2 0
x y
2 0
d2 d2
Where is the Laplace operator 2
2 and is called as Laplace equation in stream
dx dy
function .
Note: The stream function along a stream line is constant. i.e. cons tan t . And so
0 vdx udy
d 0
dy v
dx u
4.2.4.2. Lecture-4:
point P 4,5 determine velocity vector and its magnitude and value of stream function.
d d
We know velocity potential u , v
dx dy
d d
u x 2 y 1 , v x 2 y 1
dx dy
u 1 2 y , v 2x
Hence velocity vector and Magnitude V 1 2 y i 2 xj
V 1 2 y 2x
2 2
d 1 2 y dy 2xdx
d 1 2 y dy 2 xdx
x2 y 2 y
4,5 16 25 5 4
Example.4.24: The stream function in a 2-D flow is 6x 4 y 7 xy . Verify whether the flow is
Irrotational or rotational.
1 2 2
To have flow rotational, z 0
2 x 2 y 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
i.e. z 2 6 x 4 y 7 xy 2
6 x 4 y 7 xy
2 x 2 y 2 2 x y
1
z 0 0 0
2
d d
We know stream function u , v
dy dx
d d
u 6 x 4 y 7 xy , v 6 x 4 y 7 xy
dy dx
u 4 7 x , v 6 7 y
Velocity vector and magnitude V 4 7 x i 6 7 y j
V 4 7*1 i 6 7*1 j 3i j
1,1
V 32 12 10m / s
V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v
x y
V
4 7 x i 6 7 y j 7i
x x
V
4 7 x i 6 7 y j 7 j
y y
as 49x 21 i 49 y 42 j
as 1, 1 49*1 4 i 7 * 1 6 j
as 1, 1 45i 1 j
as 1, 1 452 12 45.01m / s 2
Example.4.26: In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by
u x 4 y, v y 4x . Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form for stream function
as well.
d udx vdy
d x 4 y dx y 4 x dy
x2 y2
4 xy 4 xy
2 2
x2 y 2
8xy
2 2
d 2 d 2
For velocity potential to exist 0
dx 2 dy 2
d 2 x2 y 2 d 2 x2 y 2
8xy 8xy 0
dx2 2 2 dy 2 2
2
1 1 0
x 4 y dy y 4 x dx
2 x2 2 y 2 2 xy
2 2
For stream function to exist 0
dxdy dydx
2 2
dxdy
2 x 2 2 y 2 2 xy
dydx
2 x 2 2 y 2 2 xy 0 22 0
Example.4.27: In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by
u x 2 y 2 , v x 2 y 2 . Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form for stream function
as well.
d udx vdy
d x2 y 2 dx x2 y 2 dy
x3 y3
xy 2 x 2 y
3 3
d 2 d 2
For velocity potential to exist 0
dx 2 dy 2
d 2 x3 y 3 d 2 x3 y3
xy 2 x2 y xy 2 x 2 y 0
dx2 3 3 dy 2 3 3
d 2
dx
x y 2 2 xy
d
dy
2 xy x 2 y 2 0
2x 2 y 2x 2 y 4 y 0
x2 y 2 dy x2 y 2 dx x2 y
y3 x3
3
xy 2
3
2 2
For stream function to exist 0
dxdy dydx
2 2 y 3 x3 2 2 2 y 3 x3 2
x y xy x y xy 0
dxdy 3 3 dydx 3 3
2
dx
x y 2 2 xy 2 xy x 2 y 2 0
dy
2x 2 y 2x 2 y 0 00
Refer Table.4.1: we have on any stream line, the stream function is constant and hence for the
function x 2 y 2 , we have x y 2 (1)
Substituting different values of , y we can plot the stream lines with constant stream functions, as
given below in the table.
y y0 y 1 y2 y 3
1 x y 2 1 2 5 10
2 x y 2 2 3 6 11
3 x y 2
3 2 7 11
Using the above tabulated data, we can plot the graph between x, y, , as shown below in the
figure.P4.28.
