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Society and Culture

Concepts,

The 5 Fundamentals:
Persons,
Persons are the individuals who form the varied human relationships within society such as groups, institutions, networks and social systems.
- Every person is a unique individual, but each develops in a society setting in which they are influenced by, and interact with, other persons.
- They have, over time, an effect on, and interact within and between, other societies and cultures.
- Each individual has a sense of self and identity, but also human rights and obligations.
- E.g. The Australian culture in conjunction with the Australian society produces an Australian person because the individual develops an
Australian identity through socialisation, during their individual growth and development, through communication with their family and others
within their society and culture.

Society,
The way people organise themselves. Its the networks of interactions and organisations between persons, groups, institutions and social
systems; the community of people from micro to macro systems, formal and informal groups.
- Many of these patterns show class or status within the group or institution.
- Authority, influence, and power can be a source of conflict and cooperation within and between these groups.
- E.g. The Amish society comprises of the Amish persons linked together by the Amish culture, creating a network of persons who have
similar values, beliefs and space. The Amish society will influence persons to accept the culture through socialisation.

Culture,
The shared knowledge learned by all persons within a society, that link it together. This shared knowledge is reflected in aspects of society like
language, laws, technology, customs and arts, showing their way of life.
- This can be seen in the ritual, myth and beliefs of the cultural group, including ways of thinking, feeling and behaving which also reflects the
ideology of the group that give each society its coherence and its distinctive way of life. Persons generate this to interpret meaning from
their world and solve present and future problems.
- Cultural diversity is a result of the many different cultures to be found within our society = hybrid society.
- E.g. The mafia culture has created a group of persons who abide to the rules of organised crime and a criminal hierarchy.

Environment,
The physical, social and psychological setting; The surroundings where we live and work is varied and constantly changing.
Humans have learnt to adapt to many different environments, often changing it in the process.
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There is interdependence between our life and all other forms in the environment, which is why there are different perceptions of it, and
there have been some efforts to improve the environment, for the benefit of everyone.
E.g. The Northern Canadian environment is often in sub-zero temperatures, impacting upon the society by placing an emphasis on the
lifestyle, such as building igloos. In comparison to environments with warmer temperatures, it is evident the environment dictates culture,
persons and society to some extent.

Time,
Time is a socially constructed unit of measurement (past, present and future) upon where society, persons, culture and environment exists. It is
an indicator of continuity and change.
- It is a Western ideal which believes that it is monochromic (linear), although there are other beliefs (i.e. Polychromatic/cycles), and it sets a
human construct in western societies.
- E.g. The time period of 1960s was a decade of enormous social and cultural change. Thus, change has occurred in society over time.
Continuity can also occur through time, such as the continuation of democracy from 1950 to 1960.

Their interactions:
Society & Culture was done in 2006
The concepts society and culture are symbiotic. That is, society will influence culture and vice versa. A society may promote a certain culture
due to commonalities in the persons that make up the society. For example, the Australian society, made up of persons from a relatively
diverse range of ethnic origins, propagates a multicultural culture within the society.
However, as mentioned, culture may also influence society because the culture gives an identity to societys individuals as well as shape their
values and beliefs. For example, the Australian culture of multiculturalism has allowed society to comprise of persons with different ethnic
origins because diversity in race is acceptable.

Culture & Environment

Many aspects of culture which influence living patterns and behaviours of persons will have implications for the physical and psychological
environments.
E.g. Rituals or practices of a culture may involve the use or exploitation of natural resources may lead to a depletion of the quality of the
environment.
Conversely, cultures such as the Aboriginal culture, which place a tremendous emphasis upon the preservation of the natural environment and
connection with the land will aid in conserving the physical environment over time.
A culture which promotes an international commitment to basic human rights will create a psychological environment which promotes equal
opportunity and freedom of choice for persons in a society.

The physical and psychological settings of a society will aid in shaping many aspects of culture. For example, the dry, arid temperatures of the
Australian climate have helped to create many aspects of the Australian bush culture, including resourcefulness and mateship.
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Environment & Persons was done in 2005

An environment can present persons with both opportunities and barriers, for example, in a rural area, a persons career opportunities would be
substantially limited in comparison with a person living in the city. This would reflect both the social and psychological restrictions of an
environment. A school reflects both a social and physical setting which can impact upon a persons attitude towards education. For example, a
student being bullied would have a negative perception of their social environment.

Conversely, persons can influence the environment in which they are located within. Persons, through interaction with other persons and
environment, are capable of shaping their physical, social and psychological environment to a large extent. For example, a single person may
leave a footprint on a beach but many persons may catalyse the erosion of beaches, thus altering the environment.

