Change is in the air
Fresh air and ventilation are critical in underground mining, but many mines still rely
on outmoded, inefficient systems that consume excessive amounts of energy. Its
time for a change.
The lives of underground miners depend on a constant supply
of air in order to survive and work. Not only do they need
oxygen to breathe, contaminated air, such as the fumes gener-
ated by blasting and exhaust emissions from mining equip-
ment, has to be evacuated from their workplaces. Ideally, all
mines should, therefore, be equipped with the best ventilation
systems money can buy. Unfortunately, that is not always the
case. Modern, energy-efficient ventilation systems are still few
and far between in a global perspective.
Research shows that although many ventilation systems can
claim to meet local health and safety standards, they are also
the biggest economic villains of the industry, generating
enormous levels of inefficiency and waste, culminating in
ever-increasing energy costs.
Compared to other industrial applications, designing and
constructing a ventilation system for an underground mine
82 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY
is undoubtedly a complex and challenging task. The nature
and structure of the workings; the type and number of mobile
machines in use, such as drill rigs, LHDs and haulers; the
number and deployment of mine personnel; the energy source;
and the cost of powering the system are just a few of the
parameters that need to be taken into consideration.
A typical ventilation system consists of fresh-air raises and
raises for evacuating contaminated air, which go all the way
up to the surface, in one or several steps, to the primary fan
station. Added to this are secondary fans that drive the fresh
air from the fresh-air shaft via ventilation ducts into the pro-
duction areas as shown in Figure 1, as well as fans in the
production area itself, which distribute the fresh air and dilute
exhaust gases.
Individual systems always vary in size and quality and in the
way they are set up, but in general they all have one thing in
 MINE VENTILATION

common; they are inefficient and often impossible to adapt to

the changing needs of the underground mining environment.
While drilling normally requires 3040% ventilation capacity,
low-level haulage will require significantly more. The guide-
lines for ventilation needs vary from one situation to the next
and are set according to installed diesel effect.

In many cases, however, the only way to ensure that a mine

has sufficient air throughout the working day is to over-
ventilate. As a result, many of these systems are typically
run at 100% of their capacity most of the time, constantly
driving fresh air into mining areas where often no mining is
taking place and extracting air from areas where there are no
fumes to extract. Furthermore, they normally leak substantial
amounts of air along the way, which reduces pressure and
further increases both energy consumption and running costs.

Ventilation on demand
Todays state-of-the-art ventilation systems solve most, if not
all of these issues. To begin with, their individual components
fans, tubing and ducting are, or should be, constructed
from robust, top-class materials, designed to withstand the
rigors of the mining environment with a minimum risk of
leakage. Not only that, they usually come with some form of
control facility, which enables the right amount of fresh air to
be directed to the right place at the right time, and fumes to be Figure 1. Using a variable-frequency system such as SwedVent, ventilation
output can be adapted to each activity, giving energy savings of 3050%.
extracted quickly and efficiently at any given time.

This control capability, which is often referred to as ven-
tilation-on-demand is the most effective and cost efficient
way of dealing with ventilation in underground workings,
optimizing the input of fresh air and optimizing the output,
or extraction of bad air via the ventilation shafts. Not least,
they provide the flexibility mine managers need in order to
plan ventilation in parallel with mining operations on a shift-
to-shift, or day-to-day basis.
At the very least, an on-demand ventilation system will give:
Air flow tailored to the needs of equipment/activity.
Local adaptability.
Reduced energy costs.
Minimized energy waste.
In designing the most appropriate underground system, three
criteria should be taken into account. Firstly, a well-ventilated
environment must be provided wherever miners will be at
work in order to supply oxygen, not only for humans to
breathe but also for efficient engine combustion, to control
temperature, to dilute and remove toxic gases and, in a few
cases, to ventilate areas where there may be levels of radon. It
may also be important to cool the air underground.
Secondly, as todays mines are in a permanent state of evolu-
tion, the system should be developed in such a way that it
can be easily scaled up to meet needs for expansion or going
deeper at some point in its future. In these cases, having addi-
tional cooling systems connected to the same grid is a must.
And last but not least, it should be as cost effective as possible
in order to minimize energy costs and safeguard the mines
financial resources.
Optimized air flow
One system that offers all of these advantages and more is the
SwedVent system. As well as high quality materials, flexible
ducting, low noise and control, SwedVent also believes that
a successful solution depends largely on the combination of
components and, therefore, offers a wide range of different
solutions for underground use.
This includes high pressure fan stations that can deliver air
along extensive lengths of ducting in different diameters, with
a capacity of 2.5175 m3/sec. Even more important is that the
system also offers impeller blades with variable angles that
can be set up in series. The possibility to simply adjust the
pitch of the blade angle makes it simple and quick to adapt the
fans to suit different motor dimensions and pressure require-
ments.
Together, these features enable a multitude of solutions to be
constructed for different requirements and the air flow to be
optimized for each application.
One interesting development that is likely to advance this
technology further is a cooperation agreement between equip-
ment supplier Atlas Copco and the automation and power