4.2.4.3. Lecture-5
FLOW NETS: Flow nets can be defined as graphical representation of series of Equi-potential
dy
lines (slope ) and stream lines, in form of a grid. A flow net may be drawn for a two
dx
dimensional Ir-rotational flow and it provides a simple, yet valuable indication of the flow pattern.
Flow net provides a simple graphical technique for studying two dimensional ir-rotational flows,
especially in the cases where mathematical relations for stream function and velocity function are
either not available or arte rather difficult and cumbersome to solve.
There are four methods of representing flow nets and they are:
1.) Flow net can be used for determining stream lines and equi-potential lines.
2.) It is useful to determine velocity, pressure distributions for a given boundary of flow.
3.) It is used to determine the design of the outlets of their stream lining.
4.) To determine quantity of seepage and upward lift pressure below the hydraulic structures.
1.) Flow nets can not be applied for close boundary, due to viscosity presence.
2.) In case of flow of a fluid past over a solid body, it can not give clear picture of stream lines
and flow conditions at the boundaries of the grid, due to presence of Eddies and separations.
3.) The flow should be Steady and ir-rotational because streamlines patterns will remain constant
only for steady flow and the rotation of flow changes the flow pattern instantaneously ad
hence the flow need to be Steady and Ir-rotational.
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
Fluid kinematics refers to the features of a fluid in motion. It only deals with the motion of fluid
m
e
t
i
particles without taking into account the forces causing the motion. Considerations of velocity,
acceleration, flow rate, nature of flow and flow visualization are taken up under fluid kinematics.
n
a
i
l
A fluid motion can be analyzed by one of the two alternative approaches, called
Lagrangian and Eulerian.
In Lagrangian approach, a particle or a fluid element is identified and followed during the
course of its motion with time as demonstrated in Fig.1
Initial
Eg: To know the attributes of a vehicle to be purchased, you can follow the specific vehicle in the
traffic flow all along its path over a period of time.
Difficulty in tracing a fluid particle (s) makes it nearly impossible to apply the Lagrangian
approach. The alternative approach, called Eulerian approach consists of observing the fluid by
setting up fixed stations (sections) in the flow field (Fig. 2).
Motion of the fluid is specified by velocity components as functions of space and time. This is
considerably easier than the previous approach and is followed in Fluid Mechanics.
Eg: Observing the variation of flow properties in a channel like velocity, depth etc, at a section.
1 2 3
y 5
y1 y2 3
v v
2 3
v1 4 y v
5 5
v4 y
4
Classification of Flows:
1. Steady and unsteady flows:
A flow is said to be steady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do not change
P 0 t
with time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.
A flow is said to be unsteady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow change with
P 0 t
time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.
Eg: Flow observed at a dam section during rainy season, wherein, there will be lot of inflow with
which the flow properties like depth, velocity etc.. will change at the dam section over a period of
time representing it as unsteady flow.
y
x
z
Rapidly varied flow is a non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid properties vary rapidly within a
very short distance. (Eg: between sections 4 and 5).
Combination of steady and unsteady flows and uniform and non-uniform flows can be classified
as steady-uniform flow (Sections 1 and 2), unsteady-uniform flow, steady-non-uniform flow
(Sections 2 and 3) and unsteady-non-uniform flow
(Sections 4 and 5).
s
Fig. 4 a) One dimensional flow
y
Fig.4b)Twodimensionalflow
dimensional axis system.
Flow is said to be two-dimensional if the properties vary only along two axes / directions and
will be constant with respect to other direction of a three-dimensional axis system.
Flow is said to be three-dimensional if the properties vary along all the axes / directions of a
three-dimensional axis system.
When the flow velocity increases, the sheet like flow gets mixed up and the fluid elements mix
with other layers there by causing turbulence. There will be eddy currents generated and flow
reversal takes place. This flow is said to be Turbulent.
Velocity
x
F i g . 5 La m i n a r f l o w
The Reynolds number for the flow will be greater than 4000.
For flows with Reynolds number between 2000 to 4000 is said to be transition flow.