Society & Environment

Societies exist within an environment and as a result, are impacted by the environment. For example, the English society placed a heavy
emphasis on achieving maritime and naval supremacy because their environment is surrounded by water, and the psychological mindset of an
isolated country.

Conversely, society may influence change in an environment over time, or maintain continuity of the main characteristics of an environment.
This occurs because all societies must interact with their environment. For example, the English society has changed their environment by
constructing seaports to support their vessels, thus highlighting how a society must interact and influence its environment over time.

Society & Time

Time is coherently linked to society as it exists in all societies, past, present and future. The link is based on the impact of time upon various
different groups in society and their pattern of interactions. The two outcomes of time in society are either continuity or change in society over
time. Such interactions can be seen in Amish communities, who reflect continuity within a society. Despite the changes to the environment and
technology, the Amish people have been able to sustain their society through a shared culture. Their culture which is predominantly based on
religion binds their society together.

Culture & Persons

(Micro) Certain aspects of persons identity can be reflected through their language. For example, in my micro world, my peers use slang words
and abbreviations such as LOL (laugh out loud), BRB (be right back) and DW (dont worry), which is characteristic of teenage behaviour and
has come about through communication via recent technologies, such as the Internet and social network systems such as MSN and Facebook,
again reflecting a popular aspect of Western Culture.
However, persons influence the culture of a society too because essentially, culture depends on the beliefs, values and interactions of persons.
No culture can exist without its creation and perpetuation by persons. For example, the Western culture of internet social website
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communication has developed and expanded because of persons creating abbreviations. Without persons using these abbreviations in the
beginning, the culture would not have developed and would not be sustained.

(Macro) Each individual is subject to the values of their culture. Laws govern the attitudes held by persons in society, which influences
individuals behaviours, values and beliefs. For example, Under the Anti-Discrimination Act, it is illegal to racially discriminate any persons or
groups in Australia, and as a result, persons hold values for a multicultural society.

Culture & Time

(Micro) Over time, a child is socialised and learns about their culture e.g. learning the Christmas ritual of singing Christmas carols or dancing
around the Christmas tree (Danish tradition) that your family performs each year.

(Macro) After September 11 western culture has been significantly changed in relation to terrorism e.g. much more security in airports as
people have become much more weary in their attitudes towards those of Middle Eastern ethnicity.

Environment & Time was done in 2008

Time & Persons

Persons & Society was done in 2007

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The 4 major concepts:

Power,
Exists in a relationship where some individual or group that has the capacity to direct and control the actions of other individuals or groups.
Power exists in all aspects of our lives through the power of rules in our society. Powerful persons and/or groups can make their power
legitimate through legal legislations and is then it is called Authority.
E.g. A powerful man was John F. Kennedy who was able to influence the American public to support his political beliefs on social equality.

Authority,
Authority is a sub-group of power in which people have a specific role that is legally or organizationally sanctioned; the legitimate use of power.
They may order others to behave in a particular way in a given setting or situation. Legal/rational e.g. school or judicial system; Traditional
e.g. within tribal societies; Charismatic - e.g. people believe in another individual and their charismatic skill has the ability to influence those
people.
E.g. Civil servants such as teachers may exercise the power to suspend the rights of a child.

Technology,
Technology is the body of knowledge and information, tools and machines available for the production and distribution of goods and services
within a culture or society that enables tasks to become easier thus enhancing the natural abilities of a person.
E.g. Mobile phones allow persons to communicate across vast distances which effectively allow persons to communicate regardless of space.
This can lead to a more interlinked global society as spatial barriers are deconstructed.

Gender,
Gender is the socially constructed differences between males and females.
It refers to the individual identity and personality, to cultural ideal, and stereotype of masculinity and femininity and at a structural level; to the
sexual division of labour in institutions and organisations.
E.g. The widely held belief of the dichotomy of jobs to favour male strength and women passivity has created social differences between men
and women. Examples include domestic duties for women and labour for men.

Concepts:
Access,
The ability of persons in society to attain and consume popular culture. Without this link popular culture cannot exist.

Acculturation,
Is where 2+ cultures interact and they pass on beliefs, customs and cultural aspects to each other.

Bias,
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A perspective; there is always a bias from each individual and the perspective is affected by an individuals background and experiences.

Belief,
Widespread and accepted values.

Change,
When aspects of society and culture do not stay the same. It is the alteration in patterns of culture, social structures and behaviours over time.

Continuity,
The repetition of patterns of thinking and behaviour, usually referred to as traditions. It refers to the social and cultural factors that are retained
and unchanged within a society, creating stability and longevity of the culture.