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 83

MINE VENTILATION
Advanced software in the central monitoring room provides miners with a bird's eye view, enabling key mining aspects such as drilling, hauling, ventilation and
pump systems to be fully supervised.
company ABB, whose control technology gives the possibility
to regulate the ventilation fans in all parts of the mine and can
be coupled with Atlas Copcos SwedVent fans.
Such systems have already proved their worth at a number
of mines in Sweden and Canada. At the Kristineberg Mine
in Sweden, for instance, automation has reduced the cost of
ventilation for the owner, Boliden, by at least 30%. Here, the
fans, of which about 30% are frequency-controlled, are pro-
grammed to only operate in the rooms where activities are in
progress a solution that has enabled Boliden to postpone an
expensive project to sink a new ventilation shaft.
Another Boliden-owned mine, Garpenberg, has a similar
system in place for a part of a new major mineral deposit at
Lappberget, which will substantially extend the mines operat-
ing area. In this case, the energy consumed by the fans fell
by approximately 500 A or 200 kW, signifying a potential
cost reduction of around 40%. In fact, the savings achieved
at Garpenberg are expected to be so substantial that Boliden
expects the investment to be recovered within just three years.
Identification sensors
To design demand-driven ventilation systems based on the
estimation, regulation and presence of vehicles is a difficult
challenge. Mobile equipment in underground mines consume
a significant amount of energy, typically 100 GWh/year,
which can be as a much as 50% of the total energy consump-
tion for underground activities. In addition, these vehicles are
84 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY
entering and leaving production areas all the time, meaning
that the air demand for the airways to the production areas
constantly changes. Fresh air must also be distributed to the
areas where mine personnel are located, and the incoming air
may also need to be heated or cooled.
The solution for this is to mount WiFi transmitters on all
mobile equipment and receivers on the fans in the various
drifts. This enables the presence of vehicles, their type and
work activity to be identified by the central ventilation control
system, which then allocates the required air flow accordingly.
In this way, fans are not activated unnecessarily in areas where
mining operations are not in progress.
This also enables the ventilation system to be fully synchro-
nized with daily and weekly production plans from the mine
planners office.
Multivariable models describe how changes in the speed of
fans affect both the airflow and the pressure over fans. The
overall objective is, therefore, to optimize the system in such
a way so that the desired airflow in various airways is main-
tained at the same time as the power required to run the fans
is minimized.
Since the cost of ventilation is a major item for all mines
often accounting for 3545% of the total energy consumption
it is an area that is ripe for improvement with huge potential
gains, both for the mines balance sheet and the people who
work underground.
 MINE VENTILATION

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 85

Dedicated holes for the installation of utilities such as electricity, water and compressed air are highly recommended, here using the Simba W7 C for long hole
drilling with minimized deviation.

Keeping utilities
close at hand
Underground miners need access to water, electricity, compressed air and a range
of other utilities, preferably located in the same unit and conveniently close to their
workplaces.

Water, electricity, compressed air, communication connections It is common practice at a great many mines for utilities to be
and fill material are just some of the important utilities used by run down to the mining areas from the surface using cables
underground miners every day. And the first three examples and pipes installed inside ventilation or skip shafts or fixed to
usually go hand in hand with mine development. the walls or roofs of ramps and roadways.

But while these essential services, sometimes referred to as
media, may be bundled and conveniently located, the moment
that an extension is delayed it tends to cause irritation among
mine personnel and slows down operations as an unwanted
result.
This method involves the use of extreme lengths of cabling
and pipelines, in some cases covering distances of several
kilometers, which is not only enormously expensive but also
involves a huge risk of faults or leakages in a multitude of
couplings and joints.

86 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY

 UTILITY HOLES

In addition, the final access points deep in the mine are rarely
found in the most practical or convenient locations, and the
same principle applies when it comes to access points for
auxiliary materials, such as hydraulic fill and water drainage.

In modern development, the most practical and convenient

way of providing efficient access to utilities and materials
is to install vertical utility holes specially designed for this
purpose.

These holes, also known as service holes, should be driven

from the surface or between levels the shortest practical way
using tophammer drill rigs, or ITH/DTH (in-the-hole/down- The Rig Control System (RCS) keeps deviation in drilling below 1.5%.
the-hole) rigs such as Atlas Copco Simba rigs, if the holes
are especially long. And when it comes to installing longer
utility holes for water drainage or holes for paste backfill,
raiseboring machines have proven to be an ideal choice using
pilot drilling.

Dedicated utility holes may not always be possible to install

in very weak rock formations or rock that is prone to sliding,
but it is considered to be the best alternative for most mine
types.

The economic benefits of installing utility holes are clear, not

least in terms of the cost savings that can be realized due to the
shorter distances involved and, therefore, the shorter lengths
of cabling and pipe that are required.

In addition, well placed, easily accessible utilities down in the

mine makes life easier for the miners, which in turn contrib-
utes to productivity.

As in all matters concerning preparations, many of these util-

ity holes should be conceived and designed carefully in the
mine planning stage so that they become a natural step in the
development of the mine. Utility holes can be drilled to a wide
range of dimensions and lengths to accommodate the various
needs of the mine in the best possible way.
Raiseboring machine suitably used for pilot-hole drilling.
Apart from electrical service holes, paste fill or slurry holes,
and water-drainage holes, it may also be necessary to plan for
the installation of geophones that monitor seismicity, applying
the same utility hole system.

To summarize, utility holes may be used to accommodate the

following needs and installations:
Electricity
Water drainage
Compressed air
Seismic monitoring
Paste fill or slurry

Both Simba drill rigs and raiseboring machines are typically

used for these holes. Whatever type of utility needed, careful
planning and high precision in drilling with as low deviation Utility holes for drainage drilled with a Simba rig equipped with a Wassara
as possible, no greater than 1-1.5%, is often a prerequisite for W100 water-powered ITH hammer. Maximum accuracy is crucial in order to
reliable service installations. reach the desired location at the lower level.

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 87

Keeping workshops well-equipped
and storage rooms in good order
is crucial for high productivity.