Fluid Motion
Fluid Motion
Types of lines
Path Line: It is the path traced by a fluid particle over a period of time during its motion along
the fluid flow.
t=0 P
t=t
P
Stream Lines
It is an imaginary line such that when a tangent is drawn at any point it gives the
y
velocity of the fluid particle at that point and at that instant. Fig. 8
Stream lines
Eg: Path traced by the flow when an obstruction like, a sphere or a stick is kept during its motion.
The flow breaks up before the obstruction and joins after it crosses it.
Streak lines
It is that imaginary line that connects all the fluid particles that has gone through a point/section
over a period of time in a fluid motion.
1 4
2 5 8
3
9
7
6
t = 10
x P
P dx
x
P x
dx
direction at a distance dx is given by
Fig. 12 Variation of a property along x direction
New Property = Old Property + slope x Old Property x distance
Continuity Equation
The derivation is based on the concept of Law of conservation of mass.
Statement: The flow of fluid in a continuous flow across a section is always a constant.
Consider an enlarging section in a fluid flow of fluid density. Consider two sections 1 and 2 as
shown in Fig. Let the sectional properties be as under
A1and A2 = Cross-sectional area, V1 and V2 = Average flow velocity and 1 and
2 = Fluid density at Sec 1 and 2 respectively
dt is the time taken for the fluid to cover a distance dx The mass
of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by
m1 = Density at section 1 x volume of fluid that has crossed section 1
1 x A1 x dx
Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by
m1/dt = (Density at sec 1 x volume of fluid that has crossed sec 1)/dt
1 x A1 x dx/dt = 1 A1V1 (01)
Similarly Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 2-2 is given by
m2/dt = 2 x A2 x dx/dt = 2A2 V2 (02)
From law of conservation of mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Fluid flow
2
1
dx Fig. 13 Fluid flow through a control volume
Hence from Eqs. 1 and 2, we get
1A1 V1 = 2 A2V2
If the density of the fluid is constant, then the equation reduces to
A1V1 = A2 V2
The above equation is discharge continuity equation in one dimensional form for an steady,
incompressible fluid flow
Similarly mass rate of fluid flow leaving the section EFGH along x direction is given by
M u
x2 u dx dy dz (02)
x
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the x axis is given by the difference
between the mass rate of flow entering and leaving the control volume. i.e. Eq.
1 Eq. 2
dM x u dy dz u u dx dy dz
x
y
D H
A
E
v
dy
G x
C u x
w dz
F
B
z dx
u dx dy
dM x dz (03)
x
Similarly net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the y and z axes are given by
dM y v dx dy (04)
dz
y
w dx dy
dM z dz (05)
z
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid from all the three axes are given by
u dx dy dz v dx dy
dM dz w dx dy dz
x y z
From law of conservation of Mass, the net gain in mass rate of flow should be zero and hence
u v w dx dy dz 0
x y z
u w
or v 0
x y z
This expression is known as the general Equation of Continuity in three dimensional form or
differential form.
If the fluid is incompressible then the density is constant and hence
u v w
0
x y z
The continuity equation in two-dimensional form for compressible and incompressible flows are
respectively as below
u
v 0
x y
u v 0
x y
Velocity
Velocity of a fluid along any direction can be defined as the rate of change of displacement of the
fluid along that direction.
u = dx / dt
Where dx is the distance traveled by the fluid in time dt.
Velocity of a fluid element is a vector, which is a function of space and time.
Let V be the resultant velocity of a fluid along any direction and u, v and w be the velocity
components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Mathematically the velocity components can be written as
u = f ( x, y, z, t )
v = f ( x, y, z, t )
w = f ( x, y, z, t )
u 2 v2 w
2
andV = ui + vj + wk =
Where u = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).
Acceleration
Acceleration of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the rate of change of
velocity of the fluid along that direction.
If ax , ay and az are the components of acceleration along x, y and z directions respectively, they
can be mathematically written as
ax = du/ dt.