Consumption,
Refers to you and the way you interact with popular culture. Aspects such as time spent, or money spent on associated commercial products.

Community,
A small cluster of people, focused on individual residences/places of work/shared space and/or shared common interests or experiences.

Cooperation,
Is when members of a society working together to achieve common goals or aspirations.

Conflict,
Is when individuals/groups struggle against each other for a commonly prized object or value. The conflict may be demonstrated in the form of
war, feud, litigation, or clash of personal ideas.

Covert racism
What appears to be tolerance and in the best interest of the individual and group. For example, protectionism.

Citizenship,
Being part of a nation/states, a sense of national identity, and generally a common language and common territory.

Discrimination,
Is based upon prejudice and is any act or action carried out by a person or group against another based on prejudicial ideas. It can be direct or
indirect.
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Ethnocentrism,
Is passing judgment on the attitudes and lifestyles of other societies by using the standards of your own society.

Enculturation,
Is the process by which people learn a societys culture, similar to socialisation but does not focus on children.

Empowerment,
This term is used to describe groups within a society gaining access to power structures and being able to assert some control over their
destiny.

Equality,
Equal opportunity to access SVRs.

Ethnicity,
Is an individuals or groups ancestral background or heritage. It may or may not link to nationality but is the bases of ones identity.

Heritage,
Refers to the collective past of a country. It may be a physical heritage or cultural heritage. It has a role it plays in maintaining continuities and
can provide a contrast for change.

Institutions,
These are accepted and organised patterns of behaviour in a society. It may also be an organisation or established way of doing things.

Identity,
Can be personal or national. The understanding of who you are and why you are that person. It develops through the process of socialisation
and also includes your own unique personality.

Institutional Power,
The concept institutional power refers to the ability of established systems such as the government, businesses and corporations hold over
consumers and production, mainly concerned with standards, regulations and revenue.

Ideology,
The body of doctrine, myth and symbols of a social movement. An ideology is defined as the systems and ways in which we view the world.
They are loose, more informal beliefs and belief systems; a point of view or preference.
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The set of ideas that binds together a set of beliefs in popular culture. Most popular cultures both originate and promote a capitalist system of
society and this is promoted by the commercial nature and notion of consumerism.

Influence,
The degree to which aspects of popular culture, whether that be ideas, businesses, time, etc, directs the thoughts, actions or time of people
towards something they would not normally adhere to; positive or negative.

Micro-world,
The world you know through personal experience. This can be based on both the past and present personal culture. It occurs as result of
macro world change i.e. laws, technology, fashion but also result of age as time goes by, you will respond and interpret the micro and macro
words differently as you yourself changes. The micro world influences an individuals behaviours and values. E.g. peers, family, school.
Micro world (change): a change in physical and the role of personal experience has been influenced by public knowledge. (Society, media)
Micro world (continuity): ANZAC day, school, Family

Macro-world,
The world you know through access to public knowledge. The macro world is made up of social structures in society. It is governments, the
legal system and other institutions that affect society as a whole.
Things like Technology have impacted the way I access media and consume popular culture. Television, the Internet, the radio, newspapers
and magazines have all affected the way I see the world and my place in it.
The emergence of a global culture means that Australia is less isolated and has increased the influence of the US and Europe, which on the
micro world level means changes in culture E.g. the celebration of Halloween.

Mythology,
Mythology is the creation of fictional characters, plots, ideas and beliefs. They may be based on truth but have been embellished and serve to
maintain societies interest in order to perpetuate consumption. Mythology exists mainly for businesses to be able to undertake commercial
exploitation of consumers to increase revenue and profits.

Media,
The types of mass communication in the realm of the macro world and public knowledge. Technology enables the messages to be sent to large
numbers of people throughout the world. It is an effective tool for promoting popular culture and reporting on changes and issues that arise.

Multiculturalism,
A society that consists of people from a variety of cultural backgrounds.

Norms,
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The rules for the regulation of behaviour in society. They cover a wide range of behavioural standards, dictating conduct in formal and informal
environments.

Overt racism
Overt racism is direct, active discriminatory behaviour that devalues or degrades a person/group based on ethnic origin.

Personal experience refers to those experiences you have as you grow and develop as a human being. That personal experience is unique to
you as an individual, and can be referred to as knowledge gained from things you have actually done. To properly use personal experience,
one must engage in personal reflection. This requires you to think about who you are, what you do and why you are living, that nature of the
culture you are experiencing and the specific environment you experience.