88 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY


Smooth operation or
an accident waiting to happen?
Roads and workshops are two aspects of the mining layout that are often overlooked
and sometimes neglected. Heres why the planning of road maintenance goes hand
in hand with logistics such as material handling, storage and workshops.
It goes without saying that good quality roads and well locat-
ed, well equipped workshops are as important to the modern
miner as the orebody itself. Yet there are still numerous
examples of where both have been seriously underestimated.
Many mines still have roads that are not fit for purpose. They
are often under-dimensioned and badly maintained, which
impacts on their ability to carry traffic efficiently and safely.
In general, a road that has been allowed to fall into disrepair
at a mine site is an accident waiting to happen.
In many cases, it is a matter of upgrading. The roads should
not only be well maintained, but also continually upgraded
in order to accommodate increasingly large and heavier
vehicles and to prevent other vehicles such as cars, which
are not purpose built, from breaking down as a result of poor
road conditions.
Good, strong roads enable safe and quick transportation
which, in turn, saves time and money and benefits produc-
tivity.
So what constitutes a good mine road? Basically, it is a road
that is built from the bottom up, from coarse to fine mate-
rial. It is also a road with a surface that is well compacted
and designed to drain off water as water filled pot holes and
blasted rock ruins tires. The road should also have a drainage
ditch, at least along one side, and water tubes beneath the road
to carry off any water ingress from the mine roof.
Heavy water infiltration from the roof should be funneled to
the drainage ditch instead of allowed to fall directly on the
road, which can erode the surface. In addition, fine waste
rock and oredust combined with water can make tarmac roads
slippery and dangerous.
Roads for mechanized haulage
One of the main differences between the haulage methods
used in underground mining, from roads and conveyors to rail
ROADS AND WORKSHOPS
and hoists, is the amount of space these installations occupy
in the mining environment and the type of maintenance
required in each case.
Although electric rail is a common and useful method of
transport, a shift toward LHD loaders (Load Haul Dump)
equipment has intensified since the 1970s. Today, mine trucks
that carry payloads of 85 tonnes can safely navigate in con-
stricted spaces, along narrow openings and up and down
steep ramps due to articulated design features.
This rapid evolution of engineering technology has meant that
an interconnected network of roads and ramps between the
mines horizontal levels can be planned much more efficiently
compared with just a few years ago.
By adapting the layout of haul roads to a chosen equipment
fleet with modern capabilities, the transportation cycle and
overall costs become far more predictable. To achieve this,
the gradient of roads and angle of ramps must be carefully
calculated since they impact on fuel consumption, speed of
transportation, emergency breaking and wear and tear of
machinery components.
Typically, road gradients of up to 12 are regarded as safe and
functional. However, some equipment will operate on more
severe levels where a 1520% road gradient is not uncom-
mon, without putting operators or machinery at risk. It should
be remembered, however, that steep ramps generally mean
higher operating and maintenance costs. This is because fully
loaded vehicles travel slower going upwards and use more
fuel, while vehicles traveling downwards have to apply more
pressure to their brakes, which increases wear.
As a result, the use of modern equipment for the transpor-
tation of ore, waste rock, backfill and other material via a
road network has increased the need for high quality roads.
However, it has also put greater demands on the skill of mine
planners to balance the cost and benefits of a road network
design.
ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 89
ROADS AND WORKSHOPS
Modern mine vehicles are capable of severe road grades, although a maximum of 12% is recommended to avoid high maintenance costs. Well maintained
roads can also significantly reduce the cost of tire replacements.
No shortcuts
There are no shortcuts to achieving the optimal layout solu-
tion for roads and workshops; the answer is proactive plan-
ning at the design stage. It is important that road maintenance
is seen as a normal part of the entire operation with grading
work carried out at least once a week per dirt road, or more
often if the road is heavily used. In addition, tarmac and
asphalt roads have to be monitored and swept to clear them
of rock fragments that fall from heavy trucks and that ruin
the road surface, and also to get rid of mud that makes the
surfaces slippery.
Mine conditions such as temperature, water f low and
wind, along with the type and frequency of traffic, largely
determine the life expectancy of underground haul roads.
For example, due to high intensity and stress at Chiles vast
copper mine El Teniente, the roads usually only last six
months to a year before they need to be resurfaced. For this
reason, all modern mines should be staffed with a dedicated
road maintenance team equipped with material transport
vehicles, compactors and graders.
90 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY
Haul roads should be constructed using four main layers:
subgrade, subbase, base course and surface/wearing course.
These layers contain various materials that normally include:
Crushed stone
Compacted gravel
Stabilized earth
Roller compacted concrete (RCC)
Asphalt concrete
These materials will determine the desired traction to match
the specific conditions of the mine, where equipment adhe-
sion and rolling resistance are two main concerns for safety
and productivity.
Deterioration as the result of stress is not the only problem
when it comes to haul roads. Another common challenge is
the dust that is stirred up by the machines, which can become
hazardous for operators and the environment. Water is used
to minimize dust, but it is crucial that haul roads feature a
sealed surface consisting of fines that are used as binders
for larger particles.
 ROADS AND WORKSHOPS

Placement of workshops
In the same way that a systematic approach toward road
maintenance is highly recommended, the strategic location
of workshops is required in order to optimize a mines pro-
duction cycle. As every hour counts and downtime is always
costly, larger mines may employ a system that combines field
maintenance with main and secondary workshops, which
drastically reduces distances and service/repair time.

By definition, the main workshop is under ground, situated

some distance away but strategically placed in relation to all
mining areas. All preventive maintenance is done here, as
well as all major repairs. For major overhauls of large compo-
nents, the main underground workshop will often send these
up to a surface workshop. When they are completed, they are
returned to the main workshop to carry out the replacement
work on the machines.

Secondary workshops are smaller and located closer to the

mining area, often in close proximity to personnel rest areas.
These secondary facilities are equipped with some smaller
spare parts, fluids etc, and located in well drained or dry
areas. Field maintenance is carried out by dedicated crews
with well equipped vehicles.

Where possible, it is advisable that both main and secondary

workshops are designed with independent access routes so as
not to disturb the production and daily flow of haulage traffic.
They should also be located in dry areas where there is no
water ingress from the rock that could potentially damage
electronics and create slippery surfaces. This also means
that facilities needed for cleaning equipment should be kept
separate from the workshops.