But u = f (x, y, z, t) and hence by chain rule, we can write,
ax u dx u dy u dz u x dt y
dt z dt t
Similarly
ay v dx v dy v dz v
x dt y dt z dt t
w dx w dy w dz w
and az
x dt y dt z dt t
u u u u
ax u v w
x y z t
ay v v v v
u v w Total accln
x y z t
w w w w
az u v w
x y z t
If A is the resultant acceleration vector, it is given by
1.0 axi ay j az k
ax2 ay2 az2
Problems
1. The velocity field in a fluid is given by
Vs 2z 3x23x j 2y i 2t 3z k
i. What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii. Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
iii. Determine the speed at time t=2 s at point (0,0,2). Solution:
The velocity components at any point (x, y, z) are
u
3x 2 y , v 2z 3x2 , w 2t 3z k
Substitute x=1, y=1, z=1 in the above expression
u = (3*1+2*1) = 5, v = (2*1+3*1) = 5, w = (2t-3) V2 = u2 + v2
+ w2
52 + 52 + (2t-3)2
V 4 t 2 12 t + 59
2
V 1,1,1 4t 12t 59
Substitute t = 2 s, x=0, y=0, z=2 in the above expression for u, v and w u = 0, v = (4
+ 0) = 4, w = (4 6) = -2
V 2 (0,0,2,2) = (0 + 15 + 4) = 20 V =
4.472 units
2
2. Calculate the velocity component V given u xy3 x 2 y so that the equation of 3
continuity is satisfied (July 2006) (06)
Solution:
The continuity equation for two dimensional incompressible flow is given by
[( u/ x)+( v/ y)] = 0 (01)
u 2
y 3 2 xy
x 3
From Eq. 01, we have
u v 2 v
0 y 3 2 xy 0 x
y3x
v 2
2xy y 3 y 3
Integrating the above expression with y, we get
1
v xy 2 y 4
6
3. The velocity distribution in a three-dimensional flow is given by:
u = - x, v = 2y and w = (3-z). Find the equation of the stream line that passes
through point (1,1,1).
Solution: The stream line equation is given by
dx dy dz dx dy dz
3
u v w or x 2y z
dx dy
x 2y
Integrating we get log e
x 1 log y
e
A,
2
Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & y=1, A = 0
1
or x 1
log x log y 2
e e
y
Considering the x and z components, dx dz
x 3z
x loge 3z
Integrating we get loge B,
Where B is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & z=1, B = log e 2
x loge 3-z 3z
Velocity Potential is a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component in that direction
We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements about z axis
must be zero.
i.e. z = [( v/ x) - ( u/ y)]
Substituting for u and v, we get
z = [( / x)(- / y) - ( / y)(- / x)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero
z = [ (- 2 / x y) - (- 2 / y x)] = 0 i.e. (- 2
/ x y) = (- 2 / y x)
This is true only when is a continuous function and exists.
Thus the properties of a velocity potential are:
1. If the velocity potential exists, then the flow should be irrotational.
2. If the velocity potential satisfies the Laplace Equation, then it represents a possible case of a
fluid flow.
Stream Function ( )
Stream Function is a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with respect
to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction.
We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements about z axis
must be zero.
i.e. z = [( v/ x) - ( u/ y)]
Substituting for u and v, we get
z = [( / x)( / x) - ( / y)(- / y)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero i.e. [( 2 /
x2 )+( 2 / y2)] = 0
The above equation is known as Laplace equation in
1. If the Stream function exists, then it represents a possible case of a fluid flow.
2. If the Stream function satisfies the Laplace Equation, then the flow should be irrotational.
Equi-potential lines:
It is an imaginary line along which the velocity potential is a constant i.e. =
Constant
d = 0
But = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
d = ( / x)dx + ( / y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
d = u dx v dy 0
or u dx = v dy
or (dy/dx) = u/v (01)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the equi-potential line.
Flow net
A grid obtained by drawing a series of equi-potential lines and stream lines is called a Flow net. The
flow net is an important tool in analysing two dimensional flow irrotational flow problems.
PROBLEMS
1. For the velocity components in a fluid flow given by u=2xy and v=x2-y2, show that the
flow is possible. Obtain the relevant stream function. (July 2006) (10)
Solution:
For the flow to be possible, it should satisfy the continuity equation given by
u v 0 (01)
x y
u 2
y
x
v
2 y y
Substituting in Eq. 01, we get 2y 2y = 0
Hence it satisfies continuity equation and the flow is continuous and Stream function exists.