Public knowledge refers to the collection of knowledge assembled through research and analysis of a wide range of personal experiences. It
includes knowledge found in books, lectures and documentaries and using computer technology. Public knowledge is knowledge you have
learned from consulting sources.

Prejudice,
Is a thought by a person about another person or group based on a pre-conceived idea. It is usually based around stereotypes of race,
gender/sex or age.

Race,
Was first thought it referred to our biological appearance but is now thought to be more about socially constructed discriminatory views to
create separation amongst groups rather than appearance.

Racial vilification
Public act that incites hatred/contempt for other person or groups based on ethnic origins

Reliability,
Trustworthiness, can it be scientifically proven? Are the results similar when repetition is shown?

Self-determination
The microworld form of sovereignty and it is seen as a moral and legal right. It refers to the ability of decision-making without the intervention of
a third party.

Social justice
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The recognition of difference within society and targeting the difference to produce equal opportunities. Social justice aims at levelling the
disadvantages of marginalised groups through policies and practices.

Sovereignty
The macroworld term for the exclusive right to have complete political control of a society, group or oneself. Australia is a democratic state so it
has popular sovereignty through the election of a government that does decision-making

Social and Cultural literacy,

A person who can understand and appreciate other cultures, communicate effectively and demonstrate empathy for others are said to have
achieved this. You will come across values, customs, beliefs, and behaviors that may differ from your own but you should recognise and accept
the difference without making judgments.

Socialisation,
The process by which we learn to become members of society by internalizing the norms and values of society, and learning to perform social
roles, especially in relation to children.

Sub-culture,
A sub-culture is a group who have adapted a series of cultural traits (customs and values) that differ to those of society as a whole.

Self,
Refers to you; the way you perceive yourself to be.

Social Differentiation,
Is the process by which members of society are categorized in terms of ethnicity, sex, age, income, employment and education.

Socio-Economic status,
Is a measure used to compare people or groups based on social and economic data such as income, employment and residential income.

Social Class,
Is a system in which in which most societies are organized into hierarchical levels based on power, privilege and wealth. Upper, middle and
lower class are the most identified.

Tradition,
An activity or belief maintained in a society over a period time, implying continuity.
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Values,
A system of ideas that can be defined on both personal and a societal level. These values apply to the moral decisions a person makes.

Validity,
Applicability, relevancy, the value of the research/information to your work.
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Methodologies,

Examine the nature and characteristics of primary and secondary research.

Primary Research,
Is conducted by you/the researcher to gain first hand information involves going to the direct source usually by the people involved or area
under investigation. Involves peoples interactions, knowledge and understandings e.g. interviews, observation, questionnaires, surveys,
personal reflection and content analysis.

Secondary Research,
Is the collection and interpretation of the work of others, usually used to supplement primary research E.g. books, newspapers, videos, internet
and magazines. Also involves a case study and statistical analysis.

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research.

Qualitative,
Collecting descriptive data e.g. opinions, attitudes, experiences. It requires interpretation, evaluation, and drawing conclusions by the
researcher.

Quantitative,
Methodologies which enable data to be collected, measured, and composed with a standard.

Examine the characteristics of the following social and cultural research methodologies and techniques.
Survey,
Combination of closed/open-ended questions (questionnaire), observation, structured interview, and data recording. Uses representative
samples of specific population.
Advantages:
Able to reach large number of different people,
Large sample = less bias,
Easy to calculate and compare,
Able to ensure anonymity = more honest answers,
Quick to answer,
Provides lots of information,
Cheap.
Disadvantages:
No assurance of honesty,
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No way of knowing if the questions were understood,

Standardised form may restrict and limit people depending on the questions asked and the knowledge of the surveyor,
Little flexibility.
Example of a study:

Case study,
Collection of information related to individual/small group. It includes a detailed investigation of a specific social setting or event and people;
that is, someone elses experience or story.
Advantages:
Range of ways to collect information,
Relatively inexpensive,
Gives background information for further research,
Flexibility in use of time.
Disadvantages:
Can be often too general,
Often time consuming, depending on the persons motives.
Example of a study:

Participant Observation,
This type of research is helpful in an ethnographic study. It offers the researcher the opportunity to participate and gives opportunity to ask
questions. The data is qualitative and thus, subjective.
Advantages:
Allows a researcher to gain a realistic and first hand view of what they are researching,
Involves personal reflection,
Shows behavior in action,
Disadvantages:
The observer must consider ethical implications: participant-as-observer method ethically operates within the awareness of other
participants. This may leave those being observed self conscious of being watched and may change their behaviour.
Can be influenced and possibly limited by the researches interpretation of events.
Example of a study:

Content Analysis,
It involves the systematic analysis and interpretation of data, media, TV, movies, advertisements, books journals, websites, collected with the
researcher establishing a range of categories. It may target language (written text) or visual stimulus (pictures).
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Advantages:
Provides data to supplement research; background info,
Can be used on a wide range of media and comprise of macro world opinion on the topic,
May provide qualified or non qualified data on the topic,
Provides insight into alternative interpretations of questions,
Involves personal reflections of material.
Disadvantages:
Difficult to design,
Is limited by the researchers interpretation of events; biased,
Not current,
Time consuming.
Example of a study:

Action research,
A group recognizes a shared problem; devises, implements and evaluates a plan to counteract it. All participants are researchers. It is the cycle
of planning, acting, observing and reflecting until desirable outcome is reached for everyone. Action research is informal, collaborative,
interpretive, qualitative, reflective, and experimental.
Advantages:
Detailed information available,
Researcher is involved and practical application of research,
Disadvantages:
Time consuming,
Difficult to reach conclusions,
Results may be confusing as often more than one researcher involved,
Resources are beyond most students.
Example of a study:

Focus Group,
Can be used to discuss a particular topic. It is sometimes difficult to select the right participants. 3-8 people assembled for in-depth discussion
on a specific topic/issue
The person conducting the focus group must: manage participants, direct discussion, involve everyone, and maintain flexibility to pursue ideas
as they arise, make sure the conversation does not stray. A tape recorder essential.
Advantages:
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It is used to understand opinions,

Can complement quantitative results.
Disadvantages:
Hard to organize,
Costs,
Time consuming,
May lead to group conflict effecting outcome.
Example of a study:
Determining the general electorate opinion before a poll. I have personally been involved in an Up&Go/VitaGo/Breakfast drink focus group, only
year 11 girls (but they did it for other age and gender groups too), each person gets $80 at the end, taste testing.

Interview,
The process of investigating a topic by questioning informed or involved persons for their expertise and or opinion on the topic. Qualitative
information. It can be tightly structured to conversational, requires a prior knowledge and interpretation of the topic.
Advantage:
It allows a greater flexibility with questions and information,
Can bring up unexpected points,
People talk more than they write,
Additional information is easily asked for,
Can be done over the internet, allowing the interviewee time to think and answer questions at leisure.
Disadvantages:
Can be time consuming,
Participant may be unwilling to cooperate,
Questions can limit the material gained,
Hard to compare between responders,
No anonymity,
Difficult to repeat and show reliability and validity of material,
Some research ethics also need to be adhered to (like anonymity when quoting people unless permission has been gained).
Example of a study:

Questionnaire,
Collection of questions (usually around 10 questions) related to a topic.
Advantages:
Can be given to people outside a researchers immediate connections,
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Provides both qualitative and quantitative data,

Quick analysis of information,
Ensures confidentiality = more honest answers,
Allows for comparable analysis,
Can be administered to large numbers of people.
Disadvantages:
Questions can be confusing or misinterpreted,
People may not hand them back,
Allows for little flexibility of information.
Example of a study:

Observation,
Requires the researcher to have a complete detachment from what is being observed.
Advantages:
Can be used as background information for other research,
It is the major inquiry method used for a research reflection,
It gives freedom to the researcher to observe what theyd like.
Disadvantages:
The researcher can only interpret the event within the framework of his or her cultural experience = may not be as realistic.
Bias from these assumptions of conclusions could reduce the reliability of these findings.
Example of a study: To gain a first hand insight into adolescents use of technology in school. An observation allows for the viewing of everyday
activities without disturbing those being viewed. However, as the students may be alerted to being viewed, it may cause those being observed
to change their behaviour and act differently e.g. weary about the teacher being told that a student was using their phone in class. An
observation also usually occurs over a longer time frame so that sufficient data can be recorded. If observations are recorded numerically the
data collected will be quantitative such as how many students use their mobile phone in class, but if observations are recorded as descriptive
data then it is a quantitative methodology.