The same strategy should apply to the location of the work-

shop's loading bays. Shop materials such as tires, fuel and oils
can pose a fire risk and need to be carefully stored. Like all
mining operations, road maintenance and workshops natu-
rally come with a price tag, but the cost usually represents
just a small percentage of the total cost of the overall opera-
tion. On the other hand, the cost of choosing to overlook or
deliberately neglect these aspects of the operation could end
up costing a great deal more.

In northern Finland, the Kemi chromite mine serves as a good

example of how proactive planning for roads and workshops
leads to a safer working environment, while enabling con-
tinuous expansion. Using an advanced layout of ramps and
drifts for rail haulage and large payload trucks, maintenance
facilities are located close to the excavation area at a depth
of 500 m.

Thanks to a smooth operation which is extending deeper in

the mine, a low accident rate and low outage time, the annual
production of 2.5 M tonnes of chromite ore is set to double in
the next few years.
Quality roads that are properly maintained reduce wear on equipment, while
strategically located, well-equipped main and secondary workshops
drastically reduce downtime

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 91

Top pictures: Slot drilling using a Simba rig equipped with ITH drill hammer and guide tool. Bottom picture (Figure 1): Drill pattern for cut-off slot with 7 cut holes of
127 mm in diameter and 64 mm blastholes, all drilled with a Simba rig.

Slot raises
for easy and safe mining
When starting up a new mining area, miners begin by opening a space that can receive
the rock from the first blasts. These indispensible openings used to be difficult and
dangerous to construct. Not anymore.

It is a well-known fact that when rock is blasted it expands
and becomes approximately 60% bigger than its original
volume. In mining, this is not a problem, providing the blast-
ed rock, both in situ and loose, has somewhere to expand into.
In the initial phase of production drilling, it is, therefore,
essential to start by first excavating a void that can accom-
modate this expanded rock volume. Without it, the rock has
nowhere to go, and both blasting and mucking is infinitely
more complicated to carry out.
These openings, which are typically 0.61.5 m in diameter,
are, therefore, of paramount importance. Used in conjunc-
tion with sublevel stoping or caving methods, they enable the
first few blasts in the primary stope to be carried out easily,
quickly and efficiently.
Mechanized and safe
In the past, these initial openings, now called slots or slot
raises, have been difficult and dangerous to construct.
Operators would use hand-held rock drills, often balancing on
ladders as high as 50 m. Things improved in later years with
the so-called Alimak method whereby the operator works
from a hydraulic platform, a practice that is still frequently
used. However, all techniques that require the physical pres-
ence of operators inside the void being opened are laborious
and hazardous, and the current trend is to minimize the use

92 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY


As in conventional raiseboring or boxhole drilling, the raiseboring machine is set up to drill a pilot hole vertically, upwards or downwards. The hole is then
reamed to the required diameter. The cuttings fall down the raise and are deflected from the machine by the use of a muck collector and a muck chute.
of such methods. Today, modern mechanized equipment is
available to create these all-important openings, making the
job faster, simpler and, above all, much safer.
Three methods in use
To create these openings in a modern mine, the key is to
choose the right method, and there are three main alternatives:
Large diameter holes: A top hammer drilled series of 57
large diameter cut holes in a pattern surrounded by smaller
diameter blastholes, charged and blasted to create the final
swelling void. An example of the drill pattern for the total
cut-off slot is shown in Figure 1.
Slot drilling: A more controlled way of creating an open-
ing slot by drilling tightly spaced holes in a row, each hole
approximately 150 mm in diameter, using a special guide
tube mounted on an ITH drill hammer (see images page 96),
which guides the hammer from the previously drilled hole.
The slot is surrounded by smaller diameter blastholes that
are blasted in sequence.
Raise opening: A large diameter raise 0.61.5 m is drilled
using pilot drilling followed by a reamed hole using a
OPENING SLOT RAISES
raiseboring machine. The raise is normally drilled from
the upper level to the lower level but can also be drilled
from the lower level and reamed upwards, which is neces-
sary in boxhole drilling when the upper level is not possible
to reach (caving methods). These openings are gene-
rally regarded as the safest methods, especially when the
raise opening has to be long.
The first two methods are applied using Simba drill rigs to
produce the holes. The raise-opening method is applied using
a suitable model in the range of Robbins raiseborers.
Recently, however, a new prototype rig called the Easer
machine has been introduced that allows for more flexibil-
ity when drilling opening raises or boxholes as it combines
the reamed-hole capacity of raiseborers with the mobility of
Simba rigs.
All three methods are seen as efficient and flexible, but the
use of standard or modified raiseboring equipment is gaining
popularity due to its simplicity and added safety as a reamed
raise eliminates the risk of sequence failure in blasting.
For more information on raiseboring technology see the
Atlas Copco reference book edition Raiseboring, 2012.
ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 93
The art of long hole drilling
Production holes and utility holes have something in common. They are both long
holes and the longer the hole, the greater the risk of deviation. Today, long hole
drilling is more accurate than ever.

It is reasonable to assume that long drill holes can never be
100 % straight, regardless of the miners experience or the
drilling equipment being used. A certain degree of deviation
is simply unavoidable due to a variety of factors. However,
much has been done in recent years to help the miner keep
the drill bit on course and as close as possible to its planned
destination. In long hole mining, deviation is mainly due to
poor hole alignment, a lack of guide tubes, too-high feed,
badly selected drill steel, poor collaring, deflection caused
by various rock types or voids as the bit attempts to make its
way through the orebody.
Deviation may also be a result of successive bending of the
drill rods in the extended drillstring during the first and most
important part of the hole. To a great extent, however, this
deviation can be calculated for and minimized. Sometimes a
simple measure such as slower drilling may be an adequate
solution.
Why deviation is important
Deviation is the long hole drillers enemy, not to mention the
charging engineer whose charging plan is based on perfectly
straight holes. It has a direct impact on the effectiveness
of blasting, which, in turn, increases the risk of poor rock
fragmentation or, in the worst case scenario, freezing rock.
Conversely, straight holes are the key to optimal blasting
results.