1. Whenever a plate is held immersed at some angle with the direction of flow of the liquid, it is
subjected to some pressure. The component of this pressure, at right angles to the direction of flow of
the liquid is known as lift.
A. True
B. False
B. Incorrect
3.
The total pressure on a horizontally immersed surface is (where w = Specific weight of the
liquid, A = Area of the immersed surface, and x = Depth of the centre of gravity of the immersed
surface from the liquid surface)
A. w.A
B. wx
C. wAx
D. wA/x
4.
1. When the pressure intensity at a point is less than the local atmospheric pressure, then the difference of these
two pressures is called vacuum pressure.
A. Agree B. Disagree
A. Correct B. Incorrect
3.If an incompressible liquid is continuously flowing through a pipe, the quantity of liquid passing per second is
different at different sections.
A. True B. False
4. The ratio of specific weight of a liquid to the specific weight of pure water at a standard temperature is called
specific gravity
5.A fluid which obeys the Newton's law of viscosity is termed as newtonian fluid
A. True B. False
6.A fluid whose viscosity changes with the rate of deformation or shear strain is known as non-newtonian fluid.
A. True B. False
7.A thick liquid like a syrup has a lesser viscosity than a light liquid like water.
A. True B. False
A. Agree B. Disagree
A. Agree B. Disagree
10Kinematic viscosity is the product of dynamic viscosity and the density of the liquid.
A. Yes B. No
1. Distinguish between the Eulerian and Lagrangian method of representing fluid motion.
2. Define centre of pressure and centre of buoyancy.
3. Will the centre of pressure and centre of gravity ever coincide? If so, under what conditions?
4. Write the formula used to determine the Meta centric height.
5. Define stream function and state properties of stream function.
6. State Pascals law and give example where this principle is applied.
7. State hydrostatic law.
8. What do you understand by the terms Total acceleration, Local acceleration and Connective
acceleration?
9. Distinguish between path lines, stream lines and streak lines.
10. Define metacentre and metacentric weight.
d. Analytical type questions <Minimum of ten>
1. Derive an expression for the force exerted and centre of pressure for a completely submerged
inclined plane surface.
2. The left limb of a U tube manometer is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific gravity
0.8 is flowing. The right limb is open to atmosphere and manometric fluid is mercury. The
difference in mercury level between the two limbs is 20cm and the center of the pipe is 12cm
below the mercury level in the right limb. Find the fluid pressure in the pipe.
3. The velocity potential function for a 2- dimensional flow is given by = x (4xy-3). Determine
(a) the velocity at the point (2, 3), (b) stream function at the same point.
4. A hollow cylinder closed at both ends has an outside diameter of 1.25m, length 3.5m and
specific weight 75 kN/m3. If the cylinder is to float just in stable equilibrium in sea water (specific
weight 10 kN/m3), find the minimum permissible thickness.
5. What is a Flow net? Enumerate the methods of drawing flow nets. What are the uses and
limitations of flow nets?
6. Derive the equation of continuity for three dimensional incompressible fluid flows and reduce it
to one dimensional form.
7. The velocity potential function is given by an expression = y2 - x2 + (x3y/3) (xy3/3). Check
continuity flow. Find the velocity components in X and Y directions.
8. The two velocity components are given by u = x2 + y2 + z2 and v = xy2 yz2 + xy. Determine the
third component of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation.
9. A cylindrical tank contains 180cm depth of water. On the top of the water is 100cm of kerosene
which is open to atmosphere. If the temperature is 22oC, what is the gauge pressure at the bottom
of the tank?
10. An annual ring of 2m external diameter and 1m internal diameter is immersed in water with the
plate making 30o to the horizontal and the lowest edge is 5m below the water surface. Determine
the total force and position of centre of pressure.
11. A 400mm diameter shaft is rotating at 200 rpm in a bearing of length 120mm. If the
thickness of oil film is 1.5mm and the dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.7 Ns/m2. Determine
the torque required and power lost.