Ethnographic study,
A systematic direct observation of everyday life of a particular cultural group. Interactive researcher is immersed in a different culture so they
can gain understanding of customs, beliefs, attitudes reflected in lifestyle.
Advantages:
In depth information tool for further research,
Local people are involved so information is more accurate.
Disadvantages:
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Cultural bias,
Cost,
Time,
Language barriers.
Example of a study:

Statistical analysis,
Used by researchers to show in mathematical form how many people fit into certain categories. Quantitative, can be used simply in graphic
form from a large number of responses.
Advantages:
Easy to present large amounts of information,
Provides background information for further research,
Provides answers to research questions.
You can interpret meaning, make generalisations and extrapolate trends.
Disadvantages:
Tables can be difficult to understand,
Statistics are not always accurate,
There may be biased due to the interpretation of the researcher.
Example of a study:
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Refer to PIP for examples:

Clearly state a topic on which you would like to undertake social research. Identify ONE appropriate primary research methodology and give
TWO reasons justifying your choice of this methodology for this research.
Topic: The positive and negative effects of Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) on persons and society in Australia & the ethical and
moral implications of its use.
Primary research methodology: Interview or Questionnaire.
Two reasons:
Interview I was able to question informed/ involved persons (who have had ART and/or natural pregnancies) thus gaining and indepth
knowledge of their experiences, expertise and opinion on the topic.
It was done over the internet, allowing the interviewee time to think and answer the questions at leisure, allowing them to write as much and as
indepth as they please, thus bringing up unexpected points that arise from their personal experiences.
Questionnaire I could access people outside of my micro world connections and was administered to a large number of people (100)
thus providing me with a wide range of opinions and experiences.
Using Surveymonkey.com respondents were completely anonymous allowing for more honest opinions/statistics and easy access for
respondents thus allowing for a quick analysis of information.

How did you demonstrate Social and Cultural Literacy?

The respondents to my questionnaires and interviews were all from different age groups, and different socio-economic backgrounds from me
(although they were all females). As I have not lived through any of their conception and life experiences I could not completely understand all
of their opinions but could only sympathize with their responses and accept this as their point-of-view and then apply the information found to
my PIP .

How did you ensure ethical research?

All questionnaire and interview respondents were kept anonymous; the interview respondents names were changed, and my PIP document
was footnoted with *names changed.

Bias, Validity and Reliability?

100 Questionnaire responses were collected, to show a valid variety of opinions and responses, were collected from all age groups to eliminate
some bias, although bias and opinions were key factors being compared for my research.
Reliability was kept as high as possible through the anonymity of the questionnaires and the anonymity and over-email interviews conducted
which aimed to refrain from the respondents feeling self conscious and allowed them to write more honest and lengthy replies.
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-isations,
Globalisation,
Creation of the global village or culture brought about by a variety of social and cultural developments, such as; the existence of world
information systems, emergence of global patterns on consumerism, the growth of transnational corporations, emergence of global sport,
spread of global military and economic systems. It is also the process of breaking down barriers between nations and involves a consciousness
of the world as a single place (mono-culture).
- Mainly western concept.
- Technology e.g. Television and the Internet have increased globalisation around the world.
- May lead to social development/change and enhanced access to socially valued resources.
- For example McDonalds is an internationally recognizable and accessible popular culture whose corporate logo of the golden arches is a
symbol which manifests the extent of its global influence.

Westernisation,
Westernisation can be defined as the modernisation of a particular country through the economic, social and cultural forms.
- A form of globalisation in which the practices and values of western countries, in particular the United States (Americanisation), Germany,
Canada, Australia and Britian, are the basis of the changes that are occurring; they are dominant in terms of influence over non-Western
countries.
- This could include the change towards democracy, capitalism and the adoption of free market industrialization of previously agricultural
societies, or the adoption of western food and drink like Coca Cola and McDonalds, or the acceptance of American film and culture.
- For example, the settlers from England and Germany who colonised in East Indiana. The impact of their Westernisation destroyed the
Indigenous communities.

Industrialisation,
Industrialisation is the transition of methods of production from an agrarian economy to mass production, utilizing developing technology, and
this has been responsible for the vastly increased wealth-creating capacity of modern societies compared with traditional societies.
- This process has occurred recently; over the past two centuries.
- The processes of industrialisation involves:
The use of inanimate sources of power and or tools to increase the effects of human labour to increase productivity.
Manufacturing industries assuming a greater importance in the economy.
A greater ability to extract raw materials from the environment and to process them in more effective ways.
A greater ease in transportation.
- It is a process that commenced with the birth of factories for textile production early in the nineteenth century in Europe and has now moved
on to encompass newer technologies such as the use of computers in factory work.
- There are very few places that these innovations have not directly or indirectly impacted society.
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- For example, the 1894, Glen Grey Act (of South Africa) was passed which forced Africans to undertake paid employment thus forcing tens
of thousands of Black South Africans to work in the mines.