94 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY

 LONG HOLE DRILLING

In order to achieve the desired rock fragmentation, the long

hole driller must therefore drill as straight and as accurately
as possible in short, within the limits specified by the drill
plan. This means that the holes must be collared in exactly Deviation
the right position, and then drilled in the right direction and to m
the exact depth. Whether for long or short holes, a poor setup 3
will greatly increase the risk of unwanted deviation.
1.5

Drillstring bending
Aside from geological conditions, other, perhaps less obvious
1.5
in-hole factors can have a marked influence on hole devia-
tion, such as the selection of drill rig technology. Drill rigs 3
equipped with RCS (Rig Control System) adjust automati- Hole length 15 m 30 m
cally to rock conditions and fractures. The choice of bits and
drillstring design will also have an impact, as demonstrated
in Figure 1.

During drilling, the friction generated between the drill bit

and the rock induces a torque in the drillstring above a certain
rotation rate. The larger the drillstring diameter and the great- Conventional tophammer T45/51
er the rotation rate, the higher the torque and feed force will
be required to keep the drillstring joints sufficiently tight.
Tophammer T45/51 incl guide tube + Retrac bit
It is often claimed that the amount of deviation is propor-
tional to the depth squared. At a certain point along the hole,
the drillstring will buckle, so rather than being straight in
In-the-hole (ITH)
the hole, it is supported by the hole wall close to the mid-
point between rock drill and hole bottom. This means that
the dimension of the hole and the size of the drillstring are
crucial parameters. If a small drillstring is used in a big hole,
the drillstring will bend.

For a COP 1838ME rock drill, with a drillstring diameter of

38 mm and a feed force of 6,400 N at a percussive pressure of Figure 1: Three drilling methods and typical deviation to be expected.
200 bar, this bending length is approximately 11 m. In prac-
tice, bending occurs at a somewhat shorter interval since the
drillstring is never perfectly straight at the start of drilling.
When the drillstring has been extended to twice the theo-
retical bending length, it will buckle once more so that it is
now supported at two points along the hole. At three times
the theoretical bending length, the drillstring will once again
buckle, and so on with increasing hole depth.

Drill bits and regrinding

Another factor to consider is the geometry of the drill bit
face and its condition, particularly with respect to regrind-
ing. From an accuracy point of view, a flatfront bit or a drop
center (concave) frontbit (Figure 2) results in a straighter hole
than a drill bit with a convex front.

It must also be remembered that to obtain the best hole accu-

racy with all drill bits, they must be reground so that their
faces are restored to their original shape in terms of both the
buttons and the steel. In this regard, drop center drill bits
are, once again, preferable to convex bits. This is because the Increased penetration rate, longer service life and lower cost are just a few
concave shape needs only to be reground so that the profile of benefits of using button bits.

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 95

LONG HOLE DRILLING

Deviation
D
DRO
SPEE
T38
1.50 m
Long hole precision drilling od
Gui de r
T45
In-hole deviation as function
of hole length ROD
PEED 1.00 m
T45 S
ube
(Derived from investigations at 64 t
TDS
LKAB, Kiruna)
0.50 m

15 m 20 m 25 m 30 m 35 m 40 m

Hole depth

T38 SPEEDROD / T38 SPEEDROD/

Standard bit

T45 SPEEDROD / T45 SPEEDROD /

(old design) / Retrac Bit

TDS 64 tube / TDS 64 tube / guide Bit

Figure 3: Larger diameter drillstrings result in less in-hole deviation as a function of hole depth.

the central buttons is restored to its original pattern without
adversely affecting hole straightness, even when the concave
face eventually wears flat through normal operation.
Therefore, if the drill bit is reground correctly and frequently,
the feed force will be directed to the periphery of the bit so
that the whole cutting face is in contact with the base of the
hole, even if the drillstring buckles.
With poor and infrequent regrinding, the drill bit may
wiggle on the hole bottom and will, sooner or later, result
in hole deviation.
In general, the larger the diameter of the drillstring for the
smallest possible hole, the straighter the hole will be since the
drillstring diameter has more of an influence on the bending
length than the feed force, as shown in Figure 3.
Since drill tubes have larger diameters than drill rods, they
result in greater hole straightness. A complete drillstring of
tubes is often necessary in downward production drilling
underground in order to achieve sufficient flushing capacity.
The use of water mist can also be a solution.
An attractive alternative is the adoption of a guide tube con-
nected to the drill bit, which, owing to its larger diameter,
reduces the possible amplitude of drill bit wiggle compared
with rods. Also, as the possible angle of wiggling decreases
with increasing length of the guide tube, the guide tube incor-
porated into the drill bit should be as long as possible.
Unlike a drillstring comprised solely of tubes, where the
stress waves are transmitted via shoulder impact, stress
waves in a drillstring incorporating a guide tube are trans-
mitted down the rods to the guide tube via bottom impact.
Another way to minimize wiggling is to use Retrac bits
(above right). Characterized by a bit skirt with the same outer
diameter as the bit head, it is, in effect, a very short guide
tube with maximum possible diameter. Retrac bits have been
developed primarily to improve retraction of the drillstring
in difficult rock conditions, where the tendency for jamming
frequently occurs.