12. Two large plane surfaces are 120mm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with
oil of viscosity 0.92 Ns/m2. A flat thin plate of 0.6m2 area moves through the oil at velocity of
0.5 m/s. Calculate the drag force (i) When the plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces
(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 30mm from one of the planes.
13. Two large plane surfaces are 200mm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with
oil of viscosity 8 poise. A flat thin plate of 0.7m2 area moves through the oil at velocity of 0.8
m/s. Calculate the drag force (i) When the plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces (ii)
When the thin plate is at a distance of 70mm from one of the planes.
14. Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.6m of (i) water, (ii) an oil of S = 0.8, and (iii)
mercury of S = 14. Take density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
15. The dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubricating between a shaft and a sleeve is 8 poise.
The shaft rotates at 200rpm. The power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm is 300
watts. The thickness of oil film is 1.8mm. Calculate the diameter of shaft and sleeve.
f. Problems
1.The density of mercury is given as 26.3 slug/ft3. Calculate the specific gravity and the
specific volume in mVkg of the mercury. Calculate the specific weight in lbf/ft3 on Earth
and on the moon. Acceleration of gravity on the moon is 5.47 ft/s.
2. 7. i) A soap bubble 50mm diameter has an inside pressure of 20 N/m2 above atmosphere.
Calculate the tension in the soap film. ii) The water level in a steel tank is measured with a
piezometer of diameter 5mm. if the reading of water surface in the tube is 90cm. what is the true
depth of water in the tank? Take surface tension of water as 0.0725 N/m.
8. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a cylinder from a
volume of 0.009 m3 at 70 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m3 at 70 N/cm2 pressure.
9. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil, which is used for lubrication of surface between a plate
of size 0.6m x 0.9m and an inclined plane with an angle of inclination 25o with horizontal. The
weight of plate is 500 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.4 m/s.
the thickness of oil film is 1.8mm.
10. A square metal plate 1.8m side and 1.8mm thick weighing 60 N is to be lifted through a
vertical gap of 30 mm of infinite extent. The oil in the gap has a specific gravity 0.95 and viscosity
of 3Ns/m2. If the metal plate is to be lifted at a constant speed of 0.12 m/s. find the force and
power required. 9. An oil film of thickness 10mm is used for lubrication between the two square
parallel plate of size 0.9 m x 0.9 m in which the upper plate moves at 2m/s requires a force of
100N to maintain this speed. Determine (i) viscosity of the oil and (ii) kinematic viscosity of oil if
the specific gravity of oil is 0.95.
3. a) What is viscosity? Derive Newtons law of viscosity? What are the units of
measurement of
4. viscosity?
5. b) Find the height through which a fluid of specific gravity 0.8, raises in a capillarity
tube of
6. 1.5 mm diameter. The surface tension of the fluid is 0.09N/m. Angle of contact
between
7. water and glass is 10 degrees.
12. What are the different types of pressure lines. Explain with neat sketch?
2. Water pressure is atmospheric at all points on a phreatic line. Phreatic line is, therefore, an
equipotential line. (True / False)----(False)
3. Let the x and y components of velocity in steady, two dimensional, incompressible flow be
linear function of x and y such that
V (ax by )i (cx dy ) j , where a, b, c and d are constants. The condition for which the
flow is irrotational is..........(Ans :b=c)
4. The hydraulic head at a point in the soil includes.. ( Piezometric and Datum head)
5. If, for a fluid in motion, pressure at a point is same in all directions, then the fluid is
(C)
a. 4 y b. 2 y 2 c. 2 y 2 d. 2xy
8.The relation that must hold for the flow to be irrotational is (a)
u v u v 2u 2 v u v
a. 0 b. c. 0 d.
y x x y x 2 y 2 y x
10.In a Bernoulli equation, used in pipe flow, each term represents 2001 (a)
Y 2 x2 y ( x 1) y 2
The flow rate across a line joining points A(3,0) and B(0,2) is 2005
9. Write Reynolds equation, Navier stokes equation and Eulers equation of motion.