Modernisation,
Refers to the total transformation of a traditional society as the result of changing technology, education and ways of thinking.
- It involves social mobilisation, the growth of more effective and centralised apparatus of social and political control and the adoption of new
technology and thinking that will allow modern approaches.
- It produces economic, political, social and cultural change in many areas of social life and can potentially undermine traditional religious
systems, family ties and customs.
- This concept can often be linked to Westernisation and industrialisation as societies choose to adopt characteristics of societies that are
perceived to be more advanced.
- Modernisation is characterised by features such as a change in cultural values; the emergence of new social class for example, the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat; and the formation of an industrial-based society.

Urbanisation,
Is the process in which the number of people living in cities increases compared with the number of people living in rural areas. A country is
considered to be urbanised when over 50% of its population lives in urban places.
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Theories,
Introducing theories of social change and evaluating their role in explaining continuities and changes in society
People have theories of social change as social change and progression is clearly evident over time and these theories help people to explain,
develop or account for social change. The human world is complex and theories are developed in order to simplify the complexity of the real
world and help us to make comparisons.

Conflict Theory,
- Social conflict theorists argue that social change arises as a result of conflict amongst different power groups/because of the inequalities
within society.
- According to these theorists conflict is a common feature of all societies even though social order (continuity) demands the control of some
individuals by others.
- The main originator to the conflict theory is Karl Marx, who saw society progressing towards socialism because of the conflict between
those who owned the means of production and those whose labour provided production.
- He identified the two principal classes of capitalist societies of his time as the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat.
The Bourgeoisie or capitalist class was the ruling class.
They made money because this group controlled the means of production.
They financed and/or owned the factories and other businesses, and controlled the workers (the Proletariat). (The economic
infrastructure determines the superstructure of society the values of capitalist production penetrates all spheres of society and the set
agenda for the way things are done the entire social system reflects the pursuit of profit).
The Proletariats needed to sell their labour to the Bourgeoisie in exchange for money. This class had little or no power to influence
change in the existing social system.
The capitalists would encourage conflict between members of the working class as a means of keeping the workers divided. Religion,
ethnicity, race and other areas of differing beliefs could be used to destabilise the groups and prevent the possibility of the Proletariats
achieving power through solidarity.
A small number of workers, the Labour Aristocracy would be given small privileges to encourage them to cooperate with capitalism.
- His theory maintains that, over time, conflict inevitably developed within each level of society because of the constraints imposed upon it by
the ruling ideologies of the Bourgeoisie.
- He envisaged that the Proletariats would unite and develop a class consciousness, leading to a revolution which would ultimately overthrow
capitalism.
- However, this theory is outdated and does not account for modern forces of change such as globalisation.

The Life Cycle of Social Movements,

- Stage 1 the Preliminary stage.
Is marked by restlessness in society, antagonism among groups and inefficient efforts to deal with social problems. Agitators are likely to
emerge.
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- Stage 2 Consciousness raising.

Involves turning private individual frustrations into public issues. It refers to deliberate efforts to make as many people as possible aware of an
issue.
- Stage 3 the Popular stage.
When people become aware that others share their discontentment, individuals see that united action is possible. Leaders emerge to share
their vision for the future, and or reformers who focus masses on specific problems and solutions.
- Stage 4 the Formal Organisational Stage.
The movement gains direction and cohesion. The style of leadership now required is that of a strategist.
- Stage 5 - the Institutional stage.
Finally the movement becomes an accepted and institutionalised part of society.

Evolutionary theory,
- Darwins theory of biological evolution in the 19th century was also used to interpret and develop concepts of social change.
- According to the evolutionary theory, the process of social change was natural and constant and over time.
- This explained that all societies began as small and simple scales to increasingly large and complex scales.
- This change was considered necessary and was due to uniform causes.
- Social evolutionists made two important assumptions that argued all change represents progress and that all societies will eventually
represent those of western societies in their cultural values, ideologies and institutions. This represented a very ethnocentric view of
change. Ferdinand Tonnies adopted the terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to differentiate between pre-industrial (traditional and simple)
societies and the new industrial (complex) societies.
- Gemeinschaft societies where ones in which social life was governed by personal, informal considerations, with traditions and customs
prevailing.
- Gesellschaft were those societies characterised by specialisation, individualism, rationality and impersonality.
- This theory goes some way to explain the rapid changes that have occurred following industrialisation and globalisation of the world
economy.
- However, it also suggests that these developments are both inevitable and desirable since it links the process of modernisation in a positive
way with western notions of progress and individual liberation.

Functionalist theory,
(Talcott Parsons, Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton)
- Is based on the idea that social change isnt a cycle, or pattern; rather it is a gradual and infrequent system as the cultural norms and
values of a society change at a slow & gradual rate.
- Functionalists believe that social change occurs as a result of factors such as; Population growth, Changes in technology, Inequalities
among classes and status groups and the efforts by different groups to meet their needs in a world of scarce resources.
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- Functionalist theorist, Talcott Parsons explains, Social behaviour is structured insofar as it conforms to norms, ranging from general ideas
of right and wrong (values) to specific rules of behaviour in specific situations.
- Functionalism also assumes that as societies develop they become increasingly complex and interdependent as well as that forces
outside the society influence changes in the society, meaning that social change is unpredictable. Rather than emphasising social change,
this theory emphasises social order and systemisation. It also considers that social conflict is unhealthy and an abnormal social
characteristic, as society is likened to a machine; if there is conflict it means that an aspect of society has become out of synch with the
others and this has created the problem.
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Past Paper Questions 2001-2008 (Questions 1 and 2, some Q3)

KHS Trial paper 2009:

Outline what is meant by the concepts culture and environment? 2
With reference to ONE example, outline the interaction between culture and environment. 4

What is ONE characteristic or feature of a focus group? 1

What is ONE characteristic or feature of observation? 1
Justify the use of EITHER a focus group OR observation to investigate adolescents and their use of technology in school. 4

Catholic Trial paper 2009:

What is meant by the concept social and cultural literacy.2
Outline how a person can understand changes in their micro world, by being socially and culturally literate. 4

Trial Paper 2009:

Outline what is meant by the concepts society and time? 2
With reference to ONE example, outline the interaction between society and time. 4

Define primary research 2

Outline how statistical analysis could be used to determine the impact of fast foot advertising on teenagers. 4

Distinguish between personal experience and public knowledge. 2

Clearly state a topic on which you would like to undertake social research. Identify ONE appropriate primary research methodology and give
TWO reasons justifying your choice of this methodology for this research. 4

What is meant by the concepts of environment and time? 2

Outline the interaction between environment and time, using ONE example. 4

What is ONE characteristic of the methodology of participant observation?1

What is ONE characteristic of the methodology of questionnaire? 1
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Discuss the usefulness of EITHER participant observation OR questionnaire as a methodology in a study of student participation in school
sport. 4

What is meant by the concepts of persons and society? 2

Explain the interaction between persons and society. 4

What is the difference between the methodologies of survey and case study? 2
Justify the use of EITHER survey OR case study to investigate decision-making in families. 4

Name a theory of social change and assess its effectiveness in explaining continuity and change in society. In your answer, consider a strength
and a weakness of your chosen theory. 6

What is meant by the concepts of culture and society? 2

Explain the relationship between culture and society, using examples from your micro and macro worlds. 4

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research. 2.

Demonstrate how you would use EITHER quantitative OR qualitative research to investigate power and authority in schools. 4
You are asked to conduct research on the impact of technology on family relationships. Select and justify your choice of methodology for this
research. 4

Define industrialisation, and assess whether it has brought about progress in society. Consider both positive and negative impacts. 6

What is meant by the concepts of persons and environment? 2

Describe their interactions. 4

Define content analysis. 2

Describe how you would use content analysis to investigate the way the media represents women in sport. 4

Identify ONE social change and explain how some groups in a society have benefited from this change while other groups have not. 6

What is an interview? 1
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What is a questionnaire? 1
Distinguish between the usefulness of information that can be gained from an interview and from a questionnaire.

Identify TWO characteristics of a socially literate person. 2

How could you ensure that you demonstrate social literacy in a research project? 4

How does a theory of social change you have studied explain EITHER continuity or change in society? 6

Define primary research. 1

Define secondary research. 1
Discuss the usefulness of EITHER primary OR secondary research in a study of the family.4

Distinguish between personal experience and public knowledge.2

Outline the influence of technology on your personal experience of change. 4

Define Modernisation. Discuss the statement: Modernisation is Inevitable. 6

Define micro world.1

Define macro world. 1
Describe how you experience continuity and change in EITHER your micro world OR your macro world. 4

Name a country, and identify ONE feature of that country that demonstrates BOTH continuity and change. 1
With reference to the country you have named, evaluate how power and authority impact on the feature you have identified. 5

Distinguish between the research techniques of observation and participant observation. 2

Assess the value of participant observation in a study of teenage gangs. 4

Identify an aspect of a gender role and how it has changed over time. 2
Evaluate the impact of societys expectations of gender on your own personal experience. 2

Name one theory of social change .........................................................................

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With reference to a country you have studied, evaluate how your chosen theory of social change helps you to understand ONE feature of
continuity and ONE feature of change within that country. 6