96 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY


The well-known Simba drill rig equipped with RCS provides high accuracy and offers a range of automated drilling functions. Here, the Simba W7 C, equipped
with the Wassara water-powered ITH drilling system, drills service holes for geophone installations, which require minimized deviation.
Debris from the hole is f lushed through slots machined
along the bit, and the rear end of the skirt has a cutting edge
between every slot. Since the Retrac bit cannot wiggle as
much as a standard bit with a skirt that is significantly smaller
than the bit head, hole straightness is, once again, improved.
However, the use of full length guide tubes will normally
result in straighter holes than those drilled using Retrac bits.
Beating deviation
Here are four ways to combat and minimize hole deviation:
A stiff drillstring and small clearance between the hole and
the drillstring components will result in straighter holes.
For tophammer drilling, tubes that can be added behind
the drill bit to improve the flushing and reduce the risk of
the drillstring becoming stuck.
ITH, COPROD and rotary drilling are even more accurate
than tophammer drilling and result in less deviation.
Less deviation can be obtained through a combination of
reduced feed force and increased rotational speed. This can
be managed automatically through RCS.
LONG HOLE DRILLING
As we have said, it is impossible to eliminate hole deviation
completely, but with the right choice of equipment and by
utilizing this equipment in the right way, it can make a big
difference.
Long hole drilling with Simba
Since the 1990s, great advances have been made in com-
puter technology to meet the needs of the mining industry,
especially with regard to fully computerized drill rigs for
automated long hole drilling. These units, known worldwide
as Simba, have enabled mines to make substantial improve-
ments in drilling accuracy and productivity.
They are equipped with the Atlas Copco Rig Control System
(RCS), which offers varying degrees of automation and,
ultimately, the possibility of fully automated, remotely con-
trolled and remotely monitored drilling. Options such as
Advanced Boom Control (ABC) Regular, ABC Total, Drill
Plan Handling, Full Drill Data Handling (FDDH) and com-
munication products are also available.
ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 97
LONG HOLE DRILLING

RCS, which is a CAN-bus based system using standard

PC-computer technology, represented a quantum leap for-
ward with respect to logging capabilities, serviceability and
drilling accuracy. CAN-bus systems use a single cable that
interconnects a series of electronic components, allowing
them to communicate with each other. In production drill-
ing, the rigs can be adapted and configured for different
applications.

Drill rig setup

A hole alignment accuracy of within 0.1 degrees is attain-
able with the Simba L and M rigs, with electronic sensors
displaying the drills rotation angle, tilt angle, or fan inclina-
tion on the operators screen. The operator can configure the
rotation direction and locate the zero points according to the
drill plan. If the drill quality logging option is installed, col-
laring angles for each hole can be logged and stored.

At the ABC Total level, the rigs stingers and feed extension
can be deployed automatically during anchoring and de-
anchoring, and the rod handling system allows the operator
to use either Speedrods or TDS tubes. TDS tubes improve
hole straightness and flushing speed, while minimizing the
risk of the rods becoming stuck in the hole.

Operators need only to key in the required depth to initiate

automatic collaring and drilling of a hole, including automatic
addition of rods during the drilling sequence and removal
when drilling reaches the pre determined depth. To simplify
drill bit changes in mid-hole, the system will automatically
feed rods into the hole after the bit change and continue drill-
ing to the required depth in one sequence.

Integrated and remote controlled

All Simba drill rigs can be equipped with a series of major
automation options, such as Measure While Drilling, Drill
Plan Handling, Drill Plan Adaptation, Mine Navigation,
Full Drill Data Handling, Rig Remote Access, and Ore
Manager.

The most efficient method of handling drill fans and planning

production drilling is to integrate the Simba rigs with the
planning system at the mine site. This means that there is no
need for manual handling or design of fan plans in the mine.
The fan plan is generated in the system and transferred to the
Simba via the mine network or by means of a PC card.

Modern drilling is associated with very precise requirements,

to get the best fragmentation and not to unnecessarily dilute
the ore. To ensure efficiency in the mining process, the Simba
production rig can be used to drill only in the ore and avoid
drilling, charging and blasting areas with pure waste.

For operators, the learning time is short, and beginners and

experienced drillers alike are capable of production drilling
after a couple of days of training.

98 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY


The Simba L and M rigs use electronic sensors for tilt angling (left and above). In ABC Total drilling, stingers and feed extensions can be deployed automatically.
Long hole drilling at LKAB
The Simba long hole drill rig is a central element of the
mining fleet used by LKAB, one of the worlds leading iron
ore producers. Its mines at Kiruna and Malmberget in north-
ern Sweden are models of modern mining methods, with high
levels of automation in rail transport, loading and production
drilling.
Since 2002, production at Kiruna has increased by more than
40 %, and the number of drill meters required has increased
accordingly, recently surpassing 1 M m/y. The combined pro-
duction of both mines is approaching 1.5 M m/y. The Simbas
used at Malmberget are equipped with multi-teleremote func-
tions, which allow remote operation in a variety of ways.
High-capacity drill rigs are a must, and the fleet of Simba rigs
has been expanded to six production hole rigs at Malmberget
and two in Kiruna to meet the current long hole drilling
demand. Apart from production drilling, the Simbas are being
successfully used for service hole drilling and slot drilling.
Slices of the ore are drilled with Simba rigs equipped with fan
automation. From a control room, operators control several
rigs in the production areas via remote control. The production
drilling machines can continue to operate unmanned during
LONG HOLE DRILLING
shift changes, lunch breaks and night shifts, adding valuable
drill meters.
The rigs drill upwards into the ore at 80 degrees front inclina-
tion, forming fan-shaped patterns of holes. There are nor-
mally 810 holes in each fan that are drilled from 1055 m in
length. The drilling burden is usually 3 m, but in some parts
of Malmberget there are burdens of 3.5 m.
Conclusion
Precision drilling, high productivity and swift availability are
the criteria for low cost and successful long hole production
drilling.
With RCS technology, Atlas Copco gives the driller the
opportunity to undertake long hole drilling with faster and
more reliable control of the entire operation. This improves
drillstring life and reduces cost per drill meter.
As all mines are cost conscious, the range of high precision
drill rigs gives the mine planners and stope designers oppor-
tunities to better optimize the mining process and thereby
save costs and increase productivity.
ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 99
Pedestal Boom Systems in action, over a grizzly and over a crushing station (right), which demands a longer reach.
Breaking news
in breaking rock
Breaking oversized rock is a must in underground mines and open pits alike. With
modern technology there are no reasons why it cant be just as efficient as all other
aspects of the mining process.
Boulders produced by rock blasting are currently an unwel-
come by-product of the mining process. In underground pro-
duction areas, they are too big to muck out, too big for crusher
stations to handle, and too big to go through the bars of the
grizzlies above an ore pass. Even if a boulder can be dropped
into an ore pass, its size and weight can destroy the pass and
cause blockages and bottlenecks in the production flow.
While it is true that boulders are created by insufficient blast-
ing or blasting difficulties due to hole deviation, they are a
reality and must be broken up into smaller, more manageable
pieces for haulage or crushing. This is an arduous and monoto-
nous operation that can be difficult and costly. Boulders also
occur in the rock masses created in caving methods, and these
too disturb the rock-flow process and must be taken care of.
Basically there are only two ways of dealing with these
unwanted boulders. They can either be drilled and blasted or
broken up using a variety of hydraulic breakers. Both meth-
ods have their advantages and disadvantages, but hydraulic
100 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY
breakers are preferable to drilling and blasting, particularly
underground, due to safety and environmental considerations.
In the long term, heavy-duty pedestal boom systems (PBS)
are considered to be the most economical alternative. They
are powerful, high-capacity machines that can be relied on to
break up the oversized boulders continuously.
A worthwhile investment
There are several types of pedestal boom systems available,
and although capital-intensive, studies show that they will be
more economical over time, providing they are regularly and
properly serviced. For the most part, two-section boom sys-
tems are used for secondary breaking at grizzlies underground,
while three-section boom systems are used at gyratory crusher
stations at open pits.
The mines of South Africa are typical examples. At the South
Deep Gold Mine, a two-section boom system is in operation
3 000 m under ground, breaking up 1 000 tonnes of rock per day.
 BOULDER HANDLING

After it was installed, production increased by as much as 50%

per month, largely due to the low maintenance costs.

The solid structure of this system weighs approximately 10

tonnes. It has a 6 m reach for complete coverage of the break-
ing area and can be rotated 280 for easy maintenance access.

Similarly, a three-section boom system is in operation at the

Anglo Platinum Mine in Makopane. This setup weighs 23
tonnes and has a maximum reach of 12.5 m, allowing for a
longer, deeper and complete coverage of the crusher box but
requiring only a small parking radius.

Among the pedestal boom systems currently available, the XD

series PBS from Atlas Copco stands out. Specifically built for
this application, these breakers are designed for heavy-duty
grizzlies and gyratory crushers that demand high strength,
durability and maneuverability. All XD parts are extremely
robust to withstand the rigors of the harsh rock-breaking envi- Rotational slew mechanism up to 280 for easy reach and maintenance.
ronment and a relentless 24/7 operational cycle.

There are nine systems in the series offering a breaker weight

of 2005 800 kg and a wide reach of 2.711.4 m for complete
coverage of the breaking area. The boom is mounted on a
massive, heavy-duty base that positions the breaker to reach
and shatter oversized and lodged rocks in any part of the griz-
zly or crusher mouth. Reinforcement plates ensure an even
stress distribution, while key components such as the pedestal
booms flexi-base, slew mechanism, cylinders, large-diameter
pins and pin-locking system work in harmony to get the job
done. With easy access to all service points, these systems are
also simple and quick to service for maximize uptime.

A PBS system is typically installed close to ore passes or rock

chutes into ore passes that have grizzlies over the openings. A
suitable mounting area is usually prepared at the side, a plat-
form is built, and the PBS is installed on top of the platform.
These installation setups are also designed to be maintenance Breaking oversized rock is an essential task at crusher stations.
friendly and located in close proximity to crushers. In LHD
automation areas where no one is allowed to be in the vicin-
ity, a PBS system setup is often a must in order to ensure a
constant, uninterrupted ore flow.

Future development
Although most PBS systems today focus on breaking boulders
up to a certain size in an effective way, it is conceivable that
future designs will be able to break even larger size blocks
with maintained efficiency, thereby reducing the need for sec-
ondary breaking with drill and blast. In addition, future PBS
equipment will most likely be able to improve the steady flow
of material to the crusher with even smaller size rock frag-
ments, which will lower the crushers energy consumption.

Advanced maintenance solutions and easy data transfer using

the RCS system also make the pedestal booms reliable and
ready for teleremote control and thereby well prepared for A Pedestal Boom System (PBS) installed above the grizzly at the South Deep
future technology challenges. Gold Mine in South Africa ensures a continuous flow of material.

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 101

Figure 1: Sweden's iron ore mine LKAB Malmberget consists of more than 20 orebodies, of which 12 are mined using the sublevel caving (SLC) method. It has four
main production levels, with the newest crusher station located at the 1 250 m haulage level. The ore to be mined (marked in blue), is transported to surface facilities
via roads and ramps (see red line), conveyor belts and hoists.

The decision of a lifetime

Choosing a suitable mining method, whether it is for a new mining venture or when
switching from one method to another, is a complex process, and with good reason.
Whatever the final decision, it will be crucial for success throughout the entire life
of the mine.
There are about ten basic mining methods in use around the
world and just as many variations. Choosing the right one
involves a complex decision-making process in which many
different parameters must be taken into account. The cardinal
rule is to always start with the geometry of the orebody and
then look at the rock conditions, which is the second critical
factor.
In most cases, it is the size, shape and dip of the deposit that
determines the mining method, the layout and the method in
which the material is to be handled and transported.
example above, Figure 1). As a result, the methods at the
planners disposal are generally grouped into two categories
according to the orebody dip: steep orebodies and flat orebodies,
each presenting its own set of preconditions for mining.
Steep orebodies
When it comes to upright standing orebodies, or steep ore-
bodies as shown in Figure 3, page 104, the natural force of grav-
ity is invaluable in the mining process as it will greatly assist
the rock flow, from which the miners can reap large benefits.

Some orebodies are massive, flat formations stretching over The physical differences can also be used to an advantage
several kilometers. Others are almost vertical and steep (see in transportation. For the stoping method and where the dip

102 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY

 CHOICE OF MINING METHODS

1. Bolting and cable bolting

2. Vertical benching
3. Pillar
4. Flat benching

Figure 2: The illustration shows a flat horizontal orebody and typical mining activity.
1 Bolting and cablebolting
2 Vertical benching
3 Pillar
4 Flat benching
exceeds 50 degrees, it means that mucking and haulage can Flat orebodies
be carried out at a lower level. Where the dip is less than 50 For flat orebodies, the main mining methods are:
degrees, these operations can be carried out at the mining Room and Pillar: classic, post and step
level. Longwall Mining

However, this initial observation is only the first step in the
process. A wide range of other factors also have to be taken
into consideration, such as the nature and behavior of the
rock, the existence of any environmental restrictions in the
area, safety and the availability of skilled labor and, not least,
the potential cost of extracting the ore.
Ore and waste properties are crucial to the evaluation of
mining methods and how they are weighed against each other.
Computerized equipment is used to gather geotechnical infor-
mation and to calculate production rates and costs using data
analysis, which greatly contributes to the research studies and
final reports that determine the optimal choice.

In building this equation, the planner will naturally also be In the past few years, no new mining methods have been
correlating all these factors with the methods that are likely introduced, but many have been substantially improved with
to meet short-term and long-term production targets in the the development of new and better technology. Preferences
most efficient and sustainable way. change, however, and some methods have clearly become
more popular than others.
For steep orebodies, the main mining methods normally
employed are:
Sublevel Open Stoping The right choice
Long Hole Open Stoping The most common mining methods today all have unique
Rill Mining pros and cons for each mining situation and involve relative
Cut and Fill Mining costs and productivity levels that vary considerably, as shown
Shrinkage Stoping (VCR) in Figure 4 on the next page. Block caving is a typical exam-
Sublevel Caving ple of a large-scale, highly productive method that has the
Block Caving lowest costs, making it ideally suited for mining low grade

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 103

CHOICE OF MINING METHODS

7
1. Stope
2. Blasted ore 8
3. Draw point 3
4. Drill access
5. Long hole drilling and
blasting
6. Undercut fan blasting
7. Transport drift
8. Loading crosscut

Figure 3: The typical mining process in a standing, vertical orebody.

Relative cost and productivity

Method T/Manshift Avg. T/Day Relative Operating Cost
per tonne
Resuing (small scale cut and fill) 0.2 - 0.5 50 - 100 + 70 +

Cut and Fill 1 Stope 12 - 48 500 - 1 500 20 to 70

2 Blasted ore
Shrinkage 3 Draw point 20 - 28 200 - 800 20 to 50
4 Drill access
Room and Pillar 5 Long-hole drilling
15 - and
150 blasting 1 500 - 10 000 7 to 20
6 Undercut fan blasting
Sublevel Open Stoping 7 Transport drift 20 - 115 1 500 - 20 000 7 to 25
8 Loading crosscut
Sublevel Caving 65 - 180 1 500 - 70 000 5 to 15

Block Caving 300 - 2 000 10 000 - 100 000 1 to 2.5

Figure 4: The relative cost of typical mining methods and the excavation tonnages yielded.

orebodies. In addition, such large-scale methods, which also
includes sublevel caving and sublevel open stoping, are more
suited to automated operations, and the growing trend toward
automated mining is expected to continue. Experts predict
that the dominant methods over the next 10 years will be
block caving, sublevel caving, cut and fill, sublevel open stop-
ing with backfill, and room and pillar mining. This is due to
the increase in demand for larger volumes, better recovery
ratios and increased safety.
Although these methods have a longer planning horizon,
experience shows that they lead to better, smoother produc-
tion systems and, thereby, lower running costs, but with
higher demand for quality and good performance.

104 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY

 THE DECISION OF A LIFETIME

Reducing downtime is a key concern for miners

whatever method of mining they choose.
The Scooptram EST1030 front end loader is
robust and features a heat protected engine.

ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY 105

1

7
1. Caved hanging wall
2. Production =
Blasting and loading
3. Drilled blastholes
2
4. Charging
3 8 5. Long hole drilling
6. Developing of new
4 sublevels
9
7. Sublevels
8. Footwall drift
5 9. Ore pass
10. Haulage level

10
6

Figure 1: Typical layout of a sublevel caving (SLC) operation.

1 Caved hanging wall 10 Haulage level
2 Production = Blasting and loading
3 Drilled
4 Charging

Assessing the case

5 Long-hole drilling
6 Developing of new sublevels
7 Sublevels
8 Footwall drift
9 Ore pass

for caving
Large orebodies with a steep dip and competent host rock are often suited to mining
by caving. But the environmental impact must also be taken into consideration.

Every mine planner knows that caving is a very favorable way
of extracting ore. From a purely mining point of view, it is
extremely productive and the yields are high. However, from
an environmental standpoint, caving also has disadvantages
that must be taken into consideration.
There are two types of caving methods commonly used in
underground mass mining sublevel caving (SLC) and block
caving (BC) that and are distinctly different. In SLC, all
of the ore is blasted so that the fragmentation of the rock is
controlled. At the same time, SLC is dependent on a hanging
wall that will cave easily to continuously fill the voids as
the blasted rock is removed. In BC, the orebody caves by
itself, using the forces of rock stress and gravity, and this
requires a rock type that will fracture in such a way as to give
acceptable fragmentation (see Figure 1 and 2). If the orebody
is large, has a steep dip with continuity at depth, and is sur-
rounded by good quality host rock in the footwall, sublevel
caving will be an obvious choice. If, on the other hand, the
orebody is massive and has large dimensions, both vertically

106 ATLAS COPCO UNDERGROUND MINING TALKING TECHNICALLY