3.3.

FACTORIZATION IN COMMUTATIVE RINGS 65

3.3 Factorization in Commutative Rings

Let R be a commutative ring with identity.

Def.

a R {0} divides b R (notation: a | b) if ax = b for some x R.

a, b R {0} are associates if a | b and b | a.

Def. An element c R is irreducible if

1. c is a nonzero nonunit;

2. c = ab a or b is a unit.

An element p of R is prime if

1. p is a nonzero nonunit;

2. p | ab p | a or p | b.

Ex.

1. In Z, every prime number p is both irreducible and prime.

2. In Z6 , 2 is prime but not irreducible since 2 4 = 2 and neither 2 nor 4 are units.

3. In Z[ 10] = {a + b 10 | a, b Z}, 2 is irreducible but not prime (HW 3.3.3).

........................................................................................
Now we assume that R is an integral domain.
The divisibility in R can be interpreted in terms of principal ideals.

Thm 3.22. Let a, b, u R.

1. a | b iff (b) (a).

2. a and b are associates iff (a) = (b), iff a = br for a unit r R.

3. u is a unit iff (u) = R, iff u | r for all r R.

(proof)

Thm 3.23. Let p, c R\{0}.

1. p is prime iff (p) is a nonzero prime ideal;

66 CHAPTER 3. RINGS

2. c is irreducible iff (c) is maximal in the set of all proper principal ideals of R;

3. every prime element is irreducible;

4. if R is a PID, then an element is irreducible iff it is prime;

5. every associate of an irreducible [resp. prime] element of R is irreducible [resp. prime].

(proof)

Def. An integral domain R is a unique factorization domain (UFD) if

1. every nonzero nonunit element a of R can be written as a = c1 cn , where c1 , , cn

are irreducible;

2. if a = d1 dm where d1 , , dm are irreducible, then m = n, and for some Sn , ai

and b(i) are associates.

Thm 3.24. In a UFD, an element is irreducible iff it is prime.

(proof)
We will introduce Euclidean domain. A Euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain; a
principal ideal domain is a UFD. A ring R is a UFD implies that the polynomial ring R[x] is
a UFD.
The following lemma says that a PID is a Noether ring.

Lem 3.25. Let (a1 ) (a2 ) be a chain of ideals in a principal ideal domain R. Then
(an ) = (an+1 ) = for certain n N .
[
Proof. The ideal (ai ) = (b), where b (an ) for certain n N . Then (b) (an )
iN
(an+1 ) (b). Hence (an ) = (an+1 ) = .

Thm 3.26. Every principal ideal domain R is a UFD.

Proof. Let S be the set of all elements of R which cannot be factored as a finite product of
irreducibles. We claim that S = . Suppose on the contrary, a S. Then a 6= 0 is not
irreducible. So a = a1 b1 where a1 and b1 are nonzero nonunits, and at least one of a1 and b1
is in S, say b1 S. Then b1 = a2 b2 where a2 and b2 are nonzero nonunit, whence a = a1 a2 b2 .
Repeating the process, we get b1 | a and bi+1 | bi for i N. Then (a) ( (b1 ) ( (b2 ) ( , a
contradiction to the preceding lemma. Thus S = .
If a = c1 cn = d1 dm where ci and dj are irreducible (and thus prime), then c1 divides
certain dj so that c1 and dj are associates. By induction, we can show that n = m, and there
is Sn such that ai and b(i) are associates.
3.3. FACTORIZATION IN COMMUTATIVE RINGS 67

Def. An integral domain R is a Euclidean domain if there is a function

: R {0} N

such that:

1. (a) (ab) for a, b R {0};

2. For a R and b R {0}, there exist q, r R such that a = qb + r, where either r = 0

or (r) < (b).

Ex. The following rings are Euclidean domains:

1. The ring Z with (x) = |x|.

2. A field F with (x) = 1 for x F {0}.

3. The ring of polynomials F [x] over a field F with (f ) = degree of f .

Thm 3.27. Every Euclidean domain R is a principal ideal domain.

Proof. If I is a nonzero ideal of R, choose a I {0} such that (a) = min{(x) | x I {0}}.
Every b I can be written as b = aq + r with r = 0 or (r) < (a). The latter is impossible
by r = b aq I and the minimality of (a). Therefore r = 0 and b (a). Thus I = (a). So
R is a PID.

........................................................................................
From now on, let R be a commutative ring with unity.

Def. An element d R is a greatest common divisor (gcd) of a nonempty set X of R if:

1. d | a for all a X;

2. if c | a for all a X, then c | d.

Elements x1 , , xn R are relatively prime if 1R is a gcd of {x1 , , xn }.

If d is a gcd of X, then every associate of d is a gcd of X.

Thm 3.28. Let a1 , , an R.

1. If d R is a gcd of {a1 , , an } and d = r1 a1 + + rn an for some r1 , , rn R,

then (d) = (a1 ) + + (an );

2. if R is a PID, then a gcd of {a1 , , an } exists and each is of the form r1 a1 + + rn an

(ri R);
68 CHAPTER 3. RINGS

3. if R is a UFD, then a gcd of {a1 , , an } exists.

Proof.

1. easy.

2. follows from 1.

3. Factorize ai = cm 1
i1
cm
t
it
for i = 1, , n with c1 , , ct not associate irreducible
elements and mij 0. Let kj = min{m1j , m2j , , mnj }. Show that d = ck11 ckt t is a
gcd of {a1 , , an